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Abstract Introduction The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 calls for universal access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), which are crucial elements of health and well-being and fundamental for a life in dignity. Early childhood caries (ECC) is a preventable disease affecting health and quality of life of millions of young children worldwide. This scoping review aims to explore the connection between ECC and access to clean water and sanitation. Methods This scoping review, registered on the Open Science Framework and following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, conducted a thorough search in databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Google Scholar, SciELO) and websites (via Google) in November 2023. The search, without date limitations, targeted studies in English and Spanish linking ECC to SDG6. Exclusions were made for studies solely focusing on ECC without a direct connection to clean water and sanitation. Descriptive statistics summarized the retrieved papers. Results The initial search yielded 303 articles. After removing duplicates, 264 articles remained for title and abstract screening after which 244 were excluded and one report was added through citation searching. The 21 remaining articles underwent full text review. There were no studies on a direct association between access to clean water and sanitation and the prevalence of ECC. There were nine studies that showed indirect associations between ECC and access to clean water and sanitation through the links of: water and sanitation access as a marker for poverty (n = 1), water consumption as a feeding practice (n = 4), and the effectiveness of water fluoridation (n = 4). These were used to develop a conceptual model. Conclusions While it is conceivable that a direct link exists between ECC and access to clean water and sanitation, the available body of research only offers evidence of indirect associations. The exploration of potential pathways connecting water access to ECC warrants further investigation in future research.

In Fiji, 90% of the population has access to basic sanitation; however, there are still persistent health risks from endemic faecal-oral diseases such as typhoid fever. There is a need to assess the contribution of existing sanitation facilities in the faecal pathogen transmission pathway. This study was conducted as part of a larger planetary health study across 29 rural communities within five river catchments. This specific research aimed to characterise latrine front-ends, both infrastructure and usage behaviour, and to assess the faecal contamination levels on various frequently contacted latrine surfaces in rural Fiji. A sanitation survey, along with observation and latrine swab sampling, was conducted in households over three phases: baseline (n = 311) (Aug–Dec 2019), endline (n = 262) (Jun–Sep 2022) and an in-depth front-end study (n = 12) (Oct–Nov 2022). Of 311 households, almost all had pedestal-type latrines, predominately cistern-flush (83%), followed by pour-flush (13%), and then hole-type (pit) latrines (4%). Washable latrine floors had significantly higher E. coli densities (6.7 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) compared to non-washable floors (1.3 × 102 CFU/25 cm2) (p = 0.05), despite washable floors indicating improved latrines. The in-depth front-end analysis found that moist latrine surfaces had significantly elevated E. coli densities (1.2 × 103 CFU/25 cm2) compared to the dry ones (14.3 CFU/25 cm2) (p < 0.001), highlighting the importance of maintaining dry latrine surfaces. Latrine floors and mid-walls were the most frequently contaminated surfaces, emphasising the need to clean and disinfect these surfaces. Only 46% of the households reported always using soap for handwashing after defecation, exacerbating the risk of transmitting faecal pathogens. This study highlights that latrine cleanliness and hygiene are as crucial as latrine infrastructures for the effective disruption of faecal pathogens transmission during latrine use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The United Nation's Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 calls for universal access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), which are crucial elements of health and well-being and fundamental for a life in dignity. Early childhood caries (ECC) is a preventable disease affecting health and quality of life of millions of young children worldwide. This scoping review aims to explore the connection between ECC and access to clean water and sanitation. Methods: This scoping review, registered on the Open Science Framework and following PRISMA-ScR guidelines, conducted a thorough search in databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Google Scholar, SciELO) and websites (via Google) in November 2023. The search, without date limitations, targeted studies in English and Spanish linking ECC to SDG6. Exclusions were made for studies solely focusing on ECC without a direct connection to clean water and sanitation. Descriptive statistics summarized the retrieved papers. Results: The initial search yielded 303 articles. After removing duplicates, 264 articles remained for title and abstract screening after which 244 were excluded and one report was added through citation searching. The 21 remaining articles underwent full text review. There were no studies on a direct association between access to clean water and sanitation and the prevalence of ECC. There were nine studies that showed indirect associations between ECC and access to clean water and sanitation through the links of: water and sanitation access as a marker for poverty (n = 1), water consumption as a feeding practice (n = 4), and the effectiveness of water fluoridation (n = 4). These were used to develop a conceptual model. Conclusions: While it is conceivable that a direct link exists between ECC and access to clean water and sanitation, the available body of research only offers evidence of indirect associations. The exploration of potential pathways connecting water access to ECC warrants further investigation in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) is closely linked to the sustainable management of water resources and sanitation worldwide. SDG 6.4, in particular, aims to significantly improve water-use efficiency across all sectors by 2030. It is important to acknowledge the significant role that behavioural aspects of water users in an agricultural context play in contributing to water-use efficiency. This systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date synthesis of the current knowledge of water-use behaviours in agriculture to stay on track in achieving SDG 6. This systematic literature review investigates the factors influencing water-use behaviour among agricultural water users globally. Using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) method, we retrieved a total of 867 records, of which 47 matched the eligibility criteria. The 47 relevant studies were primarily conducted in the United States and China with key themes including sustainable agricultural practices, technology adoption for productivity, climate change adaptation, and modelling and uncertainty in water conservation. Additionally, the review identified six distinct water-use behaviours investigated from 2020 to 2024, which were each driven by its unique set of factors. Overall, the findings from the systematic review indicate that there has been a geographical gap in research efforts over the past five years, and it is important for water-use behaviour-related research to be extended to other countries that are water-stressed. Furthermore, the researchers recommend that future studies should develop comprehensive behavioural models and adopt holistic approaches to better understand and promote sustainable water-use behaviours in agriculture. These efforts are vital for achieving sustainable water management and broader SDGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

NoMix toilets separate urine and feces at the source and are a promising resource recovery technology. However, design issues hamper the transformation from unattractive to aspirational products. Little effort has been done to design toilets that account for physiological differences, leading to adverse effects on user-friendliness and urine separation efficiency. We used infrared recordings to assess gender-specific urination practices. Based on field data, we developed the Urinator, a simple device that allows simulating male and female urine streams. This supports engineers in developing more user- and gender-friendly and reuse-oriented sanitation technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) is closely linked to the sustainable management of water resources and sanitation worldwide. SDG 6.4, in particular, aims to significantly improve water-use efficiency across all sectors by 2030. It is important to acknowledge the significant role that behavioural aspects of water users in an agricultural context play in contributing to water-use efficiency. This systematic review aims to provide an up-to-date synthesis of the current knowledge of water-use behaviours in agriculture to stay on track in achieving SDG 6. This systematic literature review investigates the factors influencing water-use behaviour among agricultural water users globally. Using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) method, we retrieved a total of 867 records, of which 47 matched the eligibility criteria. The 47 relevant studies were primarily conducted in the United States and China with key themes including sustainable agricultural practices, technology adoption for productivity, climate change adaptation, and modelling and uncertainty in water conservation. Additionally, the review identified six distinct water-use behaviours investigated from 2020 to 2024, which were each driven by its unique set of factors. Overall, the findings from the systematic review indicate that there has been a geographical gap in research efforts over the past five years, and it is important for water-use behaviour-related research to be extended to other countries that are water-stressed. Furthermore, the researchers recommend that future studies should develop comprehensive behavioural models and adopt holistic approaches to better understand and promote sustainable water-use behaviours in agriculture. These efforts are vital for achieving sustainable water management and broader SDGs.

Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG6) is grounded in human rights and derives from international policies refined over decades. We argue that much of this agenda setting and monitoring reflects or gives way to neo-colonialism and neo-liberalism. We implement an online version of the Nominal Group Technique to explore its efficacy for more equitable global agenda setting. We apply the technique to a group of 19 graduate WaSH students – from diverse professional backgrounds and originating from and having worked in all global regions – to gain their insights on future WaSH issues to be included in global targets. This was preceded by preparatory exercises on WaSH progress and influential contextual factors. We thus demonstrate a novel and systematic application of the NGT and discuss its potential to be used in challenging neo-colonial and neo-liberal agenda setting. The results also provide an early assessment of future priorities that could inform post-SDG target setting including: inclusivity among populations and settings, hygiene, menstrual health, sustainability, circular economy, climate resilience, preventing infectious disease transmission, and universal ‘safely managed services’. These are compared with themes highlighted in Joint Monitoring Programme reports, SDG6 indicators and General Comment 15: The Human Right to Water. HIGHLIGHTS The use of an adapted virtual nominal group technique to reflect on priority WaSH issues post-2030.; The potential for a virtual NGT to challenge neo-colonial and neo-liberal agenda setting.; Novel priorities: sustainability, climate resilience, water conservation, circular economy of WaSH systems, broadening the scope of hygiene, menstrual health, inclusion of vulnerable groups, and preventing infectious disease transmission;

Study region: National Sustainable Development Agenda Innovation Demonstration Zone in Lincang City, Southwest China Study focus: Revealing the current water quality status in rivers and reservoirs and its drivers is crucial to achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). We assessed the spatial-temporal dynamics and influence of natural and socioeconomic factors on the water quality index (WQI) and water quality parameters of rivers and reservoirs using redundancy analysis (RDA) and the partial least squares path model (PLSPM). New hydrological insights for the region: The results indicate the following. (1) The annual average values of the WQI in Lincang City from 2018 to 2020 were 92.26, 92.06, and 92.45, respectively. The WQI values in spring, summer, autumn, and winter were 92.48, 90.38, 92.68, and 93.49, respectively. The annual and seasonal water quality levels were good or higher. However, spatial heterogeneity exists for some water quality parameters in Lincang City. (2) The influence of natural and socioeconomic factors on the WQI and water quality parameters is highly complex. The landscape composition, landscape configuration, and pollutant discharges are key factors affecting the water quality of rivers and reservoirs annually and seasonally, and a spatial scale dependence is observed. (3) Chemical and physical factors directly affect the WQI, particularly at small scales (100 m and 500 m buffer zones). Chemical factors have a strong inhibitory effect on the WQI of reservoirs (−0.79, −0.78) and rivers (−0.56, −0.72), whereas physical factors have a weak promoting effect (0.05–0.13). Landscape composition and landscape configuration and indirectly affect the WQI. In contrast, socioeconomic factors and pollution discharge indirectly impact the WQI of rivers and reservoirs through their influence on chemical and physical factors. These findings demonstrate that natural and social factors interact in multiple ways, impacting the water quality of rivers and reservoirs. This interaction depends on the spatial scale. Therefore, it is crucial to consider the appropriate distance from rivers and reservoirs in future land use planning, particularly in the landscape design and planning in Lincang City. Moreover, controlling wastewater discharge from industrial and agricultural activities and domestic water usage is vital for ensuring high water quality.

Waterborne diseases (i.e., diarrhea, dracunculiasis, dysentery, typhoid fever, malaria, scabies, ringworm, cholera, hepatitis B, streptococci, and onchocerciasis) are linked to a significant disease burden worldwide. This work has thus established a relationship between access to improved sanitation, potable water supply, and waterborne disease occurrence in Ondo State, Nigeria, by analyzing the data sourced from the Federal Ministry of Water Resources, Federal Republic of Nigeria. The results showed that there was water scarcity (< 42% access) in the southern part of Ondo State. There was inadequate access to improved sanitation (< 30% access) in both the southern and northern parts of the State. Meanwhile, Southern Ondo State had the highest (> 320%) prevalence of waterborne diseases. There also existed a negatively moderate correlation: a substantial relationship between the access to a potable water supply (APW) (%) and the occurrence of waterborne diseases (WBD) (%) in Ondo State and between the occurrence of WBD (%) and improved sanitation (IS) (%) in the State. There existed a low correlation: definite but small relationship between the percentage of people with APW and the percentage of people with IS (%). This study has used the multiple linear regression model to develop a relationship equation using WBD as a dependent variable and APW and IS as independent variables. The first twelve elements (or LGAs) of Ondo State were used for modeling, while the last six were used to validate the results obtained. Equations generated were validated through residuals by observing the conditions of homoscedasticity, normality, and autocorrelation. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency was estimated to be about 80%. The spatial variability analysis was also done using inverse distance weighting. Therefore, it can be said that the modeled equation was quite good in predicting past and future waterborne diseases in Ondo State. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Nations Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) aims at ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation. The routine monitoring of water contaminants requires accurate and rapid analytical techniques. Laboratory analyses and conventional methods of field sampling still require considerable labor and time with highly trained personnel and transport to a central facility with sophisticated equipment, which renders routine monitoring cumbersome, time-consuming, and costly. Moreover, these methods do not provide information about the actual toxicity of water, which is crucial for characterizing complex samples, such as urban wastewater and stormwater runoff. The unique properties of bioluminescence (BL) offer innovative approaches for developing advanced tools and technologies for holistic water monitoring. BL biosensors offer a promising solution by combining the natural BL phenomenon with cutting-edge technologies. This review provides an overview of the recent advances and significant contributions of BL to SDG 6, focusing attention on the potential use of the BL-based sensing platforms for advancing water management practices, protecting ecosystems, and ensuring the well-being of communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quest for sustainable potable water is an unendless struggle as it is one of the pillars that sustain the growth of any community. Okitipupa is being challenged with a low level of access to safe and sustainable water for human activities, thereby limiting the source of potable water in the area to groundwater resource. In this study, a vertical electrical sounding (VES) technique employing Schlumberger electrode array was used to conduct a geophysical survey in Okitipupa to assess the groundwater potentials and locate promising zones for groundwater exploitation. VES was carried out at 48 locations. The lithological units obtained are topsoil, lateritic sand, clayey sand, silty sand, sand (which is the main aquifer), sandy clay and shale. The topsoil is characterized by clay and lateritic sands. The aquiferous units vary from the second to fifth layers where two percent of the total sounding points showed no signs of groundwater. The range of the delineated aquifer's depths varied from 0.5 to 1.5 m, 0.8 to 14.9 m, 4.2 to 123.4 m and 29.7 to 164.1 m, respectively. The estimated longitudinal conductance in this study indicates that the aquifer's protective capacities vary from poor to good ratings. The central, northwestern and southern parts are the promising zones for groundwater exploration in the study area, with aquifer's depths ranging from 0.5 to 164.1 m. As a result of the nature of lithology of the studied aquifers, discharge of toxic substances that could contaminate the aquifer should be avoided in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity affects already a large part of the world's population. To overcome this situation, water management is needed, and wastewater reuse must be implemented and included as a new approach. To achieve that objective water quality must comply with the parameters established in the Regulation (EU) 2020/741 of the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union and new treatment solutions have to be developed. The main goal of this pilot study was to evaluate the peracetic acid (PAA) disinfection efficiency in a real wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in order to accomplish the wastewater reuse objective. To this end, six disinfection conditions were studied, three PAA doses (5, 10, and 15) and three contact times (5, 10, and 15) based on the commonly used disinfection operational conditions in real WWTP. Comparing the Total Suspended Solids (TSS), turbidity, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5) and Escherichia coli content, after and before the disinfection step, was possible to conclude that PAA ensures the Regulation (EU) 2020/741 requirements and that the disinfected effluent can be reused for several uses. All the conditions in which the PAA dose was 15 mg/L and the condition with 10 mg/L of PAA with a contact time of 15 min were the most promising, presenting the second highest water quality class achieved. The results of this study illustrate the potential of PAA as an alternative disinfectant for wastewater treatment and, bring it closer to the water reuse objective by presenting several possibilities for water uses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of COVID-19 has created many unanticipated changes globally, particularly in terms of the availability and use of water resources. This study aims to estimate the potential increase in global domestic water use, exclusively due to the handwashing requirement for COVID-19. To assess the potential increase in domestic water use, this study analyzed population and water use data of 175 countries. Based on WHO guidelines, the additional water required for handwashing per person per day was estimated to be 0.018 m3 and was integrated with water use and population data for the analysis. These findings reveal that if everyone washes their hands six times a day solely to prevent the spread of coronavirus, global domestic water use and total water use would increase by about 11.96% and 1.25%, respectively. Africa (23.88%), Asia (15.05%), Latin America, and the Caribbean (7.18%) are anticipated to have the most significant increases in domestic water use due to the increased handwashing. This is a concerning phenomenon because these nations are already experiencing water shortages, even before the pandemic. These results may aid these countries in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6, by guiding stakeholders and decision-makers to take action to address the water resource management challenges posed by the unexpected rise in water use caused by events such as COVID-19. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improved sanitation is critical to both health and the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. In this multi-sectoral food security activity, community health clubs (CHC) were implemented by the Zimbabwe Government. Members met regularly to complete a hygiene and sanitation education curriculum. Early on, CHC members faced financial barriers to latrine construction. Members were encouraged to undertake savings, lending, and income-generating activities. 28 percent of CHCs in fact engaged in those activities. This qualitative study aimed to identify motivators of and barriers to latrine construction and to explore whether financial activities supported members in their efforts to overcome barriers. Ten focus group discussions with CHC members and 19 in-depth interviews with key informants were conducted. Data were analyzed using content analysis. Key motivators and enablers included health benefits; the desire to avoid disgust, shame, and embarrassment; access to materials and construction; and social support. Barriers to improvement included costs, water access, limited leadership support, and behavior change resistance. Financial activities helped CHC members overcome the costs of material and construction. Thus, integrating financial activities into CHCs may improve sanitation coverage and we recommend that such add-ons be considered in CHC training programs. To our knowledge, this is the first study in Zimbabwe to explore whether the integration of financial activities into the CHC model is an acceptable and feasible model for improving sanitation coverage. HIGHLIGHTS This study identified motivators of and barriers to latrine construction and explored the integration of financial activities with CHCs as a model to improve latrine coverage.; Key motivators and enablers included health benefits, disgust, shame, embarrassment, social norms, and access to materials and builders.; CHCs integrating financial activities reported that this helped them overcome barriers to latrine construction.;

This paper aims to examine methods of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in Ghana, map their perceived impacts on water resources, and analyse the implications of these perceptions for meeting the targets related to Clean Water of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). The paper draws on 74 interviews with artisanal and small-scale gold miners and other stakeholders to investigate communities' perceptions of the effects of ASM methods (alluvial mining, surface/open-pit mining, and underground mining) on water bodies. We find that different ASM methods impact surface and groundwater in distinct ways while concurrently having a synergistic negative effect on water bodies. Stakeholders – including community leaders – perceive that the mining methods employed in ASM cause various forms of environmental degradation – thus affecting progress towards SDG 6, target 6.3 (water quality) – and severely hinder the availability of clean water for domestic and agricultural purposes, thus endangering the livelihoods of communities and affecting progress towards SDG 6, target 6.4 (sustainable water use). The community perceived impacts of ASM activities on water resources have implications for community acceptance of formalisation efforts in Ghana. We contend that a better understanding of these perceived impacts can help shape the country's policy for achieving the targets of SDG 6 in relation to Clean Water by 2030. In particular, we propose that the integration of the Community Mining Scheme as part of formalisation efforts of informal gold mining in Ghana not only responds to SDG 6 target 6b (participation of local communities in water management) but also has the potential to reverse the current large-scale mining 'bias' in policy, while addressing the galamsey challenge that contributes to the increasing impact of informal gold mining on SDG 6, targets 6.3 and 6.4. • There is a nexus between ASM methods (alluvial, surface/open pit, and underground mining) and their impacts on water resources. • ASM methods impact surface and ground water in distinct ways. • Formalisation policy and ASM methods have implications for achieving the targets related to SDG 6, Clean Water and Sanitation. • The Community Mining Scheme (CMS) in Ghana has the potential to challenge the large-scale mining 'bias'. • The CMS provides directions for other African countries which face similar ASM concerns such as the formalisation hurdles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global water stress context urgently calls for the promotion of nonconventional water resources, including purified wastewater, to save the maximum volume of conventional water resources, as stated in Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Clean water and sanitation). For instance, the objective of this paper is to assess the opportunities and barriers to implementing wastewater reuse in Algeria based on a specific literature review. The results show that some pilot projects are already underway while various wastewater treatment processes are being tested throughout the country. However, additional driver actions could be considered to optimize/generalize wastewater reuse at different territorial planning and/or development scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India, with over 1.37 billion population and housing one-sixth of the world's inhabitants, has a significant role to play in the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper analyses the policies and programmes of the Government of India, towards the achievement of Targets 6.1 and 6.2 of SDG-6 that focus on safe drinking water and sanitation. The alignment of the policies and programmes is discussed in correlation of the output, outcome, and impacts on these targets of SDG 6. The Swachh Bharat (Clean India) Mission (SBM) launched in 2014 led the country with more than 98% of households having access to toilets. The Jal Jeevan Mission has the ambitious target of universal coverage of drinking water supply. While these programmes have led to the overall development, a vast scope of improvement in these sectors exists especially considering the growing population, economic activity, urbanisation, and climate change impacts. Analysis also shows that adequate quantitative and qualitative data on the implementation of the various policies and programmes would be instrumental in synergising the implementation of the SDGs. A systems-thinking approach for sustaining the efforts of the ongoing programmes and ensuring equitable benefits of development in the water and sanitation sectors in India is recommended. HIGHLIGHTS The WASH sector in India has witnessed massive transformation on the ground for better quality of life outcomes.; Progress in sewage, wastewater and faecal sludge management is necessary to realise targets of SDG-6.; Stronger enforcement mechanism and stricter implementation of policies is urgently needed for sustaining the progress made in the WASH sector in India.; Achieving SDG 6 and other SDGs will require imaginative management of trade-offs in a complex operating environment in India.;

The United Nations Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) aims at ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation. The routine monitoring of water contaminants requires accurate and rapid analytical techniques. Laboratory analyses and conventional methods of field sampling still require considerable labor and time with highly trained personnel and transport to a central facility with sophisticated equipment, which renders routine monitoring cumbersome, time-consuming, and costly. Moreover, these methods do not provide information about the actual toxicity of water, which is crucial for characterizing complex samples, such as urban wastewater and stormwater runoff. The unique properties of bioluminescence (BL) offer innovative approaches for developing advanced tools and technologies for holistic water monitoring. BL biosensors offer a promising solution by combining the natural BL phenomenon with cutting-edge technologies. This review provides an overview of the recent advances and significant contributions of BL to SDG 6, focusing attention on the potential use of the BL-based sensing platforms for advancing water management practices, protecting ecosystems, and ensuring the well-being of communities.

Background: Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 demands that countries globally provide clean water and sanitation to their citizens. The outbreak of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic triggered various obstacles to the attainment of this goal, especially in developing states that struggle to render clean water and sanitation to their ever-growing populations. Aim: The aim of the study is to analyse the effects of COVID-19 on the attainment of SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) in South African municipalities. Setting: Several South African municipalities. Methods: The article utilised expansive documentary sources on the SDGs, United Nations and World Health documents, journal articles and textbooks on water service provision in South African municipalities for analysis. Qualitative thematic analysis based on documents was employed to examine the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the attainment of SDG 6 in South African municipalities. Results: The study indicates that local municipalities struggled to provide clean water to informal settlements where water supply infrastructure is not even available. Results also revealed that some urban municipalities in Gauteng Province are grappling with the provision of clean water supply to their informal settlements, which poses a risk of an outbreak of COVID-19 and a delay in the attainment of SDG 6 in general. Conclusion: The study concludes that the South African government needs to embrace a truly bottom-up approach as opposed to a trickle-down approach to water service provision. This is because local authorities have greater proximity and thus a better understanding of the social and economic challenges within their communities and can effectively implement strategies towards addressing these challenges of providing clean water to communities.

The emergence of COVID-19 has created many unanticipated changes globally, particularly in terms of the availability and use of water resources. This study aims to estimate the potential increase in global domestic water use, exclusively due to the handwashing requirement for COVID-19. To assess the potential increase in domestic water use, this study analyzed population and water use data of 175 countries. Based on WHO guidelines, the additional water required for handwashing per person per day was estimated to be 0.018 m3 and was integrated with water use and population data for the analysis. These findings reveal that if everyone washes their hands six times a day solely to prevent the spread of coronavirus, global domestic water use and total water use would increase by about 11.96% and 1.25%, respectively. Africa (23.88%), Asia (15.05%), Latin America, and the Caribbean (7.18%) are anticipated to have the most significant increases in domestic water use due to the increased handwashing. This is a concerning phenomenon because these nations are already experiencing water shortages, even before the pandemic. These results may aid these countries in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6, by guiding stakeholders and decision-makers to take action to address the water resource management challenges posed by the unexpected rise in water use caused by events such as COVID-19.

Climate change, increasing population and changes in land use are all rapidly driving the need to be able to better understand surface water dynamics. The targets set by the United Nations under Sustainable Development Goal 6 in relation to freshwater ecosystems also make accurate surface water monitoring increasingly vital. However, the last decades have seen a steady decline in in situ hydrological monitoring and the availability of the growing volume of environmental data from free and open satellite systems is increasingly being recognized as an essential tool for largescale monitoring of water resources. The scientific literature holds many promising studies on satellite-based surface-water mapping, but a systematic evaluation has been lacking. Therefore, a round robin exercise was organized to conduct an intercomparison of 14 different satellite-based approaches for monitoring inland surface dynamics with Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, and Landsat 8 imagery. The objective was to achieve a better understanding of the pros and cons of different sensors and models for surface water detection and monitoring. Results indicate that, while using a single sensor approach (applying either optical or radar satellite data) can provide comprehensive results for very specific localities, a dual sensor approach (combining data from both optical and radar satellites) is the most effective way to undertake largescale national and regional surface water mapping across bioclimatic gradients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Representatives from 14 countries worldwide worked together on improving their monitoring and ultimately their water management to reach the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 goals by 2030, thereby testing the Information Strategy Model (ISM). This model is developed to support identifying the need for information for water management. In a workshop setting, participants were instructed and subsequently developed the ISM for their own situation. The results show that the ISM fulfils its task of structuring the development and improvement of a monitoring network, but can be enhanced by adding detailed information for specific elements and needs explanation and assistance to be of use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Private households around the world use and combine multiple water sources, including diverse forms of market services and self-supply. The reasons for this have so far not been explained in a coherent framework, nor have the implications for water management and policy been sufficiently analyzed. Here, we examine how heterogeneity of water services, household co-production, and risks of provision influence household demand patterns. We apply an economic household production model that incorporates two water quality levels for different household activities to exemplary situations. We derive a number of explanations why households use and combine water services that expand the current state of research. Relevant findings include: (i) The diverse characteristics of available water services result in different time requirements for water procurement and varying degrees of suitability for household activities. (ii) Differences in the value placed on time can induce households to demand heterogeneous water services because these enable them to find a balance between using time and money to access water. (iii) Certain water services may be demanded because they function as insurance against both uncertain and unreliable supply. Our insights are relevant for water policy, in particular for developing and managing demand-responsive systems, and for the implementation and monitoring of normative goals for access to water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Around 2 million people in the Pacific depend on rainwater collection for their drinking water, however these systems often struggle to provide sufficient quantities of water year round. This study examined the performance of 1,878 rainwater tanks across 19 islands in Vanuatu to assess whether the likelihood of a sufficient year‐round supply of drinking water differed between village‐level rainwater tanks used communally and private rainwater tanks owned by individual households (i.e., self‐supply). More than half of the tanks assessed failed to provide a sufficient supply of water year round. Compared with communal rainwater tanks, private rainwater tanks had significantly higher odds of a sufficient year‐round supply of water (adjusted odds ratio 1.61, 95% confidence interval 1.24–2.09, p < 0.001). This relationship was evident when adjusting for village‐level clustering, year of installation, presence of other improved water sources, tank volume, number of users, and a proxy indicator for rainfall. Private rainwater tanks outperformed communal rainwater tanks irrespective of whether communal tanks were managed by a community‐based committee. The findings support the notion that in some circumstances private property rights can help avert resource depletion, and that household self‐supply is capable of delivering a more reliable water supply than community‐based management. However, the study design was unable to rule out differences in roof catchment area as a factor influencing the results. Further work is needed to confirm and elucidate the mechanisms by which private ownership facilitates a year‐round supply and understand the wider advantages and disadvantages of self‐supply. Key Points: Two million people in the Pacific depend on rainwater collection for drinking water, but these systems often fail to provide a year‐round supplyThis study examined 1,878 rainwater tanks across 19 islands in Vanuatu to assess the comparative performance of private versus communal systemsPrivate rainwater tanks were significantly more likely to provide a sufficient year‐round supply of water than communal rainwater tanks [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 aims for clean water and sanitation for all by 2030, through eight subgoals dealing with four themes: (i) water quantity and availability, (ii) water quality, (iii) finding sustainable solutions and (iv) policy and governance. In this opinion paper, we assess how soils and associated land and water management can help achieve this goal, considering soils at two scales: local soil health and healthy landscapes. The merging of these two viewpoints shows the interlinked importance of the two scales. Soil health reflects the capacity of a soil to provide ecosystem services at a specific location, taking into account local climate and soil conditions. Soil is also an important component of a healthy and sustainable landscape, and they are connected by the water that flows through the soil and the transported sediments. Soils are linked to water in two ways: through plant-available water in the soil (green water) and through water in surface bodies or available as groundwater (blue water). In addition, water connects the soil scale and the landscape scale by flowing through both. Nature-based solutions at both soil health and landscape-scale can help achieve sustainable future development but need to be embedded in good governance, social acceptance and economic viability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water percolation through infiltration ponds is creating significant synergies for the broad adoption of water reuse as an additional non-conventional water supply. Despite the apparent simplicity of the soil aquifer treatment (SAT) approaches, the complexity of site-specific hydrogeological conditions and the processes occurring at various scales require an exhaustive understanding of the system's response. The non-saturated zone and underlying aquifers cannot be considered as a black box, nor accept its characterization from few boreholes not well distributed over the area to be investigated. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a non-invasive technology, highly responsive to geological heterogeneities that has demonstrated useful to provide the detailed subsurface information required for groundwater modeling. The relationships between the electrical resistivity of the alluvial sediments and the bedrock and the difference in salinity of groundwater highlight the potential of geophysical methods over other more costly subsurface exploration techniques. The results of our research show that ERT coupled with implicit modeling tools provides information that can significantly help to identify aquifer geometry and characterize the saltwater intrusion of shallow alluvial aquifers. The proposed approaches could improve the reliability of groundwater models and the commitment of stakeholders to the benefits of SAT procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change, increasing population and changes in land use are all rapidly driving the need to be able to better understand surface water dynamics. The targets set by the United Nations under Sustainable Development Goal 6 in relation to freshwater ecosystems also make accurate surface water monitoring increasingly vital. However, the last decades have seen a steady decline in in situ hydrological monitoring and the availability of the growing volume of environmental data from free and open satellite systems is increasingly being recognized as an essential tool for largescale monitoring of water resources. The scientific literature holds many promising studies on satellite-based surface-water mapping, but a systematic evaluation has been lacking. Therefore, a round robin exercise was organized to conduct an intercomparison of 14 different satellite-based approaches for monitoring inland surface dynamics with Sentinel-1, Sentinel-2, and Landsat 8 imagery. The objective was to achieve a better understanding of the pros and cons of different sensors and models for surface water detection and monitoring. Results indicate that, while using a single sensor approach (applying either optical or radar satellite data) can provide comprehensive results for very specific localities, a dual sensor approach (combining data from both optical and radar satellites) is the most effective way to undertake largescale national and regional surface water mapping across bioclimatic gradients.

Featured Application: A low-cost, developing-country-accessible geophysical survey method to aid water-supply borehole siting was developed and applied in Malawi. The method uses multiple vertical electrical soundings (VESs) to generate true 2-D resistivity cross-sections images of the geological subsurface detail comparable to more expensive geophysical techniques with results far superior to 1-D hydrogeophysical approaches currently used in Malawi. Technology adoption will greatly facilitate local targeting of aquifer resources and permit more sustainable siting of supply boreholes that is vital to Malawi's majority rural population who are predominantly reliant on groundwater for safe drinking water supply. To improve borehole siting for rural water supply, an advanced resistivity method was adapted for developing country use and demonstrated in Malawi. The method was designed to be low cost, developing-country accessible, efficient. It allows single or multiple operators to acquire the multiple vertical electrical soundings (VESs) required that are inverted together in 2-D, to give a true cross-section of subsurface resistivity. Application at four sites generated true cross-sections of subsurface resistivity to around 100 m depth relevant to groundwater-resource investigation. A wide range of (hydro)geological features was identified, including fractured/weathered basement, gneiss domes, well-developed fault zones and several types of deltaic deposits. Imaging performance appears comparable to that of 2-D surface ERT (electrical resistivity tomography) that uses more expensive equipment, often unaffordable in developing countries. Based on the subsurface configurations determined and hydrogeological conceptualisation subsequently undertaken, the local aquifer potential could be evaluated, thereby providing a decision-making basis for future borehole siting at the sites surveyed. The technology is far superior to conventional 1-D VES, electromagnetic profiling or magnetic profiling currently used for borehole siting in Malawi. Technology adoption currently under consideration nationally would make use of existing VES capacity and permit much improved targeting of aquifer resource, more sustainable siting of boreholes and greater future resilience of Malawi's rural water-supply infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The connections between the scientific findings and SDG 6 are often not clear, which results in increasing the gap between technical developments and academic discourse, and the policy practitioners and/or implementers. The present paper explores the existing scientific research on water that directly connects to SDG 6 using a bibliometric analysis. The 637 scientific articles published between 2015–2021 (till 13 May 2021) were investigated for temporal development, scientific collaboration, existing research focus and the gaps. Interdisciplinary journals such as Science of the Total Environment and Journal of Environmental Management are found to be dominant sources along with water specific journals such as Water Research and Water (Switzerland). Open access journals make a dominant footprint and majority of author collaborations are found among authors from countries such as USA and UK while the research connections among authors from Global South are observed to be weak. Targets 6.1 (safe and affordable water), 6.3 (treatment and reuse of wastewater) and 6.5 (IWRM including through transboundary cooperation) are identified to be the highest referred to targets in scientific research in support of SDG 6. Though a significant evolution of scientific research is observed in connection to SDG 6 with increasing studies on groundwater, water governance, wastewater treatment, etc., in recent years, scientific studies connecting emerging concepts such as water security, water-energy-food nexus and ecosystem based approaches are still in an infant stage which calls for more research connecting these concepts and approaches to SDG 6 targets to attain a sustainable water environment by 2030 and beyond. This paper significantly contributes to tracking the progress in scientific research in connection to SDG 6 as well as highlights the hotspots where more collaboration between scientific communities and policy makers are required.

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Under the present global agenda of striving to attain the Sustainable Development Goals (or SDGs), it is necessary to reinforce the diffusion and adoption of inclusive innovations like toilets. SDG6 has created business opportunities for private actors to contribute to sanitation coverage in novel consortia involving public agencies, private actors, international bodies and social enterprises. Can there be tension between the pursuit of public welfare and private interests in such consortia? If so, how can they be managed to eliminate open defecation? To contribute to answering these questions, we study the evolution of sanitation coverage in Kameshwaram village in India via interventions by two consortia and their impact in the short and medium terms. Our case study highlights five sources of challenges: disconnect with evaluation of innovation by beneficiary, partner risks, stakeholder risks, systemic risks and missing institutions. Private incentives can be aligned for social welfare, only if payoffs to consortium actors are based not only on the attainment of implementation targets, but also on the impact produced. Thus, incentive design must only reward toilet installations that are of quality construction, safe, functional, long-lasting and being used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumption of groundwater containing fluoride exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) 1.5 mg/L standard leaves people vulnerable to fluorosis: a vulnerability not well characterised in Malawi. To evaluate geogenic fluoride source and concentration, groundwater fluoride and geology was documented in central Malawi where groundwater supplies are mainly sourced from the weathered basement aquifer. Lithological composition was shown as the main control on fluoride occurrence. Augen gneiss of granitic composition posed the greatest geological fluoride risk. The weathered basement aquifer profile was the main factor controlling fluoride distributions. These results and fluoride-lithology statistical analysis allowed the development of a graded map of geological fluoride risk. A direct link to human health risk (dental fluorosis) from geological fluoride was quantified to support science-led policy change for fluoride in rural drinking water in Malawi. Hazard quotient (HQ) values were calculated and assigned to specific water points, depending on user age group; in this case, 74% of children under six were shown to be vulnerable to dental fluorosis. Results are contrary to current standard for fluoride in Malawi groundwater of 6 mg/L, highlighting the need for policy change. Detailed policy recommendations are presented based on the results of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The introduction of a mobile application to improve efficiency of emptying operators' business in Bamako, Mali is discussed. • The application provides useful information for truck drivers and owners, operation managers and local authorities alike. • Application use reduces over time since drivers and owners have interest to keep their business out of official control. • Semi-mechanical operators still use the app contributing to higher income and serving a niche market inaccessible by trucks. In Bamako District, capital of Mali with 2.2 million inhabitants, 98.5 % of the population resorts to autonomous sanitation. This results in a considerable production of fecal sludge, accounting for more than 600,000 m³/year. This article shows how a smartphone application can support and facilitate the management of emptying services. It is based on the experience of Join For Water & PRACTICA who have designed a smartphone application, called 'Kolochilikélan' which in Bambara means 'the controller', to allow all partner emptying operators to monitor and control their activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water percolation through infiltration ponds is creating significant synergies for the broad adoption of water reuse as an additional non-conventional water supply. Despite the apparent simplicity of the soil aquifer treatment (SAT) approaches, the complexity of site-specific hydrogeological conditions and the processes occurring at various scales require an exhaustive understanding of the system’s response. The non-saturated zone and underlying aquifers cannot be considered as a black box, nor accept its characterization from few boreholes not well distributed over the area to be investigated. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is a non-invasive technology, highly responsive to geological heterogeneities that has demonstrated useful to provide the detailed subsurface information required for groundwater modeling. The relationships between the electrical resistivity of the alluvial sediments and the bedrock and the difference in salinity of groundwater highlight the potential of geophysical methods over other more costly subsurface exploration techniques. The results of our research show that ERT coupled with implicit modeling tools provides information that can significantly help to identify aquifer geometry and characterize the saltwater intrusion of shallow alluvial aquifers. The proposed approaches could improve the reliability of groundwater models and the commitment of stakeholders to the benefits of SAT procedures.

Monitoring national-level progress of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 through internationally agreed indicators has been the focus of intense scrutiny and considerable resourcing by international organisations and national governments, suggesting a 'race for indicators' has begun. However, in the eyes of many water experts, SDG 6 indicators are far from perfect. It is important to systematically identify and prioritise the gaps and weaknesses in the SDG 6 indicator framework to address them effectively. This paper identifies two potential gaps: first, between the aspirations captured in SDG 6 targets and what will be measured by the relevant indicators; and second, between what is being measured in 'means of implementation' indicators and what the key means of implementation achievements of many countries are expected to be under SDG 6. Three existing mechanisms—complementary indicators, international support and an integrated approach—are briefly described, and it is proposed that they may potentially be harnessed to assist national governments to address the two types of gaps identified for SDG 6. There is also an opportunity for stakeholders to help erase the gaps in a comprehensive review of SDG indicators, though how open and participatory the full review process will be is not yet clear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unsafe sanitation accounts for an estimated 898,000 global deaths annually. The faecal pathogen transmission pathway is complex with several possible routes. Latrine front-end characteristics and usage behaviours are one key transmission pathway for microbial pathogens, however, there has not yet been a synthesis of the available research. This review aims to compare the microbial infection risks with latrine front-end components including any quantified microbial densities within the household latrines. This review was conducted with no restriction on the geographical location of the research. Of 118 studies reviewed, only ten (8%) have quantified the microbial density inside the household latrines compared to 109 (92%) measuring the infection risks. The reported risks were most frequent for specific bacterial (n = 34), and helminths infections (n = 32) compared to diarrhoea (n = 23), combined (n = 15), protozoan (n = 4), and viral (n = 4) infections. The infections risk decreased for using latrines lying at a higher position on the sanitation ladder (for example flush latrines) compared to those lying lower (for example pit latrines). The trend was similar for using floor materials that were easier to clean and less favourable for pathogen survival inside the latrines (for example, concrete as opposed to earth). Faecal coliforms were reported highest on the surface of the squat pan (743 CFU/cm2) of pour-flush latrines and helminths on earth floors of pit latrines (1.5 eggs and larvae per gram of soil). Irrespective of latrine type and its position on the sanitation ladder, a dirty latrine, evidenced by a visible lack of cleanliness, significantly increased the risk for all infections. This study recommends that effective microbial infection risk reduction in latrines can be gained efficiently by ensuring washable surfaces and consistent cleaning practices. Future studies should include more rigorous measurements of microbial densities in various latrine types incorporating the different front-end components and usage behaviours. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumption of groundwater containing fluoride exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) 1.5 mg/L standard leaves people vulnerable to fluorosis: a vulnerability not well characterised in Malawi. To evaluate geogenic fluoride source and concentration, groundwater fluoride and geology was documented in central Malawi where groundwater supplies are mainly sourced from the weathered basement aquifer. Lithological composition was shown as the main control on fluoride occurrence. Augen gneiss of granitic composition posed the greatest geological fluoride risk. The weathered basement aquifer profile was the main factor controlling fluoride distributions. These results and fluoride-lithology statistical analysis allowed the development of a graded map of geological fluoride risk. A direct link to human health risk (dental fluorosis) from geological fluoride was quantified to support science-led policy change for fluoride in rural drinking water in Malawi. Hazard quotient (HQ) values were calculated and assigned to specific water points, depending on user age group; in this case, 74% of children under six were shown to be vulnerable to dental fluorosis. Results are contrary to current standard for fluoride in Malawi groundwater of 6 mg/L, highlighting the need for policy change. Detailed policy recommendations are presented based on the results of this study.

Lack of national data on water-related ecosystems is a major challenge to achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 targets by 2030. Monitoring surface water extent, wetlands, and water quality from space can be an important asset for many countries in support of SDG 6 reporting. We demonstrate the potential for Earth observation (EO) data to support country reporting for SDG Indicator 6.6.1, ‘Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time’ and identify important considerations for countries using these data for SDG reporting. The spatial extent of water-related ecosystems, and the partial quality of water within these ecosystems is investigated for seven countries. Data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Landsat 5, 7, and 8 with Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) are used to measure surface water extent at 250 m and 30 m spatial resolution, respectively, in Cambodia, Jamaica, Peru, the Philippines, Senegal, Uganda, and Zambia. The extent of mangroves is mapped at 30 m spatial resolution using Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI), Sentinel-1, and SRTM data for Jamaica, Peru, and Senegal. Using Landsat 8 and Sentinel 2A imagery, total suspended solids and chlorophyll-a are mapped over time for a select number of large surface water bodies in Peru, Senegal, and Zambia. All of the EO datasets used are of global coverage and publicly available at no cost. The temporal consistency and long time-series of many of the datasets enable replicability over time, making reporting of change from baseline values consistent and systematic. We find that statistical comparisons between different surface water data products can help provide some degree of confidence for countries during their validation process and highlight the need for accuracy assessments when using EO-based land change data for SDG reporting. We also raise concern that EO data in the context of SDG Indicator 6.6.1 reporting may be more challenging for some countries, such as small island nations, than others to use in assessing the extent of water-related ecosystems due to scale limitations and climate variability. Country-driven validation of the EO data products remains a priority to ensure successful data integration in support of SDG Indicator 6.6.1 reporting. Multi-country studies such as this one can be valuable tools for helping to guide the evolution of SDG monitoring methodologies and provide a useful resource for countries reporting on water-related ecosystems. The EO data analyses and statistical methods used in this study can be easily replicated for country-driven validation of EO data products in the future.

The Household Slow Sand Filter (HSSF) is a Point-Of-Use technology that has several technical, constructive, and operational advantages, which allows users to improve the quality of their own drinking water at home. This paper aims to provide results concerning the real possibility of treating surface water using HSSF with two feeding strategies, covering more than one year of operation (430 days), including seasons with different inputs on surface water. To do this, we compared the intermittent (HSSF-I) and the continuous (HSSF-C) feeding strategies in quantitative terms (filtered water quality and treatment efficiency) and qualitative terms (construction, cost, and operational challenges). Overall, both HSSF models were efficient and improved the water quality, but HSSF-C produced better quality filtered water in terms of turbidity (73 (± 20)% versus 69 (± 18)%), Escherichia coli (2.06 (± 0.60) log versus 1.65 (± 0.78) log), Giardia cysts (>3 log versus 2.89 (± 0.32) log), and Cryptosporidium oocysts (1.22 (± 0.10) log versus 0.95 (± 0.45) log) than HSSF-I. In addition, HSSF-C was able to remain more stable throughout the entire operation, without major impacts caused by influent water variations and maintenance activities. On the other hand, HSSF-I was cheaper, took up less space in the house, had a simple and easy operation, and did not require as much maintenance as the continuous one. Results indicated that HSSF-C may be a more viable model for treating surface water, but it still needs to improve its transfer requirements and assess its user acceptability from field experiences. [Display omitted] • Household slow sand filters treated surface water for 430 consecutive days. • Both operating regimes removed turbidity, E. coli , and protozoa from surface water. • Continuous feeding strategy is more efficient and intermittent is more practicable. • Maintenance frequency is the biggest operational challenge of the HSSF-C. • The microorganisms' passage through the bed is the biggest issue of HSSF-I. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In developing countries, increasing urbanization amidst chronic financial constraints sharply limits the authorities' ability to provide universal urban infrastructural services. This tendency creates complex networks of governance that remains largely understudied and not clearly understood. This article examines this nascent literature, focusing on Metropolitan Accra's experience through the sustainable development goal lens: 'Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all'. Based on the analysis of 26 in-depth interviews with key informants about the current processes, technologies and multiplicities of governance approaches, we demonstrate how the private sector does not only play a significant role in shaping the water dialogue but also has introduced its own modes of governance, which sometimes usurps preferences for public services. Ultimately, differences in procedural legalities and functionalities have spurred (un)healthy competition between the multiple governance modes, spearheaded by the private firms. Concluding, we caution that the multiplicity of management practices devoid of efficient and effective regulatory framework creates indecisive outcomes. Further, we suggest that the development of water-related capacity, both at the individual and institutional levels, will be fundamental in the realization of sustainable development goal 6 by 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural and peri-urban communities in developing countries rely on sanitation systems which are often unsafely managed. One of the major barriers to assess safely managed sanitation is a lack of data about the existing sanitation infrastructure and levels of containment safety. The aim was to review rural and peri-urban on-site sanitation studies in order to understand different infrastructure types, associated management practices and any impacts on human health. The scope was limited to South-East Asia and Western Pacific regions in order to better identify regional inequalities. Among the 155 reviewed articles, 73 studies (47%) linked sanitation infrastructure to poor human health. Nearly all articles reported latrine ownership (n = 149, 96%) while sanitation infrastructure types were covered less frequently (n = 104, 67%). In particular, there was a lack of published literature describing back-end characteristics (dimension and materials) (n = 12, 8%) and/or management practices (n = 4, 3%). This stems from a limited application of research methodologies that characterise sanitation infrastructure and faecal sludge management (containment, emptying and on-site treatment). Inequality between regions was prevalent with three quarters of the studies on latrine back-end infrastructure from Bangladesh and India in South-East Asia. A strategic research approach is needed to address the current knowledge gaps regarding sanitation infrastructure and safe faecal sludge management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fulfilment of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6, concerning water and sanitation, is critical in itself and also conditional for the other 16 SDGs being met. The purpose of this study was to understand the scientific research trajectories, spatiotemporal development, scientific collaboration, ongoing research themes, and gaps related to SDG 6. We propose a coupling of bibliometric and text mining methods in this work, to statistically portray the impact of water research on the accomplishment of SDG 6. Through the Web of Science database, we focused on a single UN SDG goal (i.e., six related publications that were current (2015–2021)). The study was performed on the chosen 289 publications. With the analysis of Keywords Plus, abstracts, titles, as well as author keywords, we looked at the performance of authors, publications, journals, institutions, and nations in terms of publishing. To obtain an insight into the water and sanitation study topic, we used co-citation, co-occurrence, cooperation networks, theme networks and cluster analysis, word dynamics, thematic evolution, and other techniques. We filtered out five distinguishing themes using text mining and showed their temporal trends. The main outcome is that participation, as well as collaboration with countries of the Global South, is still lacking in the SDG 6 research sphere. Therefore, as an insight from this study, we proposed a conceptual framework, the sustainable development of water and sanitation (SDWS) framework, to classify the research domain of water and sanitation regarding its connections to the environment, economy, and society (i.e., sustainable development). The scientometric and text analysis results provide the contemporary state and overview of the water and sanitation research field, whereas the second, conceptual framework section, provides a better understanding of qualitative contents, by revealing the insights gained, as well as the important work to be done in future water and sanitation studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The connections between the scientific findings and SDG 6 are often not clear, which results in increasing the gap between technical developments and academic discourse, and the policy practitioners and/or implementers. The present paper explores the existing scientific research on water that directly connects to SDG 6 using a bibliometric analysis. The 637 scientific articles published between 2015–2021 (till 13 May 2021) were investigated for temporal development, scientific collaboration, existing research focus and the gaps. Interdisciplinary journals such as Science of the Total Environment and Journal of Environmental Management are found to be dominant sources along with water specific journals such as Water Research and Water (Switzerland). Open access journals make a dominant footprint and majority of author collaborations are found among authors from countries such as USA and UK while the research connections among authors from Global South are observed to be weak. Targets 6.1 (safe and affordable water), 6.3 (treatment and reuse of wastewater) and 6.5 (IWRM including through transboundary cooperation) are identified to be the highest referred to targets in scientific research in support of SDG 6. Though a significant evolution of scientific research is observed in connection to SDG 6 with increasing studies on groundwater, water governance, wastewater treatment, etc., in recent years, scientific studies connecting emerging concepts such as water security, water-energy-food nexus and ecosystem based approaches are still in an infant stage which calls for more research connecting these concepts and approaches to SDG 6 targets to attain a sustainable water environment by 2030 and beyond. This paper significantly contributes to tracking the progress in scientific research in connection to SDG 6 as well as highlights the hotspots where more collaboration between scientific communities and policy makers are required. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical insights were made into the challenges of supplying water to communities within low-income areas of peri-urban Blantyre, Malawi. A networked public water supply is provided to those without a domestic tap via communal water kiosks managed by community-based Water User Associations (WUAs) under a government mandate. There has been considerable debate surrounding the tariff charged for water supplied to such vulnerable communities. However, research has largely failed to consider the costs of WUAs operating the kiosks and the impact on the kiosk tariff. The determination of kiosk tariffs is critical to ensuring lifeline access to a sustainable water supply under Sustainable Development Goal 6. We provide evidence of this from our experience in the field in Blantyre. In particular, we argue that sustainable kiosk running costs cannot be born solely by the end user. A number of reforms are needed to help reduce the kiosk tariff. To reduce WUA costs and the kiosk tariffs, WUAs need more training in financial record keeping and cost management, WUAs should not inherit outstanding kiosk debt upon taking over their operations, and water boards should build kiosk costs over which they have fiscal responsibility into integrated block tariff calculations and subsidize them accordingly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Faecal-oral infections are a major component of the disease burden in low-income contexts, with inadequate sanitation seen as a contributing factor. However, demonstrating health effects of sanitation interventions - particularly in urban areas - has proved challenging and there is limited empirical evidence to support sanitation decisions that maximise health gains. This study aimed to develop, apply and validate a systems modelling approach to inform sanitation infrastructure and service decision-making in urban environments by examining enteric pathogen inputs, transport and reduction by various sanitation systems, and estimating corresponding exposure and public health impacts. The health effects of eight sanitation options were assessed in a low-income area in Dhaka, Bangladesh, with a focus on five target pathogens (Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Salmonella Typhi, norovirus GII and Giardia). Relative to the sanitation base case in the study site (24% septic tanks, 5% holding tanks and 71% toilets discharging directly to open drains), comprehensive coverage of septic tanks was estimated to reduce the disease burden in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) by 48-72%, while complete coverage of communal scale anaerobic baffled reactors was estimated to reduce DALYs by 67-81%. Despite these improvements, a concerning health risk persists with these systems as a result of effluent discharge to open drains, particularly when the systems are poorly managed. Other sanitation options, including use of constructed wetlands and small bore sewerage, demonstrated further reductions in local health risk, though several still exported pathogens into neighbouring areas, simply transferring risk to downstream communities. The study revealed sensitivity to and a requirement for further evidence on log reduction values for different sanitation systems under varying performance conditions, pathogen flows under flooding conditions as well as pathogen shedding and human exposure in typical low-income urban settings. Notwithstanding variability and uncertainties in input parameters, systems modelling can be a feasible and customisable approach to consider the relative health impact of different sanitation options across various contexts, and stands as a valuable tool to guide urban sanitation decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Toamasina, the second largest city in Madagascar with 326,286 inhabitants and located at sea level, 97% of households uses latrines. The city produces 14,100 m³ faecal sludge per year and 28,000 latrines need to be emptied annually. Most latrines are emptied manually and sludge used to be buried in the compound, thus contaminating sub surface water that is used for domestic purposes by 60% of the population. This article shows how through an action-research process coordinated by Join For Water emptying, transport and treatment services were improved, these services remain accessible to the lowest social class, and a profitable private service provider, Clean Impact, was created. It further describes the construction of a treatment plant consisting of planted humification beds, and the process towards a sustainable exploitation, today managed by Clean Impact. • Closing of FSM chain in Toamasina, Madagascar through action-research is discussed. • All latrine types can be accessed and served thanks to various equipment. • With initial external investment a financially sustainable private operator is created. • FSTP consists of planted humification beds with potential use of end product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts to monitor the quality of freshwater resources on a global scale unveil huge data lacks. Involving citizens in data collection has potential to resolve this lack of water quality data. However, it is widely unclear which factors drive the success of citizen science activities. Based on a systematic literature review of 56 peer-reviewed research articles, we identify three sets of factors for successful citizen science projects in water quality monitoring: (i) attributes of citizens (knowledge and experience in collecting data, awareness of environmental problems, motivation, and socio-economic background of citizens), (ii) attributes of institutions (motivation, type of organization, consistent and adequate funding), and (iii) the interactions between citizens and institutions (supporting structure, communication and feedback). These three sets of factors enable a systematic analysis and design of citizen science projects in the future. Unlabelled Image • Citizen science can overcome data gaps in monitoring SDG indicator 6.3.2 • Nine types of factors are likely to influence the success of citizen science projects globally • Success factors relate to specific attributes of citizens, institutions, and their interactions • The extent to which the success factors matter depend on the regional context [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lack of national data on water-related ecosystems is a major challenge to achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 targets by 2030. Monitoring surface water extent, wetlands, and water quality from space can be an important asset for many countries in support of SDG 6 reporting. We demonstrate the potential for Earth observation (EO) data to support country reporting for SDG Indicator 6.6.1, 'Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time' and identify important considerations for countries using these data for SDG reporting. The spatial extent of water-related ecosystems, and the partial quality of water within these ecosystems is investigated for seven countries. Data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and Landsat 5, 7, and 8 with Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) are used to measure surface water extent at 250 m and 30 m spatial resolution, respectively, in Cambodia, Jamaica, Peru, the Philippines, Senegal, Uganda, and Zambia. The extent of mangroves is mapped at 30 m spatial resolution using Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI), Sentinel-1, and SRTM data for Jamaica, Peru, and Senegal. Using Landsat 8 and Sentinel 2A imagery, total suspended solids and chlorophyll-a are mapped over time for a select number of large surface water bodies in Peru, Senegal, and Zambia. All of the EO datasets used are of global coverage and publicly available at no cost. The temporal consistency and long time-series of many of the datasets enable replicability over time, making reporting of change from baseline values consistent and systematic. We find that statistical comparisons between different surface water data products can help provide some degree of confidence for countries during their validation process and highlight the need for accuracy assessments when using EO-based land change data for SDG reporting. We also raise concern that EO data in the context of SDG Indicator 6.6.1 reporting may be more challenging for some countries, such as small island nations, than others to use in assessing the extent of water-related ecosystems due to scale limitations and climate variability. Country-driven validation of the EO data products remains a priority to ensure successful data integration in support of SDG Indicator 6.6.1 reporting. Multi-country studies such as this one can be valuable tools for helping to guide the evolution of SDG monitoring methodologies and provide a useful resource for countries reporting on water-related ecosystems. The EO data analyses and statistical methods used in this study can be easily replicated for country-driven validation of EO data products in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving the sanitation situation in a community that relies on on-site sanitation requires information about the quantity and quality of faecal sludge (FS) produced. Existing tools for data collection about FS characteristics are either imprecise or very costly. As information and communication technologies are becoming more available in low-income countries, Citizen Science is becoming an option for the collection of sanitation data. This study used an online survey distributed via social media to predict FS characteristics (Total Solids (TS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Sludge Volume Index (SVI)) at 40 households in Blantyre, Malawi. Furthermore, the study investigated whether and how an online survey could yield cost-effective and representative information about the sanitation situation at the household level. Facebook and WhatsApp both introduced a bias towards higher income households as low-income households still lack access to smartphones and internet. WhatsApp (€1.01/reply) was significantly cheaper than Facebook (€3.00/reply) and conventional data generation with household interviewers (€1.47–2.20/reply). Monetary incentives generated more replies than pure social messaging. TSS, VSS and COD were significantly correlated to TS. The slope of the regression line of COD to TS (0.97) was similar to one reported for Uganda (0.88), suggesting that the ratio of COD to TS might be independent of the location. Statistically significant median differences of TS concentrations were found for the survey parameters "system type" and "solid waste", making these parameters candidates for predictors of FS characteristics. The sample size was too small for the other survey parameters to detect any differences statistically. Overall, using social media in a Citizen Science approach appears to be a promising new tool for FS characterization. In the current form, it can probably not replace other data collection tools, but rather complement them as a cost-efficient method to gain an initial assessment. Besides sanitation planning, social media and the Citizen Science approach could be employed for data collection in various fields of development cooperation. • Social media are used for sanitation data collection at household level. • Fecal sludge characteristics are predicted from results of online survey. • Data collection via social media is cheaper than conventional methods. • Low-income households cannot yet be reached well via social media. • Data collection via social media is promising for the development sector in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]