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Microplastic (MP) content in nutrition including potable water is unregulated, although MP concentrations in individual brands of bottled water diverge by several orders of magnitude. The EU Directive 2020/2184 on consumable water quality recently proposed methodological approaches to the detection of MPs in potable water in the size range of 20–5000 μm. However, fine MPs in the 1–20 μm range are far more likely to pass the human intestine into blood and organs. To evaluate the impact of this omission on the total number of detected MPs, we determined MP concentrations down to 1 μm in ten different brands of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottled water and one tap water sample using automated Raman microspectroscopy. We found that MP concentrations ranged from 19 to 1,154 (n/L) [0.001 to 0.250 μg/L], and although all the investigated samples of bottled water were stored in PET containers, PET accounted only for a small percentage of identified MPs in most samples. Importantly, 98 and 94% of MPs measured less than 20 and 10 μm in diameter, respectively, demonstrating the importance of small MP inclusion in potable water analyses and regulation. The current study presents a protocol to identify MPs down to 1 μm in any type of potable water regardless of hardness, and demonstrates the importance of implementing both negative and positive procedural, quality control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental tax, as an essential part of China's green tax reform, plays a key role in promoting the construction of an ecological society. To empirically test the policy effect of environmental taxes, this study used the panel data from 274 prefecture-level cities for the period 2012-2020 to explore whether the implementation of environmental tax can reduce the intensity of industrial water pollution. The main results are as follows: (1) The implementation of environmental tax can significantly reduce the emission of industrial water pollution, and the policy effect has shown a persistent trend. (2) In terms of heterogeneity, we find that the impact of environmental tax on reducing industrial water pollution is higher in central-western regions. (3) Mechanism analysis shows that the policy effect of environmental tax is mainly through channels such as enhancing law enforcement rigidity and improving local green innovation. Our findings provide new evidence for understanding the green dividend effect of environmental tax and provide significant policy implications for China's ecological society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in City & County of San Francisco v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, affirming the EPA's authority to impose narrative prohibitions. Topics include the Clean Water Act's authority over discharge limitations, the need for narrative prohibitions to ensure water quality standards compliance, and the Ninth Circuit's review of EPA's regulatory actions.

The article focuses on the decision of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in Idaho Conservation League v. Poe, affirming the district court's judgment that suction dredge mining activities by Shannon Poe violated the Clean Water Act. Topics include the definition of "addition" of a pollutant under the Clean Water Act, the distinction between Section 402 and Section 404 permits for mining discharges, and the court's deference to the EPA's regulatory interpretation.

The author discusses the Senate Bill 712, also known as the Clean Waterways Act, passed by the legislature in Florida in 2020. It tackles the requirements of the Act to the U.S. Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) and water management districts, the initiation of rule development by the DEP, the establishment of a Technical Advisory Committee by the DEP, and the statement of estimated regulatory costs to be prepared by agencies.

Biological treatment in wastewater treatment plants appears to be one of the most crucial factors in water quality management and planning. Though, measuring this important factor is challenging, and obtaining reliable results requires significant effort. However, the use of artificial neural network (ANN) modeling can help to more reliably and cost-effectively monitor the pollutant characteristics of wastewater treatment plants and regulate the processing of these pollutants. To create an artificial neural network model, a study of the Samsun Eastern Advanced Biological WWTP was carried out. It provides a laboratory simulation and prediction option for flexible treatment process simulations. The models were created to forecast influent features that would affect effluent quality metrics. For ANN models, the correlation coefficients RTRAINING and RALL are more than 0.8080. The MSE, RMSE, and MAPE were less than 0.8704. The model's results showed compliance with the permitted wastewater quality standards set forth in the Turkish water pollution control law for the environment where the treated wastewater is discharged. This is a useful tool for plant management to enhance the quality of the treatment while enhancing the facility's dependability and efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, under the background of vigorously promoting environmental governance, the implementation effect of the central environmental protection inspection is an issue of great concern to the government and the public. This paper systematically investigates the impact of central environmental protection inspection on the risk of stock price crash using a sample of listed firms in polluting industries. The results show that compared with non-supervised areas, central environmental protection inspection can reduce the polluting industries' firms' stock price crash risk by reducing stock price bubbles. After a series of robustness tests, the results still held. The above transmission mechanism is more effective in the samples of private enterprises, low information transparency and disclosure quality enterprises, non-national civilized urban areas, and high promotion incentive areas. Furthermore, this paper found that there were differences in the effects of central environmental protection inspection in different batches. Among the effects of central environmental protection inspection in different batches, the effect of environmental regulation in the second, third, and fourth batches was better, and the effect of central environmental protection inspection in different batches gradually deepened. Finally, by analyzing the environmental governance of the central environmental protection inspection, it is found that the central environmental protection inspection has significant short-term and long-term control effect in air pollution governance, and it is still necessary to strengthen the law enforcement in water pollution governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to understand the sources of pollutants and the temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of the water quality in Cihu Lake, China, the monitoring data of seven water quality indicators from 12 sampling sites from 2015 to 2019 were selected, and the temporal and spatial variation laws of the water quality and pollution sources were analyzed by the use of the multivariate statistical analysis method. The results show that nitrogen and phosphorus pollution in the lake is dominant. The average concentrations of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) exceed the surface water quality Class III standards by 1.6 and 2.2 times, respectively. Spatially, the results of the cluster analysis showed that the water quality in Cihu Lake can be categorized into three regions: the northern half of the lake, the southern half of the lake, and the canal entering the lake. Temporally, the water quality in these three regions can be classified into three categories: March to May (the northern half of Cihu Lake), September to November (the southern half of Cihu Lake), and September (the canal entering Cihu Lake). The discriminant analysis results showed that NH3-N, TN, CODCr, and BOD5 are the main factors that affect the uneven spatial distribution of the water quality of Cihu Lake, while TN, DO, and CODMn are the main factors that affect the temporal difference in the northern half of Cihu Lake, and NH3-N, TP, CODCr, DO, CODMn, TN, and TP are the main factors affecting the temporal difference in the southern half of Cihu Lake and the canal entering Cihu Lake. It was found that the water pollution in the study area can be mainly attributed to the incoming water and urban domestic pollution. The main pollution sources for the canal entering Cihu Lake and the southern half of Cihu Lake are the water from the sewage treatment plant and the domestic sewage that has not been intercepted, while the northern half of Cihu Lake is mainly affected by surface runoff, mixed rainwater and sewage, and internal pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1972, when the federal government took the lead in protecting our nation's waters from pollution and destruction, it intended to assert federal jurisdiction as broadly as possible. Nonetheless, for the last fifty years, the precise contours of federal jurisdiction (the extent of "waters of the United States" or "WOTUS") have been in dispute, with multiple alternative administrative proposals to define the legislation rejected by the Supreme Court. A part of this debate has been about both the wisdom of extensive federal jurisdiction as well as the assertion that states, if allowed, would step in and regulate water pollution and destruction themselves. At various points, the argument has thus been about the proper balance of federal and state power. Though this argument has theoretical appeal, and though we may have no choice but to look to states to protect certain waters if the Supreme Court continues to narrow federal jurisdiction, the truth is that this is not going to happen. Most states are never going to expand their jurisdiction to protect waters not protected at the federal level. This is demonstrated by theories of federalism, Congressional observations in passing the 1972 Amendments, empirical data of state regulatory history, and actions the states have positively taken to limit jurisdiction. Pretending that states asserting jurisdiction is a real possibility or a valid data point is thus pointless and also destructive. It detracts from the real impacts limiting federal jurisdiction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the segregation and the initial provision of water in the U.S. It mentions that water and sewer infrastructure have historically played a crucial role in eliminating waterborne threats. It discusses that higher rates of residential segregation built their waterworks earlier but were slower to eliminate typhoid fever.

Dredge and fill activities are an essential feature of mining projects, infrastructure construction, and coastal rehabilitation. While the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is the largest dredge and fill operator in the United States, it is also the federal agency responsible for permitting such activities. As a check on the Corps, the Clean Water Act grants the United States Environmental Protection Agency veto power over dredge and fill permits. Over the last thirty years, however, the increased use of nationwide general permits has disrupted the balance of power between these two federal agencies. General permits authorize dredge and fill activity without individualized environmental review. Significantly, the Environmental Protection Agency has never vetoed a general permit. This Note addresses this power imbalance by arguing that statutory authority exists for an expanded application of the veto power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Policy intervention is a critical measure to address water resources challenges and improve water governance capacity. The strictest water resources management (SWRM) policy is an important water policy system that aims to deal with water shortage, water pollution, and institutional dysfunction in China. This study conducts a quantitative analysis for policy text characteristics of the SWRM through the methods of text mining and content analysis. First, we construct an analytical framework with the combination of policy instruments and policy targets, and then code and classify policy instruments in policy text and conduct statistical analysis. Finally, the research conclusions and policy suggestions are put forward. The results show that major policy instruments are structurally imbalanced in China's SWRM policy. China's government prefers to issue a mandatory, standardized, and restrictive policies in water resources management. Most of the policy instruments are focused on institutional management, followed by resources allocation, technological progress, and the ecological environment. This study contributes to the knowledge body of water policy evaluation and water governance, provides decision-making references for optimizing and promoting China's water resources management policy, and offers a peer reference for water governance in other developing countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using unique data on chemical manufacturing facilities regulated under the Clean Water Act (CWA), this paper analyzes the effect of one particular environmental management practice — internal monitoring — on regulated facilities' compliance with wastewater discharge limits. To deepen our understanding of the role played by internal monitoring, we extend our analysis by exploring the interaction between internal monitoring and self-audits, which should share a similar purpose to internal monitoring by providing systematic information to regulated facilities on their pollution abatement efforts. Baseline empirical results robustly demonstrate that increases in the extent of internal monitoring significantly improve facilities' environmental compliance. The extended empirical results offer moderate evidence that audits complement internal monitoring (and vice versa): as facilities audit more frequently, the productive effect of increased internal monitoring grows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explains the scope of the Water Quality Assurance Act (WQAA) in Florida. It cites the aim of the WQAA to support the federal Clean Water Act (CWA). The implication of the Florida Supreme Court decision in Lieupo v. Simon's Trucking, Inc. and the federal case Irizarry v. Orlando Utilities Commission on the scope of the WQAA private cause of action provision is mentioned. Also noted is the impact of Irizarry on companies that developed properties near a pollutant-discharging facility.

The Clean Water Act is the principal federal law aimed at controlling pollution of the nation's water resources, yet it does not provide comprehensive oversight of pollutants entering groundwater, the subsurface water that often feeds into rivers, lakes, and oceans. This Note examines a recent Supreme Court decision, County of Maui v. Hawaii Wildlife Fund, which appeared to endorse a theory of federal regulation of groundwater discharges under the Clean Water Act. County of Maui established a "functional equivalent" standard, under which a discharge through groundwater is subject to the Clean Water Act's permitting requirements if it is the functional equivalent of a direct discharge into jurisdictional surface waters. While the Court outlined several factors for courts to consider in making a functional equivalent determination, the decision offers limited guidance for lower courts applying the test. Moreover, it leaves an important regulatory question unanswered. This Note aims to address some of the persisting uncertainties by proposing that Justice Kennedy's "significant nexus" standard from his Rapanos v. United States concurrence can be illuminating. This Note argues that overlaying the significant nexus standard on the functional equivalent test offers a practical strategy for lower courts applying the test in difficult cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the ambiquities surrounding the meaning of functional equivalence and ways to interpret it in way that both conforms with the purpose and judicial and regulatory history of the Clean Water Act (CWA) in the U.S. Topics discussed include the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in County of Maui v. Hawai'i Wildlife Fund, the purpose of the CWA, the statutory history of the CWA, the common-law origins of the CWA, and the scope of the CWA permitting requirements.

Environmental citizen suits were founded on the belief that empowering organizations and individuals to take legal action would provide a backstop against tax federal or state programs. Working in conjunction with the system of cooperative federalism, citizen suits were designed to uphold minimum levels of environmental protection and to provide a restraint on so called "races to the bottom" in which states compete for economic deuelopment by relaxing environmental standards. To our knowledge, no one has considered whether the geographic distribution of citizen suits could have the opposite effect-namely, that it reinforces rather than mitigates disparities in the leuels of environmental protection. Yet we obserue this phenomenon in data spanning two presidential administrations: citizen suits are filed in a small number of states with strong public support for environmental policies and robust state programs-not in states where policies and enforcement lag. The small number of citizen suits and skewed geographic distribution of cases reuealed by our data upend the narratiues of proponents and critics of citizen suits. Among enuironmentalists, citizen suits are lauded for their capacity to augment government enforcement and to compel lax or ideologically antagonistic administrations to take legally required action. For skeptics, citizen suits threaten the constitutional authority of federal agencies to implement the law and allow private organizations to exploit broad legislative mandates. Neither perspective is borne out by the observed patterns of litigation, which are dominated by "wholesale" litigation challenging major policies rather than "retail" litigation against private entities. In fact, retail litigation accounted for just 18 percent of the environmental citizen suits filed ouer 16 years. Taking a broad uiew of citizen suits, we find that the different statutory regimes facilitate or impede citizen suits in predictable ways. Structural limits are evident in statutes, such as the Clean Water Act, that minimize the barriers to filing citizen suits, as well as those for which the barriers are highest, such as the Clean Air Act. These limits are also evident in plaintiffs' preference for procedural claims, which accounted for almost 40 percent of the citizen suits in our dataset. These findings demonstrate the importance of the practical and structural limits of citizen suits to identifying effective reforms. The Article proposes a series of recommendations, both within and outside of the federal gouernment, designed to mitigate the inequitable distribution of citizen suits and the resource limits that so often limit access to them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the move by the state of Florida to modernize its stormwater quality rules by passing the Clean Waterways Act in 2020. Topics discussed include the importance of managing stormwater and its effects on surface and ground water in protecting the state's water quality, current stormwater quality rules, and the challenge of creating a statewide uniform water quality criteria.

Nonpoint source pollution is the biggest threat to water quality in the United States today. This Article argues for stronger federal controls over nonpoint source pollution. It begins by examining the history of water quality regulation in the United States, including the passage and amendment of the Clean Water Act and the evolving definition of "navigable waters over time. The Article then discusses recent rulemaking and litigation developments, including the Clean Water Rule, the Navigable Waters Protection Rule, and the County of Maui, Hawaii v. Hawaii Wildlife Fund case. It offers three recommendations. First. the Article calls for a congressional amendment to the Clean Water Act to require binding controls on nonpoint source pollution. Second, recognizing that an amendment to the Clean Water Act may not be politically viable, it offers an approach for controlling nonpoint source pollution through an amendment to the Safe Drinking Water Act. Finally. it identifies tools that interested states, local governments, and citizens' groups can utilize to take action on nonpoint source pollution under existing law. This Article concludes that reductions in nonpoint source pollution will lead to signifcant improvements in the water quality of our nation's lakes, rivers, wetlands, and coastal areas, to the benefit of human and environmental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nutrient run-of from mid'western agricultural operations into the Mississippi River has resulted in unconscionable destruction m the river': ecological, economic, and recreational. The sovereign interests of downstream riparian states-particularly Louisiana and Mississippi-in the use and health of their natural resources clash with the economic ambitions of upstream polluters. In response to this well-documented problem, the Mississippi River/Gulf of Mexico Watershed Nutrient Task Force formed in 1997 to readdress eutrophication in the Gulfof Mexico. which is one of the most visible and impactftil mar*stations of nutrient pollution in the world. ABer twenty years, the eflects have greatly worsened and the need to redress the harm immediately is imperative, lest the states resort to more direct. graver action to secure their rights to a usable river. When an individual's actions harm another's property, the injured individual can recover under a number of causes of action. When a state harms another state, the avenue for recourse is less clear but the stakes are much greater. Several pathways to fixing the nutrient pollution in the Mississippi River have been considered, including litigation via the Clean Water Act. a federal common-law nuisance action, and an interstate compact. However, other states encountering water problems have tried these options and failed. Prudence directs consideration of another solution. One such solution, and the fbcus of this Article, is the pursuit of an equitable remedy through the assertion of riparian rights in an original jurisdiction action before the Supirme Court of tile United States. An equitable remedy should take the form of an equitable apportionment decree. Such actions are becoming moi·e fequent (even if asserted under other names). This Article will consider the strengths and weaknesses of bringing an original action be/bre the Supreme Court of the United States for an equitable apportionment decree of the Mississippi River. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Popcorn bags, firefighting foam, and nonstick pans--all seemingly unrelated--are, in fact, united by one thing: they each contain perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances, collectively known as PFAS. PFAS compounds are found throughout the United States and have been contaminating the country's water sources since the 1940s, when manufacturers began using PFAS. Almost 5,000 different types of PFAS have been discovered, each containing carbon-fluorine bonds ("CF bonds"). C-F bonds make PFAS great for products manufacturing because such strong chemical bonds increase material durability, but they also turn PFAS into "forever chemicals." Once PFAS disperse into the ecosystem, they are extremely difficult to remove because they do not break down over time. The resulting ability of PFAS to bioaccumulate in animals and the human body has been linked to elevated levels of PFAS in the blood stream. Consequently, PFAS are found in mammals' milk and animal offspring, leading to dairy farm shutdowns. Similarly, PFAS have been linked to long-term, adverse health effects in humans, such as cancer, and developmental health effects, such as low birth weight. While the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has considered and is in the process of setting a maximum contaminant level (MCL) for PFAS chemicals, it has yet to do so. To date, the EPA has created a PFAS Action Plan and set a health advisory level for PFAS chemicals--this advisory level, however, is non-enforceable. Congress has advocated for regulation, and some states, such as New Jersey and New Hampshire, have acted. This Comment argues that while it is critical for the EPA to set an MCL for PFAS, states should regulate PFAS at stricter levels than the EPA to protect the health, safety, and welfare of their constituents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In May 2000, E. coli originating from nearby agricultural lands contaminated the municipal water supply of Walkerton, Ontario. As a result, over two thousand people became seriously ill and seven people lost their lives. In response to this crisis, source water protection emerged as part of a multi-barrier approach for the provision of safe drinking water. Intervention at the source provides an early opportunity to contain a range of potential risks, many of them tied to land-use. However, source water protection involved a fundamental shift in Ontario's policy approach to the provision of safe drinking water. In doing so, it mobilized powerful actors to defend their interests against this change. This study traces how the problem was defined in Ontario, and by whom, establishing a continuum of actor–institution interactions that spans the development and implementation stages of the Clean Water Act (2006), and shows how different preferences were carried forward through the devolution of decision making to the watershed level. By disaggregating the policy change into its constituent parts, and accounting for actor effects at the implementation stage, we observe that decentralization in the context of sustained political pressure led to an effective concentration of decision-making power, thereby actually eroding local control. Caution is thus warranted when considering the devolution of decision making to inclusive social processes, as this may link policy subsystems and thereby create the institutional channels through which special interests can dominate decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal ash ponds pose a significant threat to the environment and human health. Coal ash is a byproduct of the electricity production process, and it contains carcinogens like boron, arsenic, lithium, and mercury. Typically, utility companies store coal ash in ponds located near rivers and lakes. If coal ash is stored in ponds that lack an adequate liner, the coal ash can seep into the groundwater and travel to nearby surface waters, which may serve as a drinking water source for neighboring communities. The EPA has admitted that the majority of America's coal ash ponds are unlined and prone to leaks. Moreover, there have been several instances where coal ash ponds have failed and discharged millions of gallons of coal ash into surrounding surface waters. In an effort to protect citizens' health and the environment, plaintiffs have utilized the Clean Water Act to hold utilities liable when they discharge coal ash pollutants to surface waters via hydrologically connected groundwater. Nevertheless, the Fourth Circuit in Sierra Club v. Virginia Electric and Power Co. determined that coal ash ponds were not point sources under the CWA, and this decision will likely prevent future plaintiffs from bringing claims against utilities under the Act. The holding in Sierra Club will also limit future plaintiffs' ability to hold polluters liable for unpermitted discharges from other types of "containers," which will increase the possibility of an environmental disaster. As a result, the Supreme Court must step in and reverse the Fourth Circuit's decision. More specifically, the Supreme Court must hold that coal ash ponds are point sources under the CWA. To reach this decision, the Supreme Court must first look to the purpose of the CWA, which was designed "to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." Then, the Supreme Court must look to the language of the Act, specifically the CWA's definition of the term "point source." Lastly, the Supreme Court must look to other cases involving "containers" as they indicate that "natural processes" may be part of a point source discharge if the polluter "initially collected" the pollutants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In its 2018 decision, Upstate Forever v. Kinder Morgan Energy Partners, L.P., the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit found liability under the Clear Water Act ("CWA") for point source pollutant discharges that travel through hydrologically connected groundwater on their way to a navigable waterway. This decision aligned the court with precedent from the United States Courts of Appeals for the Second and Ninth Circuits, but later decisions from the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit resulted in a clear circuit split on the issue of CWA applicability to discharges that travel through groundwater. The Fourth Circuit also split from several other circuits in its subsidiary finding that liability could be found where there is a continued migration of pollution despite the point source itself ceasing to pollute. This Comment argues that the Fourth Circuit's decision adhered to the CWA's intentionally broad purpose and will improve the ability of citizen groups and government entities to hold polluters accountable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Note was written in fall of 2018 while the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) "Waters of the United States" (WOTUS) rule was still in effect. Since the Note was accepted for publication, the EPA and the Department of the Army repealed and replaced the WOTUS rule with the "Navigable Waters Protection Rule" on January 23, 2020, which will, in part, categorically exclude groundwater from the scope of the Clean Water Act. 1 As of the date of this Note's publication, the Navigable Waters Protection Rule has not yet been published in the Federal Register and will only take effect 60 days after publication in the Federal Register. While the WOTUS rule will soon no longer be in effect, the Note's analysis according to Fourth Circuit precedent and the EPA rule in effect at the time the Fourth Circuit decided Sierra Club v. Virginia Electric & Power Co. may prove useful for citizens or environmental groups seeking to challenge the adequacy of the Navigable Waters Protection Rule. As such, "the new [Navigable Waters Protection Rule] hardly represents the final word on what qualifies as a jurisdictional 'water of the United States.' . . . Lawsuits challenging the 2019 repeal rule and the 2015 Clean Water Rule are both ongoing." 2 For example, the Senior Attorney Blanding Holman of the Southern Environmental Law Center (SELC) has stated that should EPA finalize the repeal of the 2015 WOTUS rule, the SELC "plan[s] to fight [the EPA and the Department of the Army] with everything [they] have to protect our communities and clean water."3 Most notably, a suite of environmental organizations has already filed a notice of intent to sue the EPA for its "2020 Revised Regulatory Definition of 'Waters of the United States'" rule. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the half century since the founding of the US Environmental Protection Agency, public and private US sources have spent nearly $5 trillion ($2017) to provide clean rivers, lakes, and drinking water (annual spending of 0.8 percent of US GDP in most years). Yet over half of rivers and substantial shares of drinking water systems violate standards, and polls for decades have listed water pollution as Americans' number one environmental concern. We assess the history, effectiveness, and efficiency of the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act and obtain four main conclusions. First, water pollution has fallen since these laws were passed, in part due to their interventions. Second, investments made under these laws could be more cost effective. Third, most recent studies estimate benefits of cleaning up pollution in rivers and lakes that are less than the costs, though these studies may undercount several potentially important types of benefits. Analysis finds more positive net benefits of drinking water quality investments. Fourth, economic research and teaching on water pollution are relatively uncommon, as measured by samples of publications, conference presentations, and textbooks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does the form of a multilateral agreement (MEA) by itself improve environmental performance? In particular, do legally nonbinding MEAs pose a rival to the effect of more traditional legally binding international agreements? Our theory builds on the legal and international regimes literatures and postulates that legally binding agreements (LBAs) have more benign effects on water quality than legally nonbinding agreements (LNBAs). We probe two operationalizations of the form of MEAs. First, we purely focus on the form: of legally binding versus legally nonbindings. Second, we combine the form of an agreement each with an index of precision and an index of delegation. The empirical focus is on upstream–downstream water quality in Europe during 1990 to 2007. Our regression analyses, regardless of specification, find that LBAs beat LNBAs and that LBAs with high degrees of precision and delegation beat the effect of any other configuration of agreements with respect to enhancing water quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the conduit theory of the U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) jurisdiction in 2019 over the issue of tributary groundwater pollution. Topics discussed include the passage of the CWA in 1972, the scope of the terms navigable waters and the waters of the U.S., and the adoption by the courts of the conduit theory.

On August 5, 2015, EPA contractors working at the Gold King Mine in southwestern Colorado accidently released approximately three million gallons of contaminated mine water into the drainage of the Animas River. The water contained metals which created a bright orange plume that coursed down the Animas River and into the connecting San Juan River for many days, attracting nationwide attention and creating great concern for many local communities. The plume touched at least three states, three tribes, and numerous municipalities. The release fortunately did not prove an environmental catastrophe as many people feared at the time. However, it did inspire much angst, ire, investigation, and litigation. The first part of this Article attempts to explain what really happened with the Gold King Mine spill, both the causes of the spill and the response to it. The Article then considers a number of federal environmental laws, including the Endangered Species Act, the Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), in order to assess alleged violations and demonstrate some of the important legal protections available to parties who engage in the challenging work of responding to mining contamination in the United States. The Article concludes with a look at protections for individual responders and hopes for cooperative efforts to address the mining contamination in the Animas River watershed and other contaminated mine sites across the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 1972 U.S. Clean Water Act, government and industry have invested over |${\$}$| 1 trillion to abate water pollution, or |${\$}$| 100 per person-year. Over half of U.S. stream and river miles, however, still violate pollution standards. We use the most comprehensive set of files ever compiled on water pollution and its determinants, including 50 million pollution readings from 240,000 monitoring sites and a network model of all U.S. rivers, to study water pollution's trends, causes, and welfare consequences. We have three main findings. First, water pollution concentrations have fallen substantially. Between 1972 and 2001, for example, the share of waters safe for fishing grew by 12 percentage points. Second, the Clean Water Act's grants to municipal wastewater treatment plants, which account for |${\$}$| 650 billion in expenditure, caused some of these declines. Through these grants, it cost around |${\$}$| 1.5 million (2014 dollars) to make one river-mile fishable for a year. We find little displacement of municipal expenditure due to a federal grant. Third, the grants' estimated effects on housing values are smaller than the grants' costs; we carefully discuss welfare implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article informs that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) have departed from precedent to support the deregulation of the U.S. waterways in the repeal of the 2015 Clean Water Rule (CWR) and its replacement with the 2020 Navigable Waters Protection Rule (NWPR). It mentions about the decentralization of environmental policy; and mentions that former U.S. President Donald Trump's administration has repealed and replaced the CWR.

For 50 years, UC Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC ANR) has contributed to dairy water quality policy in California and helped, with partner organizations, to implement it in the dairy industry. When conditional waivers for waste discharge requirements expired in 2003, UC ANR shared research and best professional practices as regional water quality control boards developed new orders. UC ANR academics then worked with water quality control boards' staff and dairy industry representatives to develop feasible, staged implementation plans. Collaboratively, more than 50 hours of workshop curriculum were developed and disseminated, helping dairy producers to accept scientifically sound management practices that are more protective of groundwater. Research by UC ANR to better understand system dynamics, nitrogen management and practices to minimize the impact of manure application on groundwater quality continues, as does a program in environmental stewardship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses Idaho's environment in relation to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) proposed final Clean Water Rule in June 2015 which further defines the term waters of the United States, and it mentions America's Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (CWA). According to the article, the CWA prohibits discharges of pollutants from a point source into navigable waters without a permit. Clean Water Rule-related litigation is assessed.

The article argues that rather than delegating the responsibility to the states, the U.S. federal government is best positioned to mandate reducing nonpoint source pollution. Topics covered include the water regulatory regime the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Arizona has imposed, the present state of water quality control, and the nuisance and state-centered approaches that can reduce storm water pollution.

In 2009, groundwater contamination was discovered in a west Wichita neighborhood; the contamination was later attributed to the disposal of tetrachloroethylene (also called PERC or PCE) from dry cleaning facilities. Although the dry cleaning businesses were in operation for approximately 50 years, the extent of resident exposure to the contamination is unknown. Many residents in the affected area relied on nonpublic water wells for drinking, cooking, bathing, and irrigation. The residents were not aware that their wells had become contaminated by PERC at levels exceeding the Safe Drinking Water Act standard of 5 ppb. In 2014, the Kansas Department of Health and Environment connected these homes to the City of Wichita's public water system. In 2015, our team conducted focus groups with area residents to address any lingering needs and concerns. Participants reported general satisfaction with their homes' connectivity to city water. Participants reported poor communication, however, regarding the initial notifi cation about the groundwater contamination in their neighborhood; most were notifi ed through the media. This communication failure continued after their homes were connected to Wichita's public water supply. Participants shared many potential health concerns and requested that a health study be conducted of their neighborhood. Needs and concerns are ongoing among focus group participants, most of which could be addressed through regular communication with affected residents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ten different water samples were collected from Ratuwa River and its tributaries. The laboratory test was carried out by standard procedures (APHA methods), and the measured values were compared with the Nepal standard recommended by Nepal Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS). Statistical analysis also had been used to calculate the correlation coefficients and to plot the regression equations of various parameters with electrical conductivity. The aim of the study was to identify the parameters that affect the electrical conductivity and evaluate the percentage contribution of these parameters. The correlation matrix shows that color, total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride (Cl), fluoride (F), total phosphorus (TP), total alkalinity (TA), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and dissolved oxygen (DO) have a significant effect on the electrical conductivity (EC). Among these parameters, TDS has the highest contribution (39.65%) followed by total alkalinity (23.5%), total hardness (19.9%), chlorine (6.5%), and calcium (5.5%) ions, respectively. However, color, TP, fluoride, and DO have almost 1.45% contribution to the electrical conductivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent debate over the scope of the U.S. Clean Water Act underscores the need to develop a robust body of scientific work that defines the connectivity between freshwater systems and people. Coupled natural and human systems (CNHS) modeling is one tool that can be used to study the complex, reciprocal linkages between human actions and ecosystem processes. Well-developed CNHS models exist at a conceptual level, but the mapping of these system representations in practice is limited in capturing these feedbacks. This article presents a paired conceptual--empirical methodology for functionally capturing feedbacks between human and natural systems in freshwater lake catchments, from human actions to the ecosystem and from the ecosystem back to human actions. We address extant challenges in CNHS modeling, which arise from differences in disciplinary approach, model structure, and spatiotemporal resolution, to connect a suite of models. In doing so, we create an integrated, multi-disciplinary tool that captures diverse processes that operate at multiple scales, including land-management decision-making, hydrologic-solute transport, aquatic nutrient cycling, and civic engagement. In this article, we build on this novel framework to advance cross-disciplinary dialogue to move CNHS lake-catchment modeling in a systematic direction and, ultimately, provide a foundation for smart decision-making and policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the implementation of U.S. environmental protection laws under American Indian tribal governance. The landmark laws of the 1970s that form the core of America's environmental policy regime made no mention of American Indian tribal lands, and the subsequent research literature on environmental policy has given them little attention. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has primary implementation responsibility for environmental protection laws on tribal lands, which offers a unique opportunity to study direct federal implementation apart from typical joint state–federal implementation. Further, because Indian reservations are homes to a disproportionately poor, historically subjugated racial group, analysis of environmental programs on tribal lands offers a unique perspective on environmental justice. We analyze enforcement of and compliance with the Clean Water Act (CWA) and Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) to compare the implementation of environmental policy on tribal lands with nontribal facilities. Analysis reveals that, compared with nontribal facilities, tribal facilities experience less rigorous CWA and SDWA enforcement and are more likely to violate these laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As climate change's momentum becomes increasingly more difficult to quell, environmentalists are litigating to stop oil pipeline expansion. Litigation over two recently completed oil pipelines--the Flanagan South and the Gulf Coast--illustrates the legal battle environmentalists face. Given the outcome of those cases, it may seem that environmentalists face insurmountable judicial precedent. But they are not out of options quite yet. Although no statute expressly requires the federal government to conduct environmental analysis of proposed domestic oil pipelines, two statutes--the Clean Water Act (CWA) and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)--generally work in tandem to require the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Army Corps or Corps) to complete an analysis when a proposed pipeline crosses regulated waters. However, the Army Corps recently has begun using a general permit called Nationwide Permit 12 (NWP 12) to streamline the approval process by avoiding individual review of pipelines. The Tenth and District of Columbia Circuits upheld the Army Corps's use of NWP 12 in approving the Flanagan South and Gulf Coast pipelines, rejecting arguments that such use violates the CWA and NEPA. Not only did environmentalists lose both decisions, but the Army Corps also subsequently tightened its analysis to avoid potential future liability. Despite these setbacks, this Note contends that the battle is not yet over. The Note argues that the Army Corps failed to comply with the CWA's plain meaning when it issued NWP 12, resulting in a limited opportunity for the public to participate. By limiting public comment, NWP 12 undermines the Corps's ability to take a hard look at the environmental consequences of proposed oil pipelines. If the agency cannot comply with the CWA's plain meaning, it can no longer use NWP 12 to avoid individual review of oil pipelines. Given recent judicial precedent, environmentalists face a difficult task. But hope remains. Under the framework first described in Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., the circuit courts are improperly deferring to the Army Corps's interpretation of the CWA when the statute's meaning is clear. Judicial recognition and correction of this would be a victory for environmentalists, as it would increase federal environmental review of domestic oil pipelines and provide the public with a better opportunity to voice its concerns over the proliferation of oil pipelines in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article looks at the institutional structure of agricultural water quality policy in the U.S. as established by the Clean Water Act of 1972. The Clean Water Act nationalized the control of municipal and industrial point sources of water pollution. The case for policy innovations that introduce a mix of mandatory compliance strategies and better economic incentive mechanisms for achieving water quality goals is discussed.

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The twentieth century spanned an era that included nadirs in environmental quality and subsequent efforts to improve ecological conditions. The Illinois Waterway, a large river system in Illinois, experienced prolonged degradation followed by a dramatic recovery. In the 1950s, a standardized sampling program was initiated that has continued for six decades. The resulting record documents profound ecological changes, demonstrating the potential for river ecosystems to recover following the successful implementation of large-scale policies, notably the Clean Water Act. Over six decades, native species diversity has increased, and one of the most prolific invasive fish species has collapsed. In addition, the sampling record highlights the recovery of socioeconomically valuable sport-fish populations. We examined the causes and consequences of change in a large river using data from a long-term monitoring program with unique spatial and temporal extent. The trends documented in the Illinois Waterway are relevant for the restoration of river systems worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contaminated stormwater runoff from oil and gas (O&G) operations can pose a significant threat to surface waters. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent of this threat and identify more specific permitting requirements to protect surface waters. To better understand the extent of the threat, this paper identified and characterized the use of waste surface impoundments at O&G facilities as well as the threat level from O&G spills in California. To assess the efficacy of the current federal and California state-permitting regime, the paper evaluated stormwater permit compliance in two California counties. It also reviewed selected spill cases and associated Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans and Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plans to identify the adequacy of current industry practices. The analysis showed that contaminated stormwater from O&G facilities can be better regulated. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency does not require O&G facilities to file for an Industrial Stormwater General Permit even though many O&G industry practices have the potential to contaminate stormwater runoff from the site. When O&G facilities discharge a Reportable Quantity of a hazardous chemical or violate a water quality standard, they are required to enroll in the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program. Spills, although not a direct indication of stormwater runoff, can highlight polluted runoff discharges that should have been regulated. Medium and large spills that reached waterways were such a risk for which operators did not file for a permit. In California new filing requirements for the oil and gas industry require all facilities that discharge stormwater that has come into contact with any overburden, raw material, or intermediate products located on the site, to file for an Industrial Stormwater General Permit. As this study showed, there has been an increase in enrollment since the enactment of the new requirements. Having all facilities enroll in the general permit program, as done in California, would require minimum monitoring and maintenance that could help prevent spills. A further step to ensure better protocol is to require specific pollution control practices in addition to the current general permit requirements. Such permitting regimes not only can be implemented on the US federal level but also internationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macroinvertebrate community assessment is used in most US states to evaluate stream health under the Clean Water Act. While water quality assessment and impairment determinations are reported to the US Environmental Protection Agency, there is no national summary of biological assessment findings. The objective of this work was to determine the national extent of invertebrate-based impairments and to identify pollutants primarily responsible for those impairments. Evaluation of state data in the US Environmental Protection Agency's Assessment and Total Maximum Daily Load Tracking and Implementation System database revealed considerable differences in reporting approaches and terminologies including differences in if and how states report specific biological assessment findings. Only 15% of waters impaired for aquatic life could be identified as having impairments determined by biological assessments (e.g., invertebrates, fish, periphyton); approximately one-third of these were associated with macroinvertebrate bioassessment. Nearly 650 invertebrate-impaired waters were identified nationwide, and sediment was the most common pollutant in bedded (63%) and suspended (9%) forms. This finding is not unexpected, given previous work on the negative impacts of sediment on aquatic life, and highlights the need to more specifically identify the mechanisms driving sediment impairments in order to design effective remediation plans. It also reinforces the importance of efforts to derive sediment-specific biological indices and numerical sediment quality guidelines. Standardization of state reporting approaches and terminology would significantly increase the potential application of water quality assessment data, reveal national trends, and encourage sharing of best practices to facilitate the attainment of water quality goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]