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Reconciliation research revealed that the institutional acknowledgement of the group's sufferings does not always improve fractured intergroup relations. To get a better understanding of this issue, through a field experiment we explored whether its effectiveness could be dependent on the collective background against which it is provided. That is, we involved citizens (N = 975) from societies entrapped in recent or ongoing conflicts (i.e., Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Palestinian, Israel) and examined the effects of the institutional acknowledgement of a chosen trauma when its denial by the majority (vs. minority) of outgroup members was made salient. Results revealed that the salience of the acknowledgement was effective in increasing the trust towards outgroup representatives. Instead, such an acknowledgement was ineffective in improving people's willingness to reconcile and hope for change, which was mainly dependent on the levels of denial by outgroup members. However, for these latter variables, relevant differences emerged depending on the conflictual versus post‐conflictual context. Implications of our findings for intergroup reconciliation are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parents of 50 children (ages 5-12) with mental retardation reviewed hypothetical need situations associated with their child's retardation and rated the likelihood that they would help themselves or seek external help. Mothers' help-seeking behavior seemed to be affected by ego considerations whereas fathers' help-seeking behavior was instrumental. (Author/JDD)

On the basis of development of the concept of 'defensive helping,' the authors demonstrated that high ingroup identifiers thwart a threat to group identity through defensive help-giving (i.e., by extending help to an outgroup member whose achievements jeopardize their status). Participants were 255 Israeli high school students (130 boys and 125 girls) ages 16-18. The phenomenon of defensive helping was demonstrated in a minimal group (Study 1) and real-group (Study 2) experiment. Study 3, which examined real groups, supported the extension of the phenomenon of defensive helping to relations between high- and low-status groups, showing that members of a high-status group who perceive status relations with the low-status outgroup as unstable will protect the ingroup's identity by providing dependency-oriented help to the low-status outgroup. Priming for common ingroup identity reversed this pattern, with participants electing to offer autonomy-oriented rather than defensive help. Theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed with respect to social change, paternalism, and helping between nations. Keywords: defensive helping, status relations, threat to social identity, common ingroup identity, dependency/autonomy-oriented help DOI: 10.1037/a0015968

Guided by the Needs-Based Model of Reconciliation, we hypothesized that being a member of a victimized group would be associated with a threat to the status and power of one's ingroup, whereas being a member of a perpetrating group would threaten the image of the ingroup as moral and socially acceptable. A social exchange interaction through which victims feel empowered by their perpetrators and perpetrators feel accepted by their victims was thus predicted to enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile. Supporting the predictions across two experiments, members of the perpetrator group (Jews in Study I and Germans in Study 2) showed greater willingness to reconcile when they received a message of acceptance, rather than empowerment, from a member of the victimized group. Members of the victimized group (Arabs in Study 1 and Jews in Study 2) demonstrated the opposite effect. Applied and theoretical implications of these results are discussed. Keywords: intergroup reconciliation; emotional needs; victims; perpetrators; empowerment; acceptance

Using time domain reflectometry (TDR), we studied stem water content ([[theta].sub.stem]), stem electrical conductivity ([[sigma].sub.stem]), and their ratio for 220 d in stressed, installation-cured, living trees of four species. Lysimeter-grown mango (Mangifera indica L.), banana (Musa acuminata Colla), date (Phoenix dactylifera L.), and olive (Olea eurapaea L.) were subjected to several types of mild (intensity and duration) water stresses simulating horticultural orchard irrigation practices. This study of living trees was triggered by our previous study accomplished in uncured, thawed, native, cut stem segments. We have confirmed in living trees our earlier findings that [[theta].sub.stem] reacts sensitively and within minutes to water stress. This response is the main driver of [[sigma].sub.stem] changes, by far exceeding the salinity effect on [[sigma].sub.stem]. Known irrigation rates, half-hourly tree weights from load cells, and frequent sampling of drainage solution for volume and salinity independently confirmed our findings. Relative to [[sigma].sub.stem], resistivity measurements have lower scatter because [[theta].sub.stem]-dielectric constant ([epsilon]) relationships are exponential and [[theta].sub.stem]-resistivity relationships are linear. With resistivity, there is no need to match impedances among meter, cable, and probe, implying a larger flexibility in probe geometry, longer cables, and higher accuracy with shorter rods. There is a clear economic advantage in resistivity over [epsilon] measurements. The linkage between stem resistivity and water status (designated as the linkage factor) for lysimeter plants, orchard trees, and cut stem segments demonstrates the potential in scheduling irrigation according to plant water needs with an inexpensive, direct, and simple resistivity measurement. Abbreviations: DOY, day of the year; LF, linkage factor; TDR, time domain reflectometry; [theta], volumetric water content; or, electrical conductivity; [epsilon], dielectric constant.

Rapid and sensitive detection of stress in trees due to irrigation practices, draught, salinity, pollution, lack of nutrients, or diseases may be useful for research and practical purposes. Tree stress could be monitored by following changes in wood water content via time domain reflectometry (TDR). We have searched for a user-friendly and less expensive tool because, although TDR is perhaps the most suitable method, it is too expensive and complicated for everyday use. The objective of this study was to understand the relations between the electrical conductivity ([[sigma].sub.stem]) and water content ([[theta].sub.stem]) in tree stem segments of seven species with TDR probes installed. By leaching stem segments with salt solutions or air we were able to change the salinity and water content independently. We have shown that (i) [[sigma].sub.stem] is more sensitive to changes in [[sigma].sub.stem] than to changes in salinity of the sap, and (ii) 30-mm-long rods on the TDR probe can sensitively and accurately measure [[theta].sub.stem]. We propose that [[sigma].sub.stem] changes might be used as a proxy for changes in stem water content or stem water potential. Hence, electrical resistivity measurements may substitute for water content measurements with the following advantages: improved accuracy, higher flexibility in probe construction, application to stem diameters Abbreviations: TDR, time domain reflectometry; [sigma], electrical conductivity; [theta], volumetric water content; [epsilon], dielectric constant.

The authors propose that conflict threatens different psychological resources of victims and perpetrators and that these threats contribute to the maintenance of conflict (A. Nadler, 2002; A. Nadler & I. Liviatan, 2004; A. Nadler & N. Shnabel, in press). On the basis of this general proposition, the authors developed a needs-based model of reconciliation that posits that being a victim is associated with a threat to one's status and power, whereas being a perpetrator threatens one's image as moral and socially acceptable. To counter these threats, victims must restore their sense of power, whereas perpetrators must restore their public moral image. A social exchange interaction in which these threats are removed should enhance the parties' willingness to reconcile. The results of 4 studies on interpersonal reconciliation support these hypotheses. Applied and theoretical implications of this model are discussed. Keywords: reconciliation, conflict resolution, emotional needs, victims, perpetrators

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00461.x Byline: Yonat Tamir (1), Arie Nadler (2) Abstract: ABSTRACT This article examines the role of personality dispositions as determinants of people's reactions to threats to social identity. It is argued that since individuals characterized as high field-dependents have a greater tendency to anchor their identity in the social group than low field-dependents, they will be more affected by threats to social identity, especially when the context is framed as an intergroup context. Threat to social identity was manipulated by inducing intergroup similarity, and intergroup differentiation was measured. The first experiment assessed the hypothesis with minimal groups. The second experiment assessed it with real groups (two rival schools). Findings provided support for the hypotheses. The discussion centers on the role of personality dispositions in the social identity perspective. Author Affiliation: (1)Ramat Aviv Institute, Tel Aviv, Israel (2)Tel Aviv University, Israel Article note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed either to Yonat Tamir, Ramat-Aviv Institute, 15 Brazil St., Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69460, Israel, or to Arie Nadler, Department of Psychology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, 69978, Israel; Email: yonat.tamir@alum.mit.edu or arie@post.tau.ac.il.

Integrating research on social identity processes and helping relations, the authors proposed that low-status group members who are high identifiers will be unwilling to receive help from the high-status group when status relations are perceived as unstable and help is dependency-oriented. The first experiment, a minimal group experiment, found negative reactions to help from a high-status outgroup when status relations were unstable. The 2nd and 3rd experiments, which used real groups of Israeli Arabs and Israeli Jews, replicated this finding and showed that high identifiers were less receptive to help from the high-status outgroup than low identifiers. The 4th experiment, a help-seeking experiment with real groups of competing high schools, found that the least amount of help was sought from a high-status group by high identifiers when status relations were perceived as unstable and help was dependency-oriented. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed. Keywords: reactions to help, help-seeking, perceived status stability, ingroup identification, dependency-/autonomy-oriented help

The present study explores the effects of expressions of empathy for the ingroup's conflict-related suffering and assumed responsibility for causing it by a representative of the rival outgroup on recipient's willingness for reconciliation. It is suggested that such positive expressions by an adversary will have positive effects on reconciliation only in the presence of a basic level of trust in the outgroup. In two studies, Israeli-Jewish participants were exposed to a Palestinian leader who either expressed or did not express empathy and/or Palestinian responsibility for lsraelis' suffering. After reading the speech, participants completed a questionnaire that measured their attitudes toward reconciliation with Palestinians. Results of both studies show that whereas expression of empathy led to more positive attitudes when trust was high, it tended to have adverse effects when trust was low. Similar effects were not found for assumed responsibility. Implications for research on intergroup conflict and reconciliation are discussed. Keywords: intergroup reconciliation; trust; expressed empathy; acceptance of responsibility; apology

In a semiarid region in a grapefruit (Nucellar 'Marsh seedless, Cirrus paradise Macf.) orchard irrigated with salinized waters, the water content ([theta]) and bulk electrical conductivity ([[sigma].sub.a]) of the trees' stems and the root-zone soil was monitored by time domain reflectometry (TDR) and electrical conductivity meter for a year. For the purpose of irrigation scheduling the objective was to verify correlations between (i) stem and soil [theta] and (ii) stem and soil [sigma]. Measured [[theta].sub.soil] [[sigma].sub.a, soil] were in good agreement with the irrigation treatments, peaking in summer and decreasing during autumn. Only a weak correlation between stem's [[sigma].sub.a] and [theta] and the soil's parameters was found and attributed to rime after installation of probes in the stem; the higher [[sigma].sub.a, stem] (5-10 x [10.sup.-2] dS [m.sup.-1]), measured up to three months after installation, were accredited to the salt content of ruptured stem cells. After curing of the installation wound the insulating effect of the cells' membranes may explain the lower [[sigma].sub.a, stem] (2-5 x [10.sup.-2] dS [m.sup.-1]) measured 3 in 12 mo after installation. Periods of [[theta].sub.soil] increase (day of year [DOY] = 80-200, and 200-280) observed by the soil probes indicated surplus irrigation. Presently the rate, intensity, and variability of the grapefruit stem reaction to soil water status and salinity leaves the soil parameters as better indicators for accurate irrigation scheduling.

The purpose of the study was to compare the response of TDR-determined stem ([[theta].sub.stem]) and soil ([[theta].sub.soil) water content to different irrigation managements. [[theta].sub.stem] (L [L.sup.-1) was measured with three-rods TDR probes (70 mm) installed vertically or horizontally into predrilled holes in the trunk of 5-yr-old lemon [Citrus limon (L.) Burman f.] trees in a semiarid region (Israel). Four irrigation treatments were established to deliver 100% ('full'), half of this amount on one side of the tree ('50%'), same amount as in 50% but applied to alternate sides (3-wk intervals) of the tree ('split'), and 0% ('dry') of the orchard's normal irrigation volume (typically 150-200 [m.sup.3] [wk.sup.-1] [ha.sup.-1]). Treated sewage water ([[sigma].sub.w] = 0.9 dS [m.sup.-1]) was used to irrigate the trees for 75 d (end of June and mid September). Changes in [[theta].sub.soil], and [[theta].sub.stem] were monitored at weekly intervals. Leaf water potential and temperature measurements were used to verify the achieved water stress levels. [[theta].sub.stem] of the full treatment fluctuated by about 0.02 to 0.03 L [L.sup.-1] above and below the 'prestress' reference level (beginning of the season). In contrast, [0.sub.stem] of the 50% treatment declined (by about 0.07 L [L.sup.-1) steadily over the season. For the split and dry treatments, [[theta].sub.stem] decreased by about 0.12 L [L-.sup.1] relative to the reference level. [[theta].sub.soil] and [[theta].sub.stem] values suggest that some surplus irrigation was applied to the full and 50% treatments. It was found that water stress was reflected in TDR-measured [[theta].sub.stem] changes but that these changes were too small for routine irrigation control.

The present study explored the relationship between level of employees' help-seeking behavior and their overall job evaluations. It was hypothesized that employees would seek more help from others whom they perceive as more knowledgeable than they are and that they would seek more help from superiors than from coworkers. Regarding the link between amount of help seeking and performance evaluations, it was predicted that the relationship between amount of help seeking and evaluations of overall job performance are curvilinear and affected by the perceived expertise of the helper. Study participants were employees of a chemical plant, and they reported on the amount of help seeking that they engaged in with superiors and coworkers. Data on the perceived expertise of the help seeker and the help giver in any helping interaction were collected. Most recent job performance evaluations as reported by participants' superiors served as a measure of job performance. The analyses indicate that in line with prediction, the relationships between help seeking and performance evaluations were curvilinear. These relationships were moderated by the help seeker's relative task-relevant expertise. The theoretical implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

The article presents a model which proposes that groups may establish or challenge dominance through helping. It begins by noting the centrality of inequality in helping and inter-group relations. The implications of this to affirmative action programs are noted. Following this, a model of inter-group helping relations is proposed. It suggests that when the high status group provides to the low status group dependency oriented help, it may do so in order to establish dominance. The willing receptivity of the low status group may indicate its acceptance of the inequality, and lack of receptivity for such help may be motivated by the desire to achieve social equality. Empirical findings that are relevant to this analysis are presented in studies using Israeli students as research participants.

When time domain reflectometry (TDR) is used to measure soil water content ([theta]) and salinity, the probes can be installed either horizontally or vertically. We tested the common convention that [theta] values averaged from horizontal probes will be equal to a vertical direct measurement. In a laboratory experiment, a sandy loam soil, packed uniformly (0.02-m layers to 0.18-m depth) into a box, was gradually wetted to saturation by Ca[Cl.sub.2] solutions of 0, 0.5, 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, 4.5, 5.9, and 8.4 dS [m.sup.-1]. Horizontal and vertical TDR probes for measuring [theta] and electrical conductivity of the bulk soil ([[sigma].sub.a]) were installed during soil packing. A comparison between [theta] values averaged from three horizontal probes and from two vertical ones showed deviations of 0.02 (L [L.sup.-1]). A simple water redistribution model was used to attribute this deviation to the process of averaging the horizontal results. The best practical attainable reproducibility, under our experimental conditions, were close to the theoretical limit 0.005 (L [L.sup.-1]) but the average experimental reproducibility of [theta] was 0.01 to 0.02 (L [L.sup.-1]). Width of the soil layer affecting the moisture measurement was reconfirmed to be close to 30 mm. The resistors-in-series model was found to be a good approximation to describe the soil profile [[sigma].sub.a] from separately measured horizontal [[sigma].sub.a]. Final values of the electrical conductivity of the soil solution ([[sigma].sub.w]) after sufficient leaching were in good agreement with [[sigma].sub.w] values calculated by an empirical protocol that uses [[sigma].sub.a], [theta], and a soil texture property.

The influence of group membership on perceptions of outgroup members has been extensively studied in various contexts. This research has indicated a strong tendency for ingroup bias – preferring the ingroup over the outgroup. We seek to further expand on the growing literature regarding the effects of group membership within healthcare contexts. Focusing on the Arab-Jewish context in Israel, the present study explored the influence of group membership on Israeli-Jewish participants' evaluations when exposed to potential malpractice. Specifically, participants (n = 165) read a description of an Israeli-Jewish or Israeli-Arab physician who was either culpable or non-culpable of malpractice. Consistent with our predictions, findings generally indicated more negative evaluations of the Israeli-Arab physician, regardless of objective culpability. We conclude by discussing the study's limitations and implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract During a 6-year salinity experiment in a citrus (Shamouti) grove, 3 salinity levels of irrigation water (0.8, 1.3, and 1.7 dS/m) were used. Measured salinity levels depended on the [...]

Helping may be motivated by a variety of reasons, including the desire of helpers to enhance the power of the ingroup and diminish the power of the outgroup. Accordingly, receiving unsolicited assistance from an outgroup member is often responded to negatively by ingroup members because it can undermine feelings of the efficacy of one's group and ultimately threaten the position of one's group relative to the helper's group. The present research explored how a sense of control, induced incidentally, can ameliorate such negative consequences of being helped. Two studies employed a minimal group paradigm and examined the response to an offer of help from a member of another group (Experiments 1 and 2) compared to an offer from a member of the same group (Experiment 2). The results of these two experiments converged to reveal that having the opportunity to exert control, even incidentally, can ameliorate negative responses to an outgroup helper and to the outgroup as a whole. These findings have both theoretical and practical implications. Identifying factors, such as control, that can promote the acceptance of assistance from members of other groups can complement previous work focusing on influences that exacerbate negative reactions to help, providing a more comprehensive understanding of intergroup helping relations and informing interventions to improve relations between groups. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The environmental effects of salt accumulation in the soil due to prevalent agricultural practices are investigated. Results show that saline-water irrigation and gypsum usage cause the accumulation of salts in the upper part of the unsaturated zone, deterioration of soil structure and salinization of the local ground water. Lastly, the salt accumulation endangers the future use of the soils in the area for further agricultural production.

Interviewed 38 sons and daughters of holocaust survivors and 19 controls to evaluate their psychological characteristics. Results showed survivors' children were less likely than controls to externalize aggression. (BH)

Compared Holocaust survivors (N=34) and controls (N=34) who lived in city or on kibbutz. Survivors were worse off psychologically than controls on quality of emotional life, emotional expression, and quality of interpersonal relationships. Survivors assigned relatively greater value to postwar families. City survivors seemed worse off than kibbutz survivors; urban males had lowest scores on several key subscales. (Author/NB)

Reports the findings of a study in which Israeli college students, living in high-rise (males=30, females=30) and low dormitories (males=30, females=30), responded during interviews to questionnaires concerning their help-giving, help-seeking, and help-reciprocating behaviors. (DC)

It is possible to use the reflected electromagnetic time-domain reflectometry (TDR) pulse for measuring water content ([Theta]), for conventional probes, only when the soil electrical conductivity (EC) is low. The exact limiting level, above which the reflection is unnoticeable, depends on soil texture, salinity, [Theta], and probe geometry. Recently, the validity of [[Theta].sub.TDR]], measured in saline soils, was questioned and overestimation was attributed to it. This study tested such a possible bias by simultaneously measuring the soil-water content by the TDR and neutron scattering techniques, in two field experiments. The experiments lasted 150 d, and were irrigated with saline waters. In the Zeelim sandy site, peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) was sprinkler irrigated at a rate of 6500 to 7500 [m.sup.3] [ha.sup.-1] with 1.9 dS [m.sup.-1] irrigation waters. In the Nirim loamy site, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) was drip-irrigated at a rate of 3010 to 4580 [m.sup.3] [ha.sup.-1] with waters of EC ranging 3.6 to 4.0 dS [m.sup.-1]. The objective of this study was to observe if salinity increased [[Theta].sub.TDR]] relative to [[Theta].sub.neutron]]. Measured [[Theta].sub.neutron]] values were found to be up to 0.02 or 0.08 [m.sup.3] [m.sup.-3] above and below [[Theta].sub.TDR]] for the sandy or loamy tested soils, respectively, with no significant effect of the salinity. Similarly, both, under- and over estimation were related to the effect of salinity on [[Theta].sub.TDR]] in over 20 previously published studies comparing [[Theta].sub.TDR]] to [[Theta].sub.gravimetric]] under wide ranges of clay, organic matter, and salt contents. The EC effect, expressed as bulk soil EC ([[Sigma].sub.a]]), may depend also on texture and geometric parameters like particle aspect ratio. At field capacity, for the two soils tested, no detectable effect of salinity was found.

Abstract: Relations between groups are characterized by competition and suspicion. As a consequence, members of low status groups may question the meaning of apologies offered by a high status group, especially under unstable status relations. In two experiments, the present research investigated the role of the intergroup versus interpersonal apology and the potential moderating effect of the stability of intergroup relations on low status group members' (a) help seeking (Study 1) and (b) responses to receiving help (Study 2) from a high status group. Consistent with our hypotheses, when status relations were unstable rather than stable, following a formal intergroup relative to an interpersonal apology by an Israeli official, Israeli‐Arab students sought less dependency‐oriented and more autonomy‐oriented help from an Israeli‐Jewish study coordinator (Study 1) and Jewish‐Ethiopian newcomers reacted more negatively when they read about an Ethiopian‐Jewish student receiving unsolicited dependency‐oriented help from an Israeli‐Jewish college student (Study 2). Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two large-scale surveys conducted in Israel (Study 1A) and the Palestinian Authority (Study 1B) show that the belief by group members that people in the "enemy" group acknowledge their victimhood (i.e., Holocaust and Nakba for Jews and Palestinians, respectively) is associated with Israeli-Jews' readiness to accept responsibility for Palestinian sufferings and offer apologies. For Palestinians, this belief is linked to a perceived higher likelihood of a reconciled future with Israelis. Three field experiments demonstrate that a manipulated high level of acknowledgment of Jewish victimhood by Palestinians (Studies 2 and 4) and of Palestinian victimhood by Israeli-Jews (Study 3) caused greater readiness to make concessions for the sake of peace on divisive issues (e.g., Jerusalem, the 1967 borders, the right of return) and increased conciliatory attitudes. Additional analyses indicate the mediating role of increased trust and reduced emotional needs in these relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collective victimhood, which results from the experience of being targeted as members of a group, has powerful effects on individuals and groups. The focus of this Special Issue is on how people respond to collective victimhood and how these responses shape intergroup relations. We introduce the Special Issue with an overview of emerging social psychological research on collective victimhood. To date, this research has focused mostly on destructive versus positive consequences of collective victimhood for relations with an adversary group, and examined victim groups' needs, victim beliefs, and underlying social identity and categorization processes. We identify several neglected factors in this literature, some of which are addressed by the empirical contributions in the current issue. The Special Issue offers novel perspectives on collective victimhood, presenting findings based on a diverse range of methods with mostly community samples that have direct and vicarious experiences of collective harm in different countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article begins by placing the present emphasis against the background of developments in two fields of social psychological research: intergroup relations and prosocial behavior. This interest in cross-group positive behaviors emanates, partly at least, from developments in Social Psychology the sociocultural environment in which it has developed. Subsequently, the meaning of positive behavior is considered within a specific intergroup relational context. From a broad perspective, intergroup relations are positive, neutral, or negative. Negative relations can be characterized by direct violence or structural violence. Allophilia and xenophilia are seen as most appropriate in relatively neutral relational contexts, social change in contexts of structural violence, and the healing conflict-related psychological scars in direct violence. A final section discusses three possible future research directions: Effects of power relations, in-group identity, and Internet-based interactions on cross-group positive behaviors. A discussion of the important implications of the research concludes this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research, guided theoretically by the Intergroup Helping as Status Relations Model, explored how high and low status groups (Israeli Jews and Israeli Arabs) perceive offers of help from the high to the low status group. Ninety-three Arab and Jewish participants were asked to imagine and evaluate offers of help from Jews to Arabs in Israel. Consistent with the hypothesis that members of high and low status groups would have different perspectives and goals in their relations, Israeli Arabs viewed help by Israeli Jews more as a way to reinforce existing hierarchy and as a way of asserting the higher groups’ domination. Recognizing the different orientations of members of high and low status groups to potentially conciliatory actions, such as helping behavior, can enhance understanding of the dynamics of intergroup relations and conflict and reveal factors that might fuel intergroup misunderstandings and tensions, which can represent a critical step to improving intergroup relations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]