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The present study aimed to determine the dynamics of influenza A virus (IAV) infection in two endemically infected farms (F1 and F2), where a longitudinal follow-up of piglets was performed from birth to 8–12 weeks of age. During the study, a highly virulent isolate of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) was introduced on both farms. This allowed us to examine the impact of such introduction on the patterns of infection, disease, and the antibody response of pigs to IAV infection. The introduction of the new PRRSV strain coincided with a change in the dynamics of IAV infection on both farms. In F1, the cumulative incidence of IAV increased from 20% before the outbreak to 67.5%, together with the existence of animals that tested positive for IAV (RT‒qPCR) in nasal swabs for two or more consecutive samples. In F2, the cumulative incidence of IAV increased from 50% before the PRRSV outbreak to 70%, and the proportion of prolonged IAV shedders increased sharply. Additionally, some animals were infected with the same IAV twice during the observation period. In contrast to previous reports, our study revealed that prolonged shedding was not related to the titres of maternally derived antibodies at the time of infection but was significantly (p < 0.05) related to PRRSV infection status. Notably, both before and after the PRRSV outbreak, a high proportion of IAV-infected piglets did not seroconvert, which was significantly (p < 0.05) related to the hemagglutination inhibition titres against IAV when infected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the efforts of practical medicine and virology, influenza viruses remain the most important pathogens affecting human and animal health. Swine are exposed to infection with all types of influenza A, B, C, and D viruses. Influenza viruses have low pathogenicity for swine, but in the case of co-infection with other pathogens, the outcome can be much more serious, even fatal. Having a high zoonotic potential, swine play an important role in the ecology and spread of influenza to humans. In this study, we review the state of the scientific literature on the zoonotic spread of swine influenza A viruses among humans, their circulation in swine populations worldwide, reverse zoonosis from humans to swine, and their role in interspecies transmission. The analysis covers a long period to trace the ecology and evolutionary history of influenza A viruses in swine. The following databases were used to search the literature: Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed. In this review, 314 papers are considered: n = 107 from Asia, n = 93 from the U.S., n = 86 from Europe, n = 20 from Africa, and n = 8 from Australia. According to the date of publication, they are conditionally divided into three groups: contemporary, released from 2011 to the present (n = 121); 2000–2010 (n = 108); and 1919–1999 (n = 85). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Avian influenza (AI) and Newcastle disease (ND) are the two diseases which most threaten the health of birds and poultry. To prevent these two diseases, poultry immunization procedures have been rigorously standardized. Wild birds in Shanghai Zoo are currently immunized against both diseases with commercial vaccines for birds, but their immune status and the immune effect are not very clear. In order to determine the protective effect of the current AI (H9 subtype) and ND vaccines on wild birds in Shanghai Zoo and to explore a more reasonable and effective immunization scheme, the hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test was used to detect antibodies in some rare wild birds in the zoo six months after vaccination and to investigate the protection efficiency of the two vaccines. The results show that the H9 subtype AI immunization programs adopted by Shanghai Zoo can enable wild birds such as pheasants, waterfowl, and waders to produce antibody titers that meet national standards. The current immunization program against ND can provide sufficient protection for pheasants and waterfowl, but in some wading birds fails to reach 100% due to different species, which needs to be verified in future work. Therefore, if necessary, the vaccination interval between administration of AI vaccines (H9 subtype) can be appropriately extended to reduce the stress reaction caused by capture and vaccination and reduce the economic cost of disease prevention and control. In regard to the ND vaccine, different immunization programs should be formulated for different bird species; immunization procedures can be optimized, and the antibody level of wading birds should be monitored after vaccination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Several effective vaccines for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been developed and implemented in the population. However, the current production capacity falls short of meeting global demand. Therefore, it is crucial to further develop novel vaccine platforms that can bridge the distribution gap. AVX/COVID-12 is a vector-based vaccine that utilizes the Newcastle Disease virus (NDV) to present the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein to the immune system. Methods: This study aims to analyze the antigenicity of the vaccine candidate by examining antibody binding and T-cell activation in individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 or variants of concern (VOCs), as well as in healthy volunteers who received coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccinations. Results: Our findings indicate that the vaccine effectively binds antibodies and activates T-cells in individuals who received 2 or 3 doses of BNT162b2 or AZ/ChAdOx-1-S vaccines. Furthermore, the stimulation of T-cells from patients and vaccine recipients with AVX/COVID-12 resulted in their proliferation and secretion of interferon-gamma (IFN-g) in both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells. Discussion: The AVX/COVID-12 vectored vaccine candidate demonstrates the ability to stimulate robust cellular responses and is recognized by antibodies primed by the spike protein present in SARS-CoV-2 viruses that infected patients, as well as in the mRNA BNT162b2 and AZ/ChAdOx-1-S vaccines. These results support the inclusion of the AVX/COVID-12 vaccine as a booster in vaccination programs aimed at addressing COVID-19 caused by SARS-CoV-2 and its VOCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza A viruses continue to be a serious health risk to people and result in a large-scale socio-economic loss. Avian influenza viruses typically do not replicate efficiently in mammals, but through the accumulation of mutations or genetic reassortment, they can overcome interspecies barriers, adapt to new hosts, and spread among them. Zoonotic influenza A viruses sporadically infect humans and exhibit limited human-to-human transmission. However, further adaptation of these viruses to humans may result in airborne transmissible viruses with pandemic potential. Therefore, we are beginning to understand genetic changes and mechanisms that may influence interspecific adaptation, cross-species transmission, and the pandemic potential of influenza A viruses. We also discuss the genetic and phenotypic traits associated with the airborne transmission of influenza A viruses in order to provide theoretical guidance for the surveillance of new strains with pandemic potential and the prevention of pandemics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Equine influenza is a viral disease caused by the equine influenza virus (EIV), and according to the WOAH, it is mandatory to report these infections. In Latin America and Colombia, EIV risk factors have not been analyzed. The objective of this research is to perform an epidemiological and molecular analysis of the EIV in horses with respiratory symptoms from 2020 to 2023 in Colombia. Molecular EIV detection was performed using RT–qPCR and nanopore sequencing. A risk analysis was also performed via the GEE method. A total of 188 equines with EIV respiratory symptoms were recruited. The positivity rate was 33.5%. The descriptive analysis showed that only 12.8% of the horses were vaccinated, and measures such as the quarantine and isolation of symptomatic animals accounted for 91.5% and 88.8%, respectively. The variables associated with the EIV were the non-isolation of positive individuals (OR = 8.16, 95% CI (1.52–43.67), p = 0.014) and sharing space with poultry (OR = 2.16, 95% CI (1.09–4.26), p = 0.027). In conclusion, this is the first EIV investigation in symptomatic horses in Colombia, highlighting the presence of the virus in the country and the need to improve preventive and control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nucleoprotein (NP) is a vital target for the heterosubtypic immunity of CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) due to its conservation among influenza virus subtypes. To further enhance the T cell immunity of NP, autophagy-inducing peptide C5 (AIP-C5) from the CFP10 protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was used. Mice were immunized intranasally (i.n.) with human adenoviral vectors, HAd-C5-NP(H7N9) or HAd-NP(H7N9), expressing NP of an H7N9 influenza virus with or without the AIP-C5, respectively. Both vaccines developed similar levels of NP-specific systemic and mucosal antibody titers; however, there was a significantly higher number of NP-specific CD8 T cells secreting interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in the HAd-C5-NP(H7N9) group than in the HAd-NP(H7N9) group. The HAd-C5-NP(H7N9) vaccine provided better protection following the challenge with A/Puerto Rico/8/1934(H1N1), A/Hong Kong/1/68(H3N2), A/chukkar/MN/14951-7/1998(H5N2), A/goose/Nebraska/17097/2011(H7N9), or A/Hong Kong/1073/1999(H9N2) influenza viruses compared to the HAd-NP(H7N9) group. The autophagy transcriptomic gene analysis of the HAd-C5-NP(H7N9) group revealed the upregulation of some genes involved in the positive regulation of the autophagy process. The results support further exploring the use of NP and AIP-C5 for developing a universal influenza vaccine for pandemic preparedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza pandemic with H1N1 (H1N1pdms) causes severe lung damage and "cytokine storm," leading to higher mortality and global health emergencies in humans and animals. Explaining host antiviral molecular mechanisms in response to H1N1pdms is important for the development of novel therapies. In this study, we organised and analysed multimicroarray data for mouse lungs infected with different H1N1pdm and nonpandemic H1N1 strains. We found that H1N1pdms infection resulted in a large proportion of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the infected lungs compared with normal lungs, and the number of DEGs increased markedly with the time of infection. In addition, we found that different H1N1pdm strains induced similarly innate immune responses and the identified DEGs during H1N1pdms infection were functionally concentrated in defence response to virus, cytokine-mediated signalling pathway, regulation of innate immune response, and response to interferon. Moreover, comparing with nonpandemic H1N1, we identified ten distinct DEGs (AREG, CXCL13, GATM, GPR171, IFI35, IFI47, IFIT3, ORM1, RETNLA, and UBD), which were enriched in immune response and cell surface receptor signalling pathway as well as interacted with immune response-related dysregulated genes during H1N1pdms. Our discoveries will provide comprehensive insights into host responding to pandemic with influenza H1N1 and find broad-spectrum effective treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of cross-protective vaccines against the zoonotic swine influenza A virus (swIAV), a potential pandemic-causing agent, continues to be an urgent global health concern. Commercially available vaccines provide suboptimal cross-protection against circulating subtypes of swIAV, which can lead to worldwide economic losses and poor zoonosis deterrence. The limited efficacy of current swIAV vaccines demands innovative strategies for the development of next-generation vaccines. Considering that intramuscular injection is the standard route of vaccine administration in both human and veterinary medicine, the exploration of alternative strategies, such as intradermal vaccination, presents a promising avenue for vaccinology. This investigation demonstrates the first evaluation of a direct comparison between a commercially available multivalent swIAV vaccine and monovalent whole inactivated H1N2 swine influenza vaccine, delivered by intradermal, intranasal, and intramuscular routes. The monovalent vaccines were adjuvanted with NanoST, a cationic phytoglycogen-based nanoparticle that is combined with the STING agonist ADU-S100. Upon heterologous challenge, intradermal vaccination generated a stronger cross-reactive nasal and serum antibody response in pigs compared with intranasal and intramuscular vaccination. Antibodies induced by intradermal immunization also had higher avidity compared with the other routes of vaccination. Bone marrow from intradermally and intramuscularly immunized pigs had both IgG and IgA virus-specific antibody-secreting cells. These studies reveal that NanoST is a promising adjuvant system for the intradermal administration of STING-targeted influenza vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The health of chicks is closely related to their productivity. Yupingfeng polysaccharide (YPF-P) is a kind of water-soluble polysaccharide extracted from Yupingfeng powder; it has high pharmacological activity and can be used as a potential substitute for antibiotics to improve the health of chicks. This study aimed to investigate the effects of YPF-P on immune performance, the duodenum, and the cecal microflora of chicks. All chickens (4224) were randomly distributed into four groups (eight replicas/group, 132 hens/replica). The control group was fed a basal diet (0 g/kg YPF-P), while the experimental groups were fed basal diets supplemented with 1, 2, or 4 g/kg YPF-P. The results showed that YPF-P significantly increased the thymus index (p < 0.05). The content of total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), immunoglobulin A (IgA), and IgG and immunoglobulin M (IgM) was upregulated in the serum by YPF-P (p < 0.05). YPF-P decreased the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) (p < 0.05). Further, 16S rRNA sequencing showed that 2 g/kg YPF-P modulated the predominant duodenum and cecal microbial community structure, which increased the number of Faecalibacterium, Megamonas, Bacteroides, Alistipes, NK4A214_group, and Enterococcus. In conclusion, YPF-P ameliorated the growth performance of chicks by regulating serum immune and antioxidant balance, as well as the intestinal microbiota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The observed trend of increasing numbers of humans living on the Earth will result in increased demand for food, especially foods of high nutritional value, such as meat. This phenomenon will result in the growth of the livestock population. One of the most commonly consumed foods worldwide is pork. Therefore, it is reasonable to suspect that the pig world population, in the near future, will increase as well. Pigs are prone to infections/invasions with numerous viral, bacterial, and parasitic aetiological factors. Such infections are referred to as zoonotic infections. In view of the growing number of pigs headage, the possible risk of human infection of zoonotic origin seems to be increased. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the most up-to-date data regarding the epidemiology of several of the most significant porcine zoonoses, with available preventive measures to control them. The available data indicate that the human world population will constantly grow in the subsequent decades. This constant increase in the number of people on the Earth will lead to growth in food demand, especially in food of high nutritional value. Therefore, it is expected that the world livestock population will also increase. Such a phenomenon enhances the risk of transmitting pathogens to humans. As pig production is one of the most significant branches of the world's livestock production, zoonoses of porcine origins seem to be of particular importance. Therefore, in this review, we aim to introduce the latest data concerning, among other things, epidemiology and available preventive measures to control the most significant porcine zoonoses of viral, bacterial, and parasitic origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alongside the development and progress in cancer immunotherapy, research in oncolytic viruses (OVs) continues advancing novel treatment strategies to the clinic. With almost 50 clinical trials carried out over the last decade, the opportunities for intervention using OVs are expanding beyond the old-fashioned concept of "lytic killers", with promising breakthrough therapeutic strategies focused on leveraging the immunostimulatory potential of different viral platforms. This review presents an overview of non-human-adapted RNA viruses engineered for cancer therapy. Moreover, we describe the diverse strategies employed to manipulate the genomes of these viruses to optimize their therapeutic capabilities. By focusing on different aspects of this particular group of viruses, we describe the insights into the promising advancements in the field of virotherapy and its potential to revolutionize cancer treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza A (IAV) is a major human respiratory pathogen that causes illness, hospitalizations, and mortality annually worldwide. IAV is also a zoonotic pathogen with a multitude of hosts, allowing for interspecies transmission, reassortment events, and the emergence of novel pandemics, as was seen in 2009 with the emergence of a swine-origin H1N1 (pdmH1N1) virus into humans, causing the first influenza pandemic of the 21st century. While the 2009 pandemic was considered to have high morbidity and low mortality, studies have linked the pdmH1N1 virus and its gene segments to increased disease in humans and animal models. Genetic components of the pdmH1N1 virus currently circulate in the swine population, reassorting with endemic swine viruses that co-circulate and occasionally spillover into humans. This is evidenced by the regular detection of variant swine IAVs in humans associated with state fairs and other intersections of humans and swine. Defining genetic changes that support species adaptation, virulence, and cross-species transmission, as well as mutations that enhance or attenuate these features, will improve our understanding of influenza biology. It aids in surveillance and virus risk assessment and guides the establishment of counter measures for emerging viruses. Here, we review the current understanding of the determinants of specific IAV phenotypes, focusing on the fitness, transmission, and virulence determinants that have been identified in swine IAVs and/or in relation to the 2009 pdmH1N1 virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza A viruses (IAV) are still a cause of concern for public health and veterinary services worldwide. With (−) RNA-segmented genome architecture, influenza viruses are prone to reassortment and can generate a great variety of strains, some capable of crossing interspecies barriers. Seasonal IAV strains continuously spread from humans to pigs, leading to multiple reassortation events with strains endemic to swine. Due to its high adaptability to humans, a reassortant strain based on "human-like" genes could potentially be a carrier of avian origin segments responsible for high virulence, and hence become the next pandemic strain with unseen pathogenicity. The rapid evolution of sequencing methods has provided a fast and cost-efficient way to assess the genetic diversity of IAV. In this study, we investigated the genetic diversity of swine influenza viruses (swIAVs) collected from Polish farms. A total of 376 samples were collected from 11 farms. The infection was confirmed in 112 cases. The isolates were subjected to next-generation sequencing (NGS), resulting in 93 full genome sequences. Phylogenetic analysis classified 59 isolates as genotype T (H1avN2g) and 34 isolates as genotype P (H1pdmN1pdm), all of which had an internal gene cassette (IGC) derived from the H1N1pdm09-like strain. These data are consistent with evolutionary trends in European swIAVs. The applied methodology proved to be useful in monitoring the genetic diversity of IAV at the human–animal interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We conducted an active influenza surveillance in the single pig slaughterhouse in Dakar to investigate the epidemiology and genetic characteristics of influenza A viruses (IAVs) and to provide serologic evidence of avian influenza virus (AIV) infection in pigs at interfaces with human populations in Senegal. Nasal swab and blood samples were collected on a weekly basis from the same animal immediately after slaughter. Influenza A viruses were diagnosed using RT-qPCR and a subset of positive samples for H3 and H1 subtypes were selected for full genome amplification and NGS sequencing. Serum samples were tested by HI assay for the detection of antibodies recognizing four AIVs, including H9N2, H5N1, H7N7 and H5N2. Between September 2018 and December 2019, 1691 swine nasal swabs were collected and tested. Influenza A virus was detected in 30.7% (520/1691), and A/H1N1pdm09 virus was the most commonly identified subtype with 38.07% (198/520), followed by A/H1N2 (16.3%) and A/H3N2 (5.2%). Year-round influenza activity was noted in pigs, with the highest incidence between June and September. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the IAVs were closely related to human IAV strains belonging to A/H1N1pdm09 and seasonal H3N2 lineages. Genetic analysis revealed that Senegalese strains possessed several key amino acid changes, including D204 and N241D in the receptor binding site, S31N in the M2 gene and P560S in the PA protein. Serological analyses revealed that 83.5% (95%CI = 81.6–85.3) of the 1636 sera tested were positive for the presence of antibodies against either H9N2, H5N1, H7N7 or H5N2. Influenza H7N7 (54.3%) and H9N2 (53.6%) were the dominant avian subtypes detected in Senegalese pigs. Given the co-circulation of multiple subtypes of influenza viruses among Senegalese pigs, the potential exists for the emergence of new hybrid viruses of unpredictable zoonotic and pandemic potential in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diseases that are transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans are referred to as zoonotic diseases. Although microbial agents such as bacteria and parasites are linked to zoonotic events, viruses account for a high percentage of zoonotic diseases that have emerged. Worryingly, the 21st century has seen a drastic increase in the emergence and re-emergence of viral zoonotic disease. Even though humans and animals have coexisted for millennia, anthropogenic factors have severely increased interactions between the two populations, thereby increasing the risk of disease spill-over. While drivers such as climate shifts, land exploitation and wildlife trade can directly affect the (re-)emergence of viral zoonotic disease, globalisation, geopolitics and social perceptions can directly facilitate the spread of these (re-)emerging diseases. This opinion paper discusses the "intelligent" nature of viruses and their exploitation of the anthropogenic factors driving the (re-)emergence and spread of viral zoonotic disease in a modernised and connected world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2020, the Y280-lineage H9N2 low-pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) was introduced into South Korea for the first time. Current vaccines are focused on the control of Y439-like viruses; however, there are continuous reports of decrease in egg production and secondary infections caused by Y280-lineage H9N2 LPAI infection in chickens. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop effective novel vaccines against Y280-lineage H9N2 LPAI. Most commercialized avian influenza vaccines are oil-adjuvanted inactivated vaccines, which are labour-intensive to administer and require higher dosage. In this study, rK148/Y280-HA, a novel recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vectored vaccine against Y280-lineage H9N2 LPAI, was developed and evaluated using two mass-applicable administration methods, spray vaccination and drinking water vaccination. Regardless of low serum antibody haemagglutination inhibition titres against NDV and Y280-lineage H9N2 LPAI after applying the rK148/Y280-HA vaccine, vaccination with either administration method protected chickens against virulent NDV and Y280-lineage H9N2 LPAIV after the challenge. Taken together, these results indicate that the rK148/Y280 vaccine can be administered using facile mass-application methods to provide protection against the Y280-lineage LPAI. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS NDV vectored vaccine harbouring Y280-lineage H9N2 HA protein was successfully generated. NDV vectored vaccine provides protection against NDV. NDV vectored vaccine with H9N2 HA protects against homologous H9N2 LPAIV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For three years, the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by infection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has completely changed our lifestyles and prepared us to live with this novel pneumonia for years to come. Given that pre-existing flu is caused by the influenza A virus, we have begun unprecedently co-coping with two different respiratory diseases at the same time. Hence, we draw a comparison between SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A virus based on the general characteristics, especially the main variants' history and the distribution of the two viruses. SARS-CoV-2 appeared to mutate more frequently and independently of locations than the influenza A virus. Furthermore, we reviewed present clinical trials on combined management against COVID-19 and influenza in order to explore better solutions against both at the same time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Rapid diagnostics for viral disease in livestock are urgently needed, especially for those that pose threats to human health and/or food security. Influenza A virus is a zoonotic disease that has a large reservoir in commercial swine herds. Reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) is a tool that has the potential to detect influenza A virus in easy-to-obtain swine nasal samples in a short time period, with minimal laboratory equipment. This article outlines how to process nasal samples and complete an RT-LAMP assay in a laboratory setting, demonstrating a protocol that goes from sample collection to positive test results in less than one hour. Ultimately, this diagnostic test system can be developed for producers to identify sick animals on-farm, and to avoid logistical issues and time delays associated with the use of diagnostic laboratories. In addition, rapid results allow producers to implement interventions in real time, thus enhancing the efficacy of preventative measures and mitigating outbreaks. Point-of-care diagnostic technologies are becoming more widely available for production species. Here, we describe the application of reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) to detect the matrix (M) gene of influenza A virus in swine (IAV-S). M-specific LAMP primers were designed based on M gene sequences from IAV-S isolated in the USA between 2017 and 2020. The LAMP assay was incubated at 65 °C for 30 min, with the fluorescent signal read every 20 s. The assay's limit of detection (LOD) was 20 M gene copies for direct LAMP of the matrix gene standard, and 100 M gene copies when using spiked extraction kits. The LOD was 1000 M genes when using cell culture samples. Detection in clinical samples showed a sensitivity of 94.3% and a specificity of 94.9%. These results show that the influenza M gene RT-LAMP assay can detect the presence of IAV in research laboratory conditions. With the appropriate fluorescent reader and heat block, the assay could be quickly validated as a low-cost, rapid, IAV-S screening tool for use on farms or in clinical diagnostic labs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advantages of skin-based vaccination include induction of strong immunity, dose-sparing, and ease of administration. Several technologies for skin-based immunisation in humans are being developed to maximise these key advantages. This route is more conventionally used in veterinary medicine. Skin-based vaccination of pigs is of high relevance due to their anatomical, physiological, and immunological similarities to humans, as well as being a source of zoonotic diseases and their livestock value. We conducted a systematic mapping review, focusing on vaccine-induced immunity and safety after the skin immunisation of pigs. Veterinary vaccines, specifically anti-viral vaccines, predominated in the literature. The safe and potent skin administration to pigs of adjuvanted vaccines, particularly emulsions, are frequently documented. Multiple methods of skin immunisation exist; however, there is a lack of consistent terminology and accurate descriptions of the route and device. Antibody responses, compared to other immune correlates, are most frequently reported. There is a lack of research on the underlying mechanisms of action and breadth of responses. Nevertheless, encouraging results, both in safety and immunogenicity, were observed after skin vaccination that were often comparable to or superior the intramuscular route. Further research in this area will underlie the development of enhanced skin vaccine strategies for pigs, other animals and humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild aquatic birds are considered the natural hosts of 16 HA (H1–H16) and 9 NA (N1–N9) subtypes of influenza A viruses (FLUAV) found in different combinations. H14 FLUAVs are rarely detected in nature. Since 2011, H14 FLUAVs have been consistently detected in Guatemala, leading to the largest collection of this subtype from a single country. All H14 FLUAVs in Guatemala were detected from blue-winged teal samples. In this report, 17 new full-length H14 FLUAV genome sequences detected from 2014 until 2019 were analyzed and compared to all published H14 sequences, including Guatemala, North America, and Eurasia. The H14 FLUAVs identified in Guatemala were mostly associated with the N3 subtype (n = 25), whereas the rest were paired with either N4 (n = 7), N5 (n = 4), N6 (n = 1), and two mixed infections (N3/N5 n = 2, and N2/N3 n = 1). H14 FLUAVs in Guatemala belong to a distinct H14 lineage in the Americas that is evolving independently from the Eurasian H14 lineage. Of note, the ORF of the H14 HA segments showed three distinct motifs at the cleavage site, two of these containing arginine instead of lysine in the first and fourth positions, not previously described in other countries. The effects of these mutations on virus replication, virulence, and/or transmission remain unknown and warrant further studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With technological advancements enabling globalization, the intercontinental transmission of pathogens has become much easier. Respiratory viruses are one such group of pathogens that require constant monitoring since their outbreak leads to massive public health crises, as exemplified by the influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and the recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2. To prevent the transmission of these highly contagious viruses, developing prophylactic tools, such as vaccines, is of considerable interest to the scientific community. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are highly sought after as vaccine platforms for their safety and immunogenicity profiles. Although several VLP-based vaccines against hepatitis B and human papillomavirus have been approved for clinical use by the United States Food and Drug Administration, VLP vaccines against the three aforementioned respiratory viruses are lacking. Here, we summarize the most recent progress in pre-clinical and clinical VLP vaccine development. We also outline various strategies that contributed to improving the efficacy of vaccines against each virus and briefly discuss the stability aspect of VLPs that makes it a highly desired vaccine platform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Influenza A viruses (IAVs) can cause a highly contagious respiratory disease for many mammalian species. In pigs, IAVs cause high morbidity and low mortality disease in susceptible populations that can have significant financial and production impacts. They can also present opportunities for mutations and gene reassortment, producing influenza strains with pandemic potential. Therefore, it is very important to prevent and control influenza infection in pigs, and the chief way to do so is through vaccination. The subtypes of IAV most prevalent in swine across the world are H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2; however, genetic diversity of these viruses can vary greatly by region. We previously developed an elastase-dependent bivalent live attenuated vaccine using two Canadian swine influenza A virus (swIAV) isolates, A/Swine/Alberta/SD0191/2016 (H1N2) [SD191] and A/Swine/Saskatchewan/SD0069/2015 (H3N2) [SD69], which provided protection against homologous strains. In this study, we demonstrate that this vaccine extends protection in pigs to more current, drifted non-homologous H1N2 and H3N2 strains, A/Swine/MB/SD0467/2019 (H1N2) [SD467] and A/Swine/AB/SD0435/2019 (H3N2) [SD435]. The vaccine elicited a robust immune response in the serum and the lung and reduced viral replication as well as lung pathology associated with these strains. Therefore, this bivalent vaccine remains a strong candidate that would be beneficial to the swine influenza vaccine market in North America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most economically devastating infectious diseases affecting the poultry industry. Virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) can cause high mortality and severe tissue lesions in the respiratory, gastrointestinal, neurological, reproductive and immune systems of poultry. Tremendous progress has been made in preventing morbidity and mortality caused by ND based on strict biosecurity and wide vaccine application. In recent decades, the continual evolution of NDV has resulted in a total of twenty genotypes, and genetic variation may be associated with disease outbreaks in vaccinated chickens. In some countries, the administration of genotype-matched novel vaccines in poultry successfully suppresses the circulation of virulent NDV strains in the field. However, virulent NDV is still endemic in many regions of the world, especially in low- and middle-income countries, impacting the livelihood of millions of people dependent on poultry for food. In ND-endemic countries, although vaccination is implemented for disease control, the lack of genotype-matched vaccines that can reduce virus infection and transmission as well as the inadequate administration of vaccines in the field undermines the effectiveness of vaccination. Dissection of the profiles of existing ND vaccines is fundamental for establishing proper vaccination regimes and developing next-generation vaccines. Therefore, in this article, we provide a broad review of commercial and experimental ND vaccines and promising new platforms for the development of next-generation vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to their documented epidemiological relevance as hosts for influenza A viruses (IAV), humans, poultry and pigs in backyard production systems (BPS) within wetlands could be key to the emergence of novel IAV variants able to transmit between humans or animals. To better understand the circulation of IAV at the human–animal interface of BPS within wetlands, we studied IAV in backyard duck flocks and pig herds in the Pacific Coast of Guatemala. From April 2013 to October 2014, we estimated the monthly IAV per cent seropositive and viral positive flocks and herds in two resource‐limited communities. We detected antibodies in sera against the IAV nucleoprotein through ELISA. We also detected IAV viral RNA in respiratory (ducks and pigs) and cloacal (ducks) swabs through rRT‐PCR directed at the matrix gene. We attempted viral isolation in eggs or MDCK cells followed by sequencing from swabs positive for IAV. During our study period, IAV seropositivity in duck flocks was 38%, and viral positivity was 23% (n = 86 BPS sampled). IAV seropositivity in pig herds was 42%, and viral positivity was 20% (n = 90 BPS sampled). Both flocks and herds had detectable antibodies against IAV mostly year‐round, and IAV was detected in several months. We isolated an H3N2 virus from one pig sampled at the end of 2013. Standard nucleotide BLAST searches indicate that the isolated virus was similar to seasonal viruses circulating in humans, suggesting human‐to‐pig transmission. Our data show concurrent circulation of IAV in multiple species of poultry and pigs that were commingled in rudimentary conditions in proximity to humans, but no significant risk factors could be identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ficus rubiginosa plant extract showed antimicrobial activity, but no evidence concerning its antiviral properties was reported. The antiviral activity of the methanolic extract (MeOH) and its n-hexane (H) and ethyl acetate (EA) fractions against Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), Human coronavirus (HCoV) -229E, and Poliovirus-1 (PV-1) was investigated in the different phases of viral infection in the VERO CCL-81 cell line. To confirm the antiviral efficacy, a qPCR was conducted. The recorded cytotoxic concentration 50% was 513.1, 298.6, and 56.45 µg/mL for MeOH, H, and EA, respectively, assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay after 72 h of treatment. The Ficus rubiginosa leaf extract inhibited the replication of HSV-1 in the early stages of infection, showing a complete inhibition up to 0.62, 0.31, and 1.25 µg/mL. Against HCoV-229E, a total inhibition up to 1.25 µg/mL for MeOH and H as well as 5 µg/mL for EA was observed. Otherwise, no activity was recorded against PV-1. The leaf extract could act directly on the viral envelope, destructuring the lipid membrane and/or directly blocking the enriched proteins on the viral surface. The verified gene inhibition suggested that the treatments with M, H, and EA impaired HSV-1 and HCoV-229E replication, with a greater antiviral efficiency against HSV-1 compared to HCoV-229E, possibly due to a greater affinity of Ficus rubiginosa towards membrane glycoproteins and/or the different lipid envelopes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last influenza pandemic in 2009 emerged from swine and surveillance of swine influenza is important for pandemic preparedness. Movement of swine during husbandry, trade or marketing for slaughter provide opportunities for transfer and genetic reassortment of swine influenza viruses. Over 90% of the swine slaughtered at the central swine abattoir in Hong Kong are imported from farms located in multiple provinces in mainland China. There is opportunity for virus cross‐infection during this transport and slaughter process. Of the 26,980 swabs collected in the slaughterhouse in Hong Kong from 5 January 2012 to 15 December 2016, we analysed sequence data on influenza A (H3N2) virus isolates (n = 174) in conjunction with date of sampling and originating farm. Molecular epidemiology provided evidence of virus cross‐infection between swine originating from different farms during transport. The findings are also suggestive of a virus lineage persisting in a swine farm for over 2 years, although the lack of information on management practices at farm‐level means that alternative explanations cannot be excluded. We used virus serology and isolation data from 4226 pairs of linked serum and swabs collected from the same pig at slaughter from swine originating from Guangdong Province to compare the force of infection (FOI) during transport and within farms. The mean weekly FOI during transport was λt = 0.0286 (95% CI = 0.0211–0.0391) while the weekly FOI in farms was λf = 0.0089 (95% CI = 0.0084–0.0095), assuming a possible exposure duration in farm of 28 weeks, suggesting increased FOI during the transport process. Pigs sourced from farms with high seroprevalence were found to be a significant risk factor (adjusted OR = 2.24, p value =.015) for infection of imported pigs during transport by multivariable logistic regression analysis, whereas pigs with HAI titre of ≥1:40 were associated with a substantial reduction in infection risk by 67% (p value = 0.012). Transport may increase virus cross‐infection rates and provide opportunities for virus reassortment potentially increasing zoonotic risk to those involved in the transportation and slaughtering processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interspecies transmission of influenza A virus (IAV) between pigs and people represents a threat to both animal and public health. To better understand the risks of influenza transmission at the human–animal interface, we evaluated 1) the rate of IAV detection in swine farmworkers before and after work during two human influenza seasons, 2) assessed risk factors associated with IAV detection in farmworkers and 3) characterized the genetic sequences of IAV detected in both workers and pigs. Of 58 workers providing nasal passage samples during 8‐week periods during the 2017/18 and 2018/19 influenza seasons, 33 (57%) tested positive by rRT‐PCR at least once. Sixteen (27%) workers tested positive before work and 24 (41%) after work. At the sample level, 58 of 1,785 nasal swabs (3.2%) tested rRT‐PCR positive, of which 20 of 898 (2.2%) were collected prior to work and 38 of 887 (4.3%) after work. Although farmworkers were more likely to test positive at the end of the working day (OR = 1.98, 95% CI 1.14–3.41), there were no influenza‐like illness (ILI) symptoms, or other risk indicators, associated with IAV detection before or after reporting to work. Direct whole‐genome sequencing from samples obtained from worker nasal passages indicated evidence of infection of a worker with pandemic 2009 H1N1 of human‐origin IAV (H1‐pdm 1A 3.3.2) when reporting to work, and exposure of several workers to a swine‐origin IAV (H1‐alpha 1A 1.1) circulating in the pigs on the farm where they were employed. Our study provides evidence of 1) risk of IAV transmission between pigs and people, 2) pandemic H1N1 IAV infected workers reporting to work and 3) workers exposed to swine harbouring swine‐origin IAV in their nasal passages temporarily. Overall, our results emphasize the need to implement surveillance and transmission preventive protocols at the pig/human interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous RNA viruses have been reported in backyard swine populations in various countries. In the absence of active disease surveillance, a persistent knowledge gap exists on the diversity of RNA viruses in South African backyard swine populations. This is the first study investigating the diversity of oral RNA virome of the backyard swine in South Africa. We used three samples of backyard swine oral secretion (saliva) collected from three distantly located backyard swine farms (BSFs) in the uMgungundlovu District, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Total viral RNA was extracted and used for the library preparation for deep sequencing using the Illumina HiSeq X instrument. The FASTQ files containing paired-end reads were analyzed using Genome Detective v 1.135. The assembled nucleotide sequences were analyzed using the PhyML phylogenetic tree. The genome sequence analysis identified a high diversity of swine enteric viruses in the saliva samples obtained from BSF2 and BSF3, while only a few viruses were identified in the saliva obtained from BSF1. The swine enteric viruses belonged to various animal virus families; however, two fungal viruses, four plant viruses, and five unclassified RNA viruses were also identified. Specifically, viruses of the family Astroviridae, according to the number of reads, were the most prevalent. Of note, the genome sequences of Rotavirus A (RVA) and Rotavirus C (RVC) at BSF2 and RVC and Hepatitis E virus (HEV) at BSF3 were also obtained. The occurrence of various swine enteric viruses in swine saliva suggests a high risk of diarrhoeic diseases in the backyard swine. Of note, zoonotic viruses in swine saliva, such as RVA, RVC, and HEV, indicate a risk of zoonotic spillover to the exposed human populations. We recommend the implementation of biosecurity to ensure sustainable backyard swine farming while safeguarding public health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) has been used to diagnose several respiratory viruses (e.g., influenza A virus subtypes such as H1N1 and the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2), SERS is gaining popularity as a method for diagnosing viruses at the point-of-care. Although the prior and quick diagnosis of respiratory viruses is critical in the outbreak of infectious disease, ELISA, PCR, and RT-PCR have been used to detect respiratory viruses for pandemic control that are limited for point-of-care testing. SERS provides quantitative data with high specificity and sensitivity in a real-time, label-free, and multiplex manner recognizing molecular fingerprints. Recently, the design of Raman spectroscopy system was simplified from a complicated design to a small and easily accessible form that enables point-of-care testing. We review the optical design (e.g., laser wavelength/power and detectors) of commercialized and customized handheld Raman instruments. As respiratory viruses have prominent risk on the pandemic, we review the applications of handheld Raman devices for detecting respiratory viruses. By instrumentation and commercialization advancements, the advent of the portable SERS device creates a fast, accurate, practical, and cost-effective analytical method for virus detection, and would continue to attract more attention in point-of-care testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent research findings on influenza A virus (IAV) genome biology prompted us to present a comprehensive overview of IAV genes, protein functions, and replication cycle. The eight gene segments of the IAV genome encode 17 proteins, each having unique functions contributing to virus fitness in the host. The polymerase genes are essential determinants of IAV pathogenicity and virulence; however, other viral components also play crucial roles in the IAV replication, transmission, and adaptation. Specific adaptive mutations within polymerase (PB2, PB1, and PA) and glycoprotein—hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes, may facilitate interspecies transmission and adaptation of IAV. The HA-NA interplay is essential for establishing the IAV infection; the low pH triggers the inactivation of HA-receptor binding, leading to significantly lower NA activities, indicating that the enzymatic function of NA is dependent on HA binding. While the HA and NA glycoproteins are required to initiate infection, M1, M2, NS1, and NEP proteins are essential for cytoplasmic trafficking of viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) and the assembly of the IAV virions. The mechanisms that enable IAV to exploit the host cell resources to advance the infection are discussed. A comprehensive understanding of IAV genome biology is essential for developing antivirals to combat the IAV disease burden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth in pork production during the last decade in South Africa has escalated the risk of zoonotic pathogen emergence. This cross‐sectional study was conducted to evaluate evidence for transmission of influenza A virus between pigs and swine workers. Between February and October 2018, samples from swine workers and pigs were collected from three farms in KwaZulu‐Natal Province, South Africa. Workers nasal washes and serum samples, and swine oral secretion samples (rope sampling method) were studied for evidence of swine influenza A virus infection using molecular and serological methods. Among 84 human nasal washes and 51 swine oral secretion specimens, 44 (52.4%) and 6 (11.8%) had molecular evidence of influenza A virus. Microneutralization assays with enrolled workers' sera against swine H1N1 and H3N2 viruses revealed a high prevalence of elevated antibodies. Multivariate risk factor analysis showed that male workers from the age‐group quartile 23–32 years, who self‐reported a recent history of exposure to someone with influenza disease and seldom use of personal protective equipment were at highest risk of molecular detection of influenza A virus. These pilot study data suggest that influenza A viruses are likely highly prevalent in South African swine farms. South Africa would benefit from periodic surveillance for novel influenza viruses in swine farms as well as education and seasonal influenza vaccine programmes for swine workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Wild boars and feral pigs are underinvestigated hosts for influenza A viruses (IAVs). This study confirmed and evaluated viral circulation in the Emilia-Romagna wild boar population between 2017 and 2022. Samples were collected at post mortems and screened for IAVs; 0.37% of the tested animals provided positive results. Positive samples were subtyped, isolated, and genotyped via full-genome sequencing. The results highlight the co-circulation of the same viral genotypes in overlapping years in both pigs and wild boars in the same geographical area. Considering the role of domestic and wild Sus scrofa species in the IAVs' ecology, surveillance against these viruses in the wild boar population needs to be implemented. A systematic surveillance against influenza A viruses (IAVs) in the Suidae population is essential, considering their role as IAV mixing vessels. However, the viral circulation in wild Sus scrofa species is poorly investigated in comparison to the knowledge of IAV infection dynamics in domestic pigs. This study investigated the circulation and the genetic diversity of wild boars' IAVs detected in the Emilia-Romagna region (2017–2022). A total of 4605 lung samples were screened via an M gene real-time RT-PCR for SwIAV; positive samples were subtyped by multiplex RT-PCR, and viral isolation was attempted. Isolated strains (3 out of the 17 positives) were fully sequenced to evaluate viral genotypic diversity. H1N1 was the most frequently detected subtype, with identification of H1pdm09N1 and H1avN1. Whole-genome phylogenetic analysis revealed SwIAVs belonging to different genotypes, with different genetic combinations, and highlighted the simultaneous circulation of the same genotypes in both pigs and wild boars, supporting the hypothesis of SwIAV spillover events at the wildlife–livestock interface. This study represents an update on the wild boar SwIAV Italian situation, and the strains' complete genome analysis showed an evolving and interesting situation that deserves further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The poultry industry is the largest source of meat and eggs for human consumption worldwide. However, viral outbreaks in farmed stock are a common occurrence and a major source of concern for the industry. Mortality and morbidity resulting from an outbreak can cause significant economic losses with subsequent detrimental impacts on the global food supply chain. Mass vaccination is one of the main strategies for controlling and preventing viral infection in poultry. The development of broadly protective vaccines against avian viral diseases will alleviate selection pressure on field virus strains and simplify vaccination regimens for commercial farms with overall savings in husbandry costs. With the increasing number of emerging and re-emerging viral infectious diseases in the poultry industry, there is an urgent need to understand the strategies for broadening the protective efficacy of the vaccines against distinct viral strains. The current review provides an overview of viral vaccines and vaccination regimens available for common avian viral infections, and strategies for developing safer and more efficacious viral vaccines for poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paramyxoviridae is a viral family within the order of Mononegavirales; they are negative single-strand RNA viruses that can cause significant diseases in both humans and animals. In order to replicate, paramyxoviruses–as any other viruses–have to bypass an important protective mechanism developed by the host's cells: the defensive line driven by interferon. Once the viruses are recognized, the cells start the production of type I and type III interferons, which leads to the activation of hundreds of genes, many of which encode proteins with the specific function to reduce viral replication. Type II interferon is produced by active immune cells through a different signaling pathway, and activates a diverse range of genes with the same objective to block viral replication. As a result of this selective pressure, viruses have evolved different strategies to avoid the defensive function of interferons. The strategies employed by the different viral species to fight the interferon system include a number of sophisticated mechanisms. Here we analyzed the current status of the various strategies used by paramyxoviruses to subvert type I, II, and III interferon responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for efficient vaccine platforms that can rapidly be developed and manufactured on a large scale to immunize the population against emerging viruses. Viral-vectored vaccines are prominent vaccine platforms that have been approved for use against the Ebola virus and SARS-CoV-2. The Newcastle Disease Virus is a promising viral vector, as an avian paramyxovirus that infects poultry but is safe for use in humans and other animals. NDV has been extensively studied not only as an oncolytic virus but also a vector for human and veterinary vaccines, with currently ongoing clinical trials for use against SARS-CoV-2. However, there is a gap in NDV research when it comes to process development and scalable manufacturing, which are critical for future approved vaccines. In this review, we summarize the advantages of NDV as a viral vector, describe the steps and limitations to generating recombinant NDV constructs, review the advances in human and veterinary vaccine candidates in pre-clinical and clinical tests, and elaborate on production in embryonated chicken eggs and cell culture. Mainly, we discuss the existing data on NDV propagation from a process development perspective and provide prospects for the next steps necessary to potentially achieve large-scale NDV-vectored vaccine manufacturing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The costs of responding and mitigating the COVID-19 pandemic is a critical example of the need for continual investment for global health security (GHS) preparedness in today's inter-connected world as exemplified earlier with Ebola, Zika, and H1N1. Microbial diversity including endemic and emerging infectious diseases unique to Latin America are well known. When combined with geopolitical, socioeconomic, and environmental factors, especially climate change and human migration, which are expanding the range of disease vectors and pathogens, the risk for infectious disease outbreaks greatly increases. Enhancing GHS requires a greater awareness and cooperation within the region as well as more effective infectious disease surveillance systems. Frameworks such as the International Health Regulations and Global Health Security Agenda underpin policies to strengthen health systems. Greater international cooperation aimed to effectively enhance infectious disease surveillance are pivotal to increasing trust among partner countries and strengthen health security systems and best practices to respond and mitigate infectious disease outbreaks. Here we discuss infectious disease threats and risks associated with the current socioeconomic and political climate that influence GHS in order to demonstrate the need for further investment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genome sequences of eleven avian influenza virus (AIV) subtypes have been reported in swine populations from seven countries until August 2020. To unravel the transmission dynamics and spillover events of AIVs from avian reservoirs to swine, full-length hemagglutinin (HA) sequences of AIV subtypes (n = 11) reported from various avian species and swine were retrieved from the 'Influenza Research Database'. Phylogenetic analysis identified closely related avian and swine AIV sequences suggesting potential spillover events from multiple domestic and wild avian species, including chicken, duck, pigeon, goose, quail, and aquatic birds to swine. Furthermore, N-linked glycosylation analysis of these closely related AIV sequences supported the possibility of multiple spillover events of highly pathogenic H5N1 and low pathogenic H9N2 viruses from various avian species to swine. The principal coordinate analysis further validated these findings for H5N1 and H9N2 viruses; however, spillover events of the other nine AIV subtypes were limited. Interestingly, the presence of potential mammalian adaptation markers, particularly in some of the swine H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2 viruses, suggested that these viruses may have already adapted in swine. The occurrence and circulation of these AIVs in swine, especially the H5N1 and H9N2 viruses with numerous spillover events from the avian reservoirs to swine, pose a significant threat in terms of their reassortment with endemic swine viruses or circulating human influenza viruses within the swine which may facilitate the emergence of a novel influenza virus strain with pandemic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For example, if NDV-APMV8 chimeric virus is used as the vaccine vector, pre-existing antibodies against APMV8 may still interfere with the vaccine efficacy because these antibodies can be detected in commercial chicken flocks (Warke et al., [37]). Keywords: antigen camouflage; antigen decoy; Newcastle disease virus; interference; maternally-derived antibody; vector vaccine EN antigen camouflage antigen decoy Newcastle disease virus interference maternally-derived antibody vector vaccine 1 7 7 08/31/21 20210827 NES 210827 Introduction Vaccination is the most effective measure for the prevention and control of infectious diseases of humans and animals. Moreover, a higher dose of NDV-vectored H5N2 vaccine was required to overcome MDA against NDV and AIV to provide full protection against AIV and virulent NDV in commercial broilers (Sarfati-Mizrahi et al., [31]). [Extracted from the article]

Seasonal and pandemic influenza outbreaks present severe health and economic burdens. To overcome limitations on influenza vaccines' availability and effectiveness, researchers chase universal vaccines providing broad, long‐lasting protection against multiple influenza subtypes, and including pandemic ones. Novel influenza vaccine designs are under development, in clinical trials, or reaching the market, namely inactivated, or live‐attenuated virus, virus‐like particles, or recombinant antigens, searching for improved effectiveness; all these bring downstream processing (DSP) new challenges. Having to deal with new influenza strains, including pandemics, requires shorter development time, driving the development of faster bioprocesses. To cope with better upstream processes, new regulatory demands for quality and safety, and cost reduction requirements, new unit operations and integrated processes are increasing DSP efficiency for novel vaccine formats. This review covers recent advances in DSP strategies of different influenza vaccine formats. Focus is given to the improvements on relevant state‐of‐the‐art unit operations, from harvest and clarification to purification steps, ending with sterile filtration and formulation. The development of more efficient unit operations to cope with biophysical properties of the new candidates is discussed: emphasis is given to the design of new stationary phases, 3D printing approaches, and continuous processing tools, such as continuous chromatography. The impact of the production platforms and vaccine designs on the downstream operations for the different influenza vaccine formats approved for this season are highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory infection caused by the circulating Swine flu virus. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the unique blending strain of influenza A H1N1 2009 (Swine Flu) is a pandemic affecting several geographical regions, including India. Previous literature indicates that children are "drivers" of influenza pandemics. At present, satisfactory data were not available to accurately estimate the role of children in the spread of influenza (in particular 2009 pandemic influenza). However, the role of children in the spread of pandemics influenza is unclear. Several studies in children have indicated that the immunization program decreased the occurrence of influenza, emphasizing the significance of communities impacted by global immunization programs. This article provides a brief overview on how children are a key contributor to pandemic Influenza A (2009 H1N1) and we would like to draw your attention to the need for a new vaccine for children to improve disease prevention and a positive impact on the community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Inexpensive pathogen genome sequencing has had a transformative effect on the field of phylodynamics, where ever increasing volumes of data have promised real-time insight into outbreaks of infectious disease. As well as the sheer volume of pathogen isolates being sequenced, the sequencing of whole pathogen genomes, rather than select loci, has allowed phylogenetic analyses to be carried out at finer time scales, often approaching serial intervals for infections caused by rapidly evolving RNA viruses. Despite its utility, whole genome sequencing of pathogens has not been adopted universally and targeted sequencing of loci is common in some pathogen-specific fields. Results: In this study we highlighted the utility of sequencing whole genomes of pathogens by re-analysing a well-characterised collection of Ebola virus sequences in the form of complete viral genomes (≈19 kb long) or the rapidly evolving glycoprotein (GP, ≈2 kb long) gene. We have quantified changes in phylogenetic, temporal, and spatial inference resolution as a result of this reduction in data and compared these to theoretical expectations. Conclusions: We propose a simple intuitive metric for quantifying temporal resolution, i.e. the time scale over which sequence data might be informative of various processes as a quick back-of-the-envelope calculation of statistical power available to molecular clock analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article was to present and characterize papers from the 25th International Pig Veterinary Society Congress, that took place in Chongquig, China, from 11 to 14 June 2018, with special reference to the part, which relates to new data concerning circoviruses and coronaviruses in pigs. The genetic diversity and molecular epidemiology of field strains of PED virus has been discussed. Recent data on the porcine circovirus 3 (PCV3), a novel porcine circovirus species that was reported in the various countries, has also been presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present Avian Influenza epidemic in Egypt is consider one of the major problems facing the poultry field and caused by circulation of genetically and antigenetically diverse influenza H5N1 viruses. This problem is controlled by applying vaccination. The objective was to determine the AI H5 recombinant vaccines efficacy (rHVT-H5, rFP-AIH5 (Scotland and Ireland), k rND-AI and k rBuc- AI+ND) against classical and variant field HPAI H5N1 viruses in comparison to the traditionally inactivated whole AI virus vaccines as K R H5N1 / Egy, k H5N2 and k combined AI+ND vaccines. A single dose of the different types of vaccines either recombinant or inactivated whole virus vaccines was administered at different ages of chicken. Eight chicken groups were vaccinated with 8 vaccines and challenged after 4 weeks post vaccination to measure the protection %. Fecal and tracheal swabs were taken after 2 day post challenge to detect viral shedding. It was found that, live rFPAI- H5 of both Scotland and Ireland strains induced poor clinical protection with high level of virus shedding. While, inactivated rND-AI, live rHVT-H5 and inactivated rBuc-AI+ND vaccines induced high protection rates ranged from 86.7% to 93.3% against both classical and variant HPAI viruses with a decrease or suppression of viruses shedding. In a parallel way, the inactivated whole virus AI vaccines either K R H5N1 / Egy, k H5N2 or k AI+ND induced a protection rates ranged from 85.7% to 100% with a high decrease in virus shedding levels. The data clearly indicate that inactivated whole AI virus and inactivated recombinant vaccines confers high levels of clinical protection with suppression in viral shedding compared to that of live recombinant vaccines except rHVTH5 vaccine which induce a great level of protection and decrease in viral shedding in SPF chicken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite advancements in immunotherapeutic approaches, influenza continues to cause severe illness, particularly among immunocompromised individuals, young children, and elderly adults. Vaccination is the most effective way to reduce rates of morbidity and mortality caused by influenza viruses. Frequent genetic shift and drift among influenzavirus strains with the resultant disparity between circulating and vaccine virus strains limits the effectiveness of the available conventional influenza vaccines. One approach to overcome this limitation is to develop a universal influenza vaccine that could provide protection against all subtypes of influenza viruses. Moreover, the development of a novel or improved universal influenza vaccines may be greatly facilitated by new technologies including virus-like particles, T-cell-inducing peptides and recombinant proteins, synthetic viruses, broadly neutralizing antibodies, and nucleic acid-based vaccines. This review discusses recent scientific advances in the development of next-generation universal influenza vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza virus infections pose a significant threat to public health due to annual seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics. Influenza is also associated with significant economic losses in animal production. The most effective way to prevent influenza infections is through vaccination. Current vaccine programs rely heavily on the vaccine’s ability to stimulate neutralizing antibody responses to the hemagglutinin (HA) protein. One of the biggest challenges to an effective vaccination program lies on the fact that influenza viruses are ever-changing, leading to antigenic drift that results in escape from earlier immune responses. Efforts toward overcoming these challenges aim at improving the strength and/or breadth of the immune response. Novel vaccine technologies, the so-called universal vaccines, focus on stimulating better cross-protection against many or all influenza strains. However, vaccine platforms or manufacturing technologies being tested to improve vaccine efficacy are heterogeneous between different species and/or either tailored for epidemic or pandemic influenza. Here, we discuss current vaccines to protect humans and animals against influenza, highlighting challenges faced to effective and uniform novel vaccination strategies and approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most humans have pre-existing immunity to influenza viruses. In this study, volunteers (ages of 18–85 years) were vaccinated with split, inactivated Fluzone™ influenza vaccine in four consecutive influenza seasons from 2013 to 2016 seasons. The impact of repeated vaccination on breadth and durability of antibodies was assessed as a result of vaccine strain changes. Total IgG anti-hemagglutinin (HA) binding antibodies and hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) activity increased in all age groups against both influenza A HA components in the vaccine post-vaccination (day 21). However, younger subjects maintained seroprotective titers to the vaccine strains, which resulted in higher seroconversion rates in the elderly, since the HAI titers in elderly subjects were more likely to decline prior to the next season. Young subjects had significant HAI activity against historical, as well as contemporary H1 and H3 vaccine strains from the mid-1980s to present. In contrast, elderly subjects had HAI activity to H1 strains from all years, but were more likely to have HAI activity to older strains from 1918-1950s. They also had a more restricted HAI profile against H3 viruses compared to young subjects recognizing H3N2 influenza viruses from the mid-2000s to present. Vaccine recipients were then categorized by whether subjects seroconverted from a seronegative or seropositive pre-vaccination state. Regardless of age, immunological recall or ‘back-boosting’ to antigenically related strains were associated with seroconversion to the vaccine strain. Overall, both younger and older people have the ability to mount a breadth of immune responses following influenza vaccination. This report describes how imprinting exposure differs across age groups, influences antibody cross-reactivity to past hemagglutinin antigenic variants, and shapes immune responses elicited by current split inactivated influenza vaccines. Understanding how current influenza vaccines are influenced by pre-existing immunity in people of different ages is critical for designing the next-generation of ‘universal’ or broadly-protective influenza vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]