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Fungal infections represent a serious global health problem, causing damage to health and the economy on the scale of millions. Although vaccines are the most effective therapeutic approach used to combat infectious agents, at the moment, no fungal vaccine has been approved for use in humans. However, the scientific community has been working hard to overcome this challenge. In this sense, we aim to describe here an update on the development of fungal vaccines and the progress of methodological and experimental immunotherapies against fungal infections. In addition, advances in immunoinformatic tools are described as an important aid by which to overcome the difficulty of achieving success in fungal vaccine development. In silico approaches are great options for the most important and difficult questions regarding the attainment of an efficient fungal vaccine. Here, we suggest how bioinformatic tools could contribute, considering the main challenges, to an effective fungal vaccine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Systemic mycoses have been viewed as neglected diseases and they are responsible for deaths and disabilities around the world. Rapid, low-cost, simple, highly-specific and sensitive diagnostic tests are critical components of patient care, disease control and active surveillance. However, the diagnosis of fungal infections represents a great challenge because of the decline in the expertise needed for identifying fungi, and a reduced number of instruments and assays specific to fungal identification. Unfortunately, time of diagnosis is one of the most important risk factors for mortality rates from many of the systemic mycoses. In addition, phenotypic and biochemical identification methods are often time-consuming, which has created an increasing demand for new methods of fungal identification. In this review, we discuss the current context of the diagnosis of the main systemic mycoses and propose alternative approaches for the identification of new targets for fungal pathogens, which can help in the development of new diagnostic tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fungi of the Paracoccidioides genus are the etiological agents of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), a systemic mycosis restricted to the countries of Latin America. Currently, the Paracoccidioides complex is represented by Paracoccidioides lutzii , Paracoccidioides americana , Paracoccidioides brasiliensis , Paracoccidioides restrepiensis , and Paracoccidioides venezuelensis. Even with advances in techniques used for diagnosing fungal diseases, high rates of false-positive results for PCM are still presented. Additionally, there is no efficient antigen that can be used to follow up the efficiency of patient treatment. The immunoproteomic is considered a powerful tool for the identification of antigens. In addition, antigens are molecules recognized by the immune system, which make them excellent targets for diagnostic testing of diseases caused by microorganisms. In this vein, we investigated which antigens are secreted by species representing Paracoccidioides complex to increase the spectrum of molecules that could be used for future diagnostic tests, patient follow-up, or PCM therapy. To identify the profile of antigens secreted by Paracoccidioides spp., immunoproteomic approaches were used combining immunoprecipitation, followed by antigen identification by nanoUPLC-MSE-based proteomics. Consequently, it was possible to verify differences in the exoantigen profiles present among the studied species. Through a mass spectrometry approach, it was possible to identify 79 exoantigens in Paracoccidioides species. Using bioinformatics tools, two unique exoantigens in P. lutzii species were identified, as well as 44 epitopes exclusive to the Paracoccidioides complex and 12 unique antigenic sequences that can differentiate between Paracoccidioides species. Therefore, these results demonstrate that Paracoccidioides species have a range of B-cell epitopes exclusive to the complex as well as specific to each Paracoccidioides species. In addition, these analyses allowed us the identification of excellent biomarker candidates for epidemiology screening, diagnosis, patient follow-up, as well as new candidates for PCM therapy. Immunoproteome overview of Paracoccidioides species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]