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•We provide data on 2,085 volunteer tourists that visited southern Africa.•We present 8 years of conservation outputs from Mozambique and Swaziland projects.•Our results validate a previously developed conservation evaluation framework.•Volunteer tourism can deliver conservation benefits but these need evaluating.

Aim Across the planet, grass-dominated biomes are experiencing shrub encroachment driven by atmospheric CO2 enrichment and land-use change. By altering resource structure and availability, shrub encroachment may have important impacts on vertebrate communities. We sought to determine the magnitude and variability of these effects across climatic gradients, continents, and taxa, and to learn whether shrub thinning restores the structure of vertebrate communities. Location Worldwide. Time period Contemporary. Major taxa studied Terrestrial vertebrates. Methods We estimated relationships between percentage shrub cover and the structure of terrestrial vertebrate communities (species richness, Shannon diversity and community abundance) in experimentally thinned and unmanipulated shrub-encroached grass-dominated biomes using systematic review and meta-analyses of 43 studies published from 1978 to 2016. We modelled the effects of continent, biome, mean annual precipitation, net primary productivity and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) on the relationship between shrub cover and vertebrate community structure. Results Species richness, Shannon diversity and total abundance had no consistent relationship with shrub encroachment and experimental thinning did not reverse encroachment effects on vertebrate communities. However, some effects of shrub encroachment on vertebrate communities differed with net primary productivity, amongst vertebrate groups, and across continents. Encroachment had negative effects on vertebrate diversity at low net primary productivity. Mammalian and herpetofaunal diversity decreased with shrub encroachment. Shrub encroachment also had negative effects on species richness and total abundance in Africa but positive effects in North America. Main conclusions Biodiversity conservation and mitigation efforts responding to shrub encroachment should focus on low-productivity locations, on mammals and herpetofauna, and in Africa. However, targeted research in neglected regions such as central Asia and India will be needed to fill important gaps in our knowledge of shrub encroachment effects on vertebrates. Additionally, our findings provide an impetus for determining the mechanisms associated with changes in vertebrate diversity and abundance in shrub-encroached grass-dominated biomes.

Restoration of the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris; LLP) ecosystem and its associated fauna is a principal goal of many land-management agencies in the southeastern United States. Prescribed fire and herbicide application are 2 common methods of LLP restoration. We employed a multi-scale approach to investigate how occurrence of fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) was influenced by fire frequency and herbicide application in LLP communities of northern Florida. We sampled 9-point, 4-ha grids of camera traps with 106 grids in fire treatments, 23 herbicide treatment grids, and 27 control grids. We evaluated a priori models for occurrence of fox squirrels at point, 4-ha patch, and home-range scales, and the influence of fire and herbicides on vegetation structure. Fox squirrel occurrence was positively associated with densities of turkey oak (Quercus laevis) at the patch scale, which were significantly less abundant in herbicide-treated areas. Fox squirrel occurrence was negatively correlated with fire interval and positively correlated with oak densities at a localized point scale. Additionally, fox squirrel point occurrences declined over time since the last fire. Fire produced habitat more favorable for fox squirrels than did herbicide treatments.

Bats are a critical component of most terrestrial systems, yet accurately assessing species richness and abundances remains a challenge. The use of acoustic monitoring has increasingly been used to assess bat communities. Compared with more traditional trapping surveys, acoustic monitoring is relatively easy to use and vastly increases the amount of data collected. However, the ability to accurately identify bat calls from acoustic detectors is limited by the availability of regional call libraries describing the calls of local species. Further, the lack of knowledge of detection distances for different species limits the ability to compare activity levels or abundances between species. We developed an echolocation call library based on zero-crossing recordings with Anabat Express detectors that can be applied broadly to bat acoustic detector surveys across the savanna systems of Swaziland and South Africa, and potentially the broader region of Southern Africa. We also compared detection distances for dif...

Pine savanna ecosystems in the southeastern United States are highly fragmented and degraded. Within these ecosystems, southeastern fox squirrels (Sciurus niger spp.) appear to be excellent bioindicators and serve important ecological roles. However, because of the loss of these areas, fox squirrel populations are patchily distributed and they are thought to be declining. To determine factors influencing their distribution, we conducted a multi-scale occupancy study throughout the range of the Sherman’s fox squirrel (S. n. shermani) in Florida. We surveyed 40 landscapes comprised of 200 grids and 1800 camera-trap points. We recorded 3170 camera-trap photos of fox squirrels at 8 of the 21 land cover classes surveyed, at 26 landscapes (65.0%), 70 grids (35.0%), and 210 of the camera-trap points (11.7%). At the landscape scale (7.65 km2), the occurrence of fox squirrels increased as the amount of interspersion in tree cover increased, but decreased with increasing tree cover, supporting the need for open canopied areas interspersed with hardwoods and hardwood thickets at broad scales. At the finer grid scale (5.3 ha), their occurrence increased with pine and oak densities and proximity to urban and residential development and was also negatively influenced by tree cover. At the grid and point scales, fox squirrels were more likely to occur in areas with increased canopy closure, supporting their association with patches of oak trees imbedded in open canopy forests similar to the pine savannas that once dominated the region. Fox squirrels’ occurrence was negatively influenced by woody understory and woody ground cover at all scales. Their preference for a midstory with an open canopy and clear understory also suggest a reliance on frequent disturbance such as fire to maintain their habitat. Fox squirrels appear to be highly adaptable as they occurred in land cover types and altered landscapes (e.g., developed, agriculture) outside of natural pine savannas. But, as indicators of pine savanna ecosystem health, their conservation along with other wildlife tied to these forests will necessitate management practices that include or emulate a fire regime to reduce tree canopy densities and the encroachment of the understory layer and woody ground cover, but also to maintain heterogeneity that intersperses requisites (food, shelter, and cover) across the landscape.

Globally, communities are increasingly impacted by the stressors of climate change. In response, people may adapt to maintain their livelihoods and overall health and nutrition. However, the relationship between climate adaptation and human nutrition is poorly understood and results of adaptation are often unclear. We investigated the relationship between adaptation and child nutrition, in Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) during an extreme drought. Households varied in both adaptation behavior and household resources and we found that, overall, households that adapted had better child nutrition than those that didn&rsquo, t adapt. When controlling for the influence of household capital, we found that more vulnerable households, those with greater dependence on natural resources and lower income, had a stronger positive relationship between adaptation and nutrition than less vulnerable households. We also found that some adaptations had stronger positive relationships with nutrition than others. In our system, the adaptation that most strongly correlated with improved nutrition, selling chickens, most likely benefits from local social networksand consistent demand, and performed better than other adaptations. Our results emphasize the need to measure adaptation outcomes and identify and support the types of adaptations are most likely to improve nutrition in the future.

Quantifying mammalian biodiversity is a critical yet daunting challenge, particularly in species-rich ecosystems. Non-volant small mammals account for >60% of the mammalian diversity and often require several survey methods to estimate their species richness and abundance, because of differences in their size and behaviour. Using 117 studies at 278 sites in a species-rich biome, the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, we determined the influence of trap configuration, trap type, and sampling effort on measures of species richness and abundance. We used generalised linear mixed-effects models to determine which methodological approaches influenced estimates of species richness and abundance at the sampling sites. We used estimates of beta (β) to determine which methods improved species richness and abundance estimates, and generated predicted values for the overall species richness as a function of trap configuration (line transect, grid, or both), trap type (pitfall traps, live-traps or both), and sampling effort (number of trap-nights). Our results indicated that sites in which pitfall traps alone were used generated higher estimates of the overall small mammal species richness and abundance, and rodent abundance, than sites in which only live-traps were used. Sites in which pitfall traps alone were used also produced higher estimates of species richness and abundance, and rodent species richness and abundance, than sites in which both trap types were used. Increased sampling effort led to increased estimates of species richness, but sites in which pitfall traps were used alone or together with live-traps had higher estimates of species richness with less sampling effort than sites in which live-traps only were used. Using pitfall traps greatly reduced the number of trap-nights necessary to obtain a good estimate of small mammal species richness in a community. We found no influence of trap configuration (line transects or grids) on estimates of species richness, but the abundance of rodents was estimated to be higher in sites where both line transects and grids were used, than in sites where only one trap configuration was used. Our review shows the importance of using pitfall traps in research, monitoring, and environmental impact studies on species-rich small mammal communities.

A clear understanding of how management influences vertebrate biodiversity is critical for the conservation of rare ecosystems, such as the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) ecosystem in the southeastern United States. We used scientific literature to assess how vertebrate use of the longleaf pine ecosystem (High or low) differed in response to high (1–3 years), moderate (>3–5 years), and low (>5 years) burn frequencies. For all species combined, we found that the number of high use (HU) species associated with moderately burned forests (n = 140) was 22% and 33% greater than in high (n = 115) and low burn (n = 105) frequency forests, respectively. This pattern was most clear for Aves and Reptilia. Specifically, the number of HU species associated with moderate burn frequencies (Aves – n = 69; Reptilia – n = 36) was 21% and 25% greater for Aves and 56 and 63% greater for Reptilia than high (Aves – n = 57; Reptilia – n = 23) and low burn frequencies (Aves – n = 55; Reptilia – n = 22), respectively. We found no difference in the number of HU species across burn frequencies for Amphibia or Mammalia. For species considered longleaf pine specialists, across all vertebrate taxa the number of HU species was associated with areas of high and moderate burn frequencies. We posit that moderate burn frequencies had the greatest number of HU species because of requirements for multiple habitat types, structural diversity, and habitat components that are reduced in, or not provided by, areas with high burn frequencies. If conservation of specific longleaf pine specialists that rely on habitat created by high fire frequencies (e.g. Red-cockaded woodpeckers) is the objective, we suggest managing with high burn frequencies at the local scale. Conversely, if management objectives include maximizing wildlife diversity, managers should use a more variable fire regime across the landscape, from annual to less frequent 5 year burn intervals, to maintain localized patches of oaks and increase the compositional and structural diversity within the system.

Effective strategies for bat conservation require knowledge of species-specific roost ecology. Thus, conservation planning is difficult for species with poorly understood roost use, such as the federally endangered Eumops floridanus (Florida Bonneted Bat). Prior to this study, only 1 active natural roost had been documented throughout the Florida Bonneted Bat's geographic range. Search efforts to locate new roosts using several techniques have been unsuccessful. Here we present a simple methodology that we successfully implemented to locate a second Florida Bonneted Bat natural roost. Using acoustics, cavity searches, and emergence observations, we documented a colony of Florida Bonneted Bats roosting in a Pinus elliottii (Slash Pine) snag in Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge in Collier County, FL. Our discovery highlights the importance of snags, and provides additional details to state and federal agencies tasked with species recovery.

We were able to substantially increase our knowledge of what is likely the least understood endangered terrestrial mammal in the United States, the Florida salt marsh vole (FSMV; Microtus pennsylvanicus dukecampbelli). We developed a predictive landscape model that estimated 264 ha of potential habitat for FSMVs. Evaluating our model, we found voles at 8 of the 36 sites sampled, yielding a model accuracy of 22% for a subspecies that previously was known from only 3 locations. Within areas of potential habitat, FSMVs selected patches of marsh vegetation > 0.49 ha with at least some (≥ 16.75% and ≤ 43.61%) smooth cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) cover. Suggestive of a meta-population dynamic, FSMV activity decreased outside of patches of smooth cordgrass and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata) identified by the predictive landscape model. Our hierarchical approach to studying FSMVs allowed us to leverage a limited amount of data to ultimately produce important ecological information about an endangered species. This approach easily may be adapted to other mammals with similar information needs.

Anthropogenically modified systems tend to have homogenous wildlife communities. While this process is well documented, the mechanisms driving the convergence of species in human-modified systems are unclear. There are at least two compelling ecological explanations for the loss of specialized species in these settings; changes to the distribution and quality of resources (i.e. environmental conditions) and changes to competitive interactions. Without a better understanding of the mechanisms behind biotic homogenization, it is difficult to take appropriate conservation and management actions to maintain diverse communities. We investigated the roles of environmental conditions and competition in driving biotic homogenization in one of the world's most imperiled ecosystems; the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savanna of the American Southeast. Specifically, we investigated how generalist gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) are replacing the more specialized fox squirrels (S. niger) in shrub and hardwood encroached Southeastern savannas. To test how changes to habitat and competition affect the specialist fox squirrel, we undertook a landscape scale manipulation. We experimentally manipulated competition by removing gray squirrels from closed-canopy patches embedded in longleaf pine savanna. Fox squirrels showed a strong response to gray squirrel removal, increasing their activity by 300% in the interior of closed-canopy patches. Fox squirrels in control patches did not use the interior of closed-canopy patches. Our experimental results support the hypothesis that biotic homogenization occurs when human-induced changes to the environment alter competitive interactions.

Fox squirrel Sciurus niger populations in the southeastern United States appear to have declined, and 3 (S. n. cinereus, S. n. shermani, and S. n. avicennia) of the 10 subspecies are currently listed with a conservation status of protection. Efforts to conserve and manage fox squirrels in the southeastern United States are constrained by difficulties in studying their populations because of low densities and low detectability. There is a need for an effective survey method to fill knowledge gaps on southeastern fox squirrel ecology. To address this need and to identify a cost-effective and reliable technique to survey and monitor southeastern fox squirrel populations, we compared four survey methods across seasons: live-trapping; camera-trapping; point counts; and line-transect surveys, in regard to whether a detection occurred at a survey point, the total number of detections at a survey point, and the total cost for each method. We assessed the effectiveness of capture and detection methods and the influence of seasonality using generalized linear mixed models. We found camera-trapping to be the most effective survey method for assessing the presence and distribution of southeastern fox squirrels. In total, camera-traps produced significantly more detections (n = 223) of fox squirrels than all other methods combined (n = 84), with most detections occurring in spring (n = 97) and the fewest in the autumn (n = 60). Furthermore, we detected fox squirrels at more survey points with camera-traps (73%) than all other methods (63%), and we identified 16% more individuals from camera-trap photographs than live-trapped. We recommend future monitoring of southeastern fox squirrels to be conducted using camera-trapping during the spring unless handling of animals is needed for other research purposes.

Millennials prefer to learn by working in groups, using technology, engaging in real-world issues, and discussing course content. To accommodate and engage these learning preferences, I modified the traditional Wildlife Techniques lecture and lab structure by “flipping” the class. I placed lectures and instructional videos online and used class time for discussion and problem-solving. Evaluating students’ perceptions of this approach revealed that they clearly found discussion groups helpful and preferred them to the traditional lectures used in other classes. Students did not have a clear preference between online versus in-class lectures. However, placing lectures online provided students with the opportunity to have discussion groups during regularly scheduled class time. Students generally felt that discussion groups helped them to understand the lectures, whereas the videos allowed them to use their time efficiently. Students reported that this course increased their knowledge of the targeted subject. In total, the flipped class approach appears to engage the millennial student in wildlife sciences in a format that accommodates their learning preferences. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

We used the imported red-fire ant (Solenopsis invicta; hereafter fire ant) and hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) as model species to address the population-level effects of an invasive ant on a semiprecocial small mammal. We stocked cotton rats into 8 enclosures, implementing a 2-way factorial design with predator (ambient or excluded) and fire ant (ambient or reduced) treatments as factors. We trapped monthly from June 2012 to June 2013 and calculated monthly recruitment and survival. Rats in enclosures with ambient predators had a risk of mortality approximately 2 times greater than rats in enclosures with predators excluded. The risk of mortality was 3 and 4.5 times greater for female and male cotton rats, respectively, in enclosures with ambient fire ants and predators compared to enclosures with reduced fire ants and excluded predators. We found no effects on recruitment. Our results indicate that native predators had the greatest influence on cotton rat populations. Nevertheless, in the absence ...

We used the southern toad (Anaxyrus terrestris) as a model species to explore how an invasive species, the red-imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta; hereafter RIFA), influences amphibian predator avoidance and movement behaviors. Our objective was to determine if toads spent less time near and moved more frequently in the presence of RIFAs compared to pyramid ants by comparing behavioral reactions of toads to RIFAs versus a control and pyramid ants versus a control. Laboratory experiments involved three treatments including no ants, RIFAs, and native pyramid ants (Dorymyrmex bureni) within an experimental arena. We randomly placed ants into one of two containers located at each end of the arena. For each trial we placed a toad into the experimental arena, allowed the toad to acclimate and then recorded its behavior. We calculated the proportion of time the toad spent near ants and the number of movements completed by each toad. Comparing the RIFA treatment to the pyramid ant treatment, toads spent 35 % less time on the half of the experimental arena near RIFAs (P = 0.0304). Toad movements were 1.5 times more frequent in trials with RIFAs than pyramid ants (P = 0.0488). We propose that southern toads associate RIFAs either with increased predation risk or risk of injury compared to pyramid ants. Although the behaviors we observed might lessen the direct effects of RIFAs on southern toads via predation and injury, the indirect effects of increased movement and avoidance of RIFAs could also influence toad fitness by decreasing reproductive and foraging success.

Monk parakeets ( Myiopsitta monachus ) build nests of twigs and use them year-round for both breeding and roosting. In their native South American range, monk parakeets historically nested in the tallest, sturdiest trees in an area. In their North American range, monk parakeets often construct nests on anthropogenic structures, most notably electric utility structures. This nesting behavior causes economic damage. We investigated monk parakeets nesting in Dallas and Tarrant counties, Texas, United States, to identify which features and spatial scales influenced their selection of electric stations as nest sites. Examining 28 pairs of electric stations (with and without nests), we found monk parakeets selected those with flat, multiple surfaces and acute-angled construction within small fenced enclosure areas and surrounded by large canopy trees and taller anthropogenic structures within 100 m. Further analysis of land use and land cover classifications (pavement, building, canopy, grass, and water) on 3 scales (100 m, 625 m, and 1250 m) suggested the surrounding landscape had little impact on monk parakeet nest-site selection. We recommend that electric utility managers who want to prevent monk parakeets from nesting on vulnerable structures conduct a cost–benefit analysis exploring the feasibility of retrofitting or replacing existing construction style elements preferred by monk parakeets. Managers should also consider redesigning future electric station construction to reduce risk of monk parakeets nesting on new structures.

This paper reviews recent developments in trade theory, data, and modeling to provide guidance to researchers who are building and using trade models. Our findings show that trade models have fallen behind the latest development in theory, in part because data collection has not (and arguably will not) be able to keep pace with the needs of models built to incorporate the latest theories. The direction, much less the magnitude, of the errors made due to the limitations of today's trade models is uncertain, which should be a grave concern to modelers and the policymakers who rely on these models.

Global increases in agricultural production have significant implications for biodiversity and ecosystem processes. In southern Africa, sugarcane production has converted native vegetation into agricultural monocultures. We examined functional group abundance along a conservation-agriculture gradient in the Lowveld of Swaziland. We captured small mammals representing 4 functional groups: omnivores, insectivores, granivores, and herbivores and found evidence of distinct changes in small mammal functional groups across the conservation-agriculture boundary. Granivores declined with increasing distance into the sugarcane and were completely absent at 375 m from the boundary while omnivores increased in the sugarcane. Insectivores and herbivores showed no differences between the two land uses; however, during the dry season, there were significantly more insectivores at the conservation-agriculture interface than in the conservation lands. Shifts in small mammal communities have clear implications for ecosystem processes as the removal of granivores from savannah systems can drastically alter vegetative structure and potentially lead to shrub encroachment via reduced levels of seed predation, while abundant omnivorous small mammals can cause significant crop damage and increase the prevalence of vector borne diseases in the environment.

The critical question for the success of all captive breeding and release programs (CBRPs) is the same: will the benefit of augmenting or reestablishing a population with captive animals outweigh the loss of taking individuals from the wild? Yet, few studies have simultaneously evaluated the impact of removal of animals for captive breeding on the source population and the potential contribution of the released animals to the augmented populations. We used the endangered Key Largo woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli, KLWR) as a model system to simultaneously examine the effect of animal removal, captive breeding, and reintroduction on the dynamics and persistence of a wild population. We used mark-recapture and telemetry data, as well as zoo records from a recent CBRP for the endangered KLWR to parameterize a matrix population model and to simulate the response of the KLWR population to alternative captive breeding and release strategies. Our results suggest that a CBRP as practiced previously would not contribute to KLWR recovery; instead, removal of wild KLWR for captive breeding could harm the population. Captive breeding programs will not contribute to the recovery of KLWR unless survival of released animals and breeding success of captive individuals are improved. Our study provides a framework for simultaneous consideration of animal removal from the wild, breeding success in captivity and survival of released animals for a comprehensive evaluation of captive breeding programs.

Declines of imperiled small mammals are often attributed to predation without investigating the relative influence of survival and reproductive parameters on population growth. Accordingly, declines in the endangered Key Largo woodrat Neotoma floridana smalli (KLWR) population have been attributed to predation by feral cats Felis catus, Burmese pythons Python molurus bivittatus and raccoons Procyon lotor. We estimated survival, recruitment and realized population growth rates from four capture‐mark‐recapture studies to determine if the pattern of demographic variation was consistent with predation as the primary cause of KLWR declines. Additionally, we evaluated the KLWR captive-breeding and release program by comparing survival of captive-born and released KLWRs to wild-born KLWRs. The realized population growth rate of wild-born KLWRs had a strong pattern of covariation with recruitment; covariation between the realized population growth rate and apparent survival was negligible. Consistent with demographic theory, our results suggest that KLWR population dynamics were driven primarily by variation in recruitment, and that periodic reductions in recruitment led to population declines. We found that the survival curve and the first month (S1) and first 3-month (S1‐3) survival estimates for the wild-born KLWRs [S1 = 0.929 (0.890‐0.968); S1‐3 = 0.942 (0.919‐0.965)] were considerably higher (c 2 = 33.9, 1 d.f., P < 0.001) than released KLWRs [S1 = 0.521 (0.442‐0.600); S1‐3 = 0.561 (0.493‐0.629)]. Low survival rates from predation limited the success of the captive-breeding and release program. This study illustrates the importance of pre-release conditioning of captive-bred animals and the importance of considering reproductive parameters in conjunction with survival estimates to understand the drivers of population decline.

The extraordinary growth of human populations and development in coastal areas over the last half century has eliminated and degraded coastal habitats and threatened the persistence of associated wildlife. Moreover, human-induced sea-level rise (SLR) is projected to further eliminate and alter the same coastal ecosystems, especially low-lying regions. Whereas habitat loss and wildlife population declines from development are well documented, contemporary SLR has not yet been implicated in declines of coastal faunal populations. In addition, the projection of severe synergistic impacts from the combination of development and SLR is well described, yet the scientific literature offers little empirical evidence of the influence of these forces on coastal wildlife. Analysis of aerial photographs from 1959 to 2006 provided evidence of a 64% net loss of the endangered Lower Keys marsh rabbit’s (Sylvilagus palustris hefneri; LKMR) habitat, the majority due to SLR (>48%). Furthermore, there was a strong negative relationship between the proportion of development per island and the amount of new habitat formed. Islands with modest development (less than 8% of land area) saw formation of new areas of marsh vegetation suitable for rabbits, whereas islands with 8% or more of their lands developed between 1959 and 2006 saw little to no addition of LKMR habitat. Only 8% of habitat loss was directly due to conversion to impervious surfaces, indicating that the greatest threats from development were indirect, including blocking of the inland migration of habitat triggered by SLR. Our results were consistent with an ongoing squeeze of coastal ecosystems between rising seas and development as a threat to LKMR habitat, which raises concern for a wide variety of coastal species. Our results provide evidence that SLR has become a contemporary conservation concern, one that is exacerbated by development, and expected to increase in magnitude as ocean waters continue to rise.

Degradation of coastal systems has led to increased impacts from hurricanes and storm surges and is of concern for coastal endemics species. Understanding the influence of disturbance on coastal populations like the endangered Lower Keys marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris hefneri) is important to understanding long-term dynamics and for recovery planning. We evaluated the effect of disturbance on the rabbits by determining which patch, habitat, and landscape characteristics influenced habitat use following Hurricane Wilma. We determined patch-level occurrence 6–9 months prior to Hurricane Wilma, within 6 months following the hurricane, and 2 years after the storm to quantify rates of patch abandonment and recurrence. We observed high patch abandonment (37.5% of used patches) 6 months after Hurricane Wilma and low rates of recurrence (38.1% of abandoned patches) 2 years after the storm, an indication that this storm further threatened marsh rabbit viability. We found the proportion of salt-tolerant (e.g., mangroves and scrub mangroves) and salt-intolerant (e.g., freshwater wetlands) vegetation within LKMR patches were negatively and positively correlated with probability of patch abandonment, respectively. We found patch size and the number of used patches surrounding abandoned patches were positively correlated with probability of recurrence. We suggest habitat use following this hurricane was driven by the differential response of non-primary habitats to saline overwash and habitat loss from past development that reduced the size and number of local populations. Our findings demonstrate habitat use studies should be conducted following disturbance and should incorporate on-going effects of development and climate change.

We predicted that features of the urban environment (uneven habitat from buildings, density of conspecifics and scarcity of dead or dying trees) would lead to different patterns of range overlap for urban and rural fox squirrels Sciurus niger. During 2003–2005 we captured, tracked and calculated seasonal ranges for 60 individuals at an urban site and 45 individuals on a rural site. Differences in range overlaps were best explained by sex, site and season. We observed a greater amount of seasonal range overlap by squirrels on our rural site. Buildings appeared to form the boundary of squirrels' seasonal ranges. By providing clear demarcations of squirrels' ranges, building might have reduced the costs of delineating territories. During the winter, urban squirrels used fewer [urban , 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.0–1.7; rural , 95% CI=2.8–4.2] cavities and anthropogenic shelters, suggesting that cavities might be limited on the urban site and worth the cost of defense. Similar population densities on the sites (urban=1.58 squirrel ha−1, rural=1.45 squirrel ha−1) did not allow us to examine the influence of densities of conspecifics on seasonal range overlaps. The alternative hypothesis, that reduced seasonal range overlaps were a function of range size had little support (female F=1.001, d.f.=82, P=0.130); r males F=2.33, d.f.=118, P=0.320). In summary, squirrels were able to alter their use of space and reduce their range overlap depending on the surrounding environment.

The management of large ungulates in southern Africa necessitates reliable monitoring programmes to direct management action. Monitoring programmes for large ungulates typically rely on spotlight survey methods, but do not address variation in detection rates between surveys or observers. In 2009, we used a multiple observer survey technique to estimate detection probabilities for large ungulates in lowveld savanna habitats in Swaziland. Spotlight detection probabilities for all ungulates ranged between 0.22 and 0.57. Species-specific spotlight detection rates for the two most detected species, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), were 0.48 and 0.61, respectively. At our open savanna study site, detection rates were higher and abundance estimates were fairly consistent. In our more enclosed savanna habitat, both detection rates and resulting abundance estimates were variable. Our results suggest that when monitoring large ungulate populations, managers should conservatively assume they are missing approximately 50% of the population available for surveying. We recommend that managers consider methods which incorporate multiple observers into survey practices and consider using multiple data sources to assist with population management decisions.

The Lower Keys marsh rabbit (LKMR, Sylvilagus palustris hefneri), a marsh rabbit subspecies endemic to the Lower Keys, Florida was protected in 1990, however, populations continue to decline despite recovery efforts. We hypothesized on-going habitat loss and fragmentation due to succession and hardwood encroachment has lead to increased edge, reduced habitat quality, and increased activity by native raccoons (Procyon lotor). These factors reduce the suitability of patches in a later successional state, thus threatening LKMR recovery and metapopulation persistence. We surveyed 150 LKMR patches in 2008, tallying adult and juvenile rabbit pellets, estimating measures of habitat succession and quality (woody and herbaceous ground cover, distribution of herbaceous species) and recording raccoon activity (number of raccoon signs). We calculated patch edge (patch shape index) using ArcGIS. We evaluated the relationship between patch and habitat attributes and LKMR using regression analysis and model selection. We found both adult and juvenile LKMR pellet counts were lower in patches with higher shape indices and higher in patches with greater occurrence of bunchgrasses and forbs. We also found adult LKMR pellet counts were lower in patches with higher raccoon activity. Our results suggest patch edge, habitat succession and quality, and raccoons pose a threat to the persistence and recovery of LKMR populations. Recovery efforts should focus on reducing these trends through habitat management and raccoon removal implemented in carefully controlled experiments with proper monitoring. Measures of patch and habitat attributes important to LKMR should be incorporated into long-term metapopulation monitoring and used to evaluate recovery actions. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Variation in the appearance of eggs within a clutch has been hypothesized to decrease the likelihood of rejection of brood-parasite eggs, but tests of the hypothesis have produced mixed results among cuckoo (Cuculus canoras and Clamator glandarius) hosts. The hypothesis has not been tested in cowbird hosts because they typically show little intraspecific variation in responses to cowbird eggs. However, the Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) is unusual among potential hosts of the Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) because it shows both acceptance and rejection of cowbird eggs and it demonstrates high intraclutch variation in egg appearance, which makes it one of the few potential cowbird hosts suitable for a test of the intraclutch variation—host rejection hypothesis. We tested whether intraclutch variation in the appearance of Common Grackle eggs influenced the likelihood of egg rejection and found that Common Grackles with greater variation in intraclutch egg appearance were more likely to...

We used nucleotide sequence data from a mitochondrial DNA fragment to characterize variation within the endangered Lower Keys marsh rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris hefneri). We observed 5 unique mitochondrial haplotypes across different sampling sites in the Lower Florida Keys, USA. Based on the frequency of these haplotypes at different geographic locations and relationships among haplotypes, we observed 2 distinct clades or groups of sampling sites (western and eastern clades). These 2 groups showed low levels of gene flow. Regardless of their origin, marsh rabbits from the Lower Florida Keys can be separated into 2 genetically distinct management units, which should be considered prior to implementation of translocations as a means of offsetting recent population declines.

The goal of this study was to improve the understanding of the attitude–behavior relationship in the context of wildlife management, specifically an urban human–wildlife conflict scenario. A survey was used to explore the attitude–behavior relationship of a university community, in response to proposals to manage the campus's squirrel population. The data suggest that beliefs and attitudes modified by variables shown to increase accessibility correspond better to behavioral intentions than unmodified attitudes and beliefs. The data also suggest that the inclusion of a measure of previous behavior shows a strong relationship to behavioral intentions and will increase the predictive ability of models within different theoretical frameworks, including the theory of reasoned action. Most importantly, for the advancement of a comprehensive theoretical framework, this study illustrates how composite models combining components of the theory of reasoned action and attitude to behavioral process models outperform...

Predator stimuli created by humans in the urban environment may alter animals’ anti-predator behaviors. I hypothesized that habituation would cause anti-predator behaviors to decrease in urban settings in response to humans. Additionally, I hypothesized that populations habituated to humans would show reduced responses to other predator stimuli. I observed three populations of squirrels (urban, suburban and rural) responses to human approaches, red-tailed hawk vocalizations (Buteo jamaicensis) and coyote (Canis latrans) vocalizations. Mahalanobis distances of anti-predator behaviors in response to human approaches were consistent with the urban–rural gradient. Flight initiation distances (X 2 = 26.33, df = 2, P

After guiding development policies for nearly 20 years, the “Washington Consensus” lies in shambles. Although selected components remain relevant for development policies around the world, some specifics of the broader policy “package” and, more generally, the concept of a standardized package of policies applicable to all developing countries has clearly been discredited. Criticism has been directed at the assumed link from economic liberalization of international trade and financial flows to more rapid economic growth. Apart from a handful of developing countries, admittedly including some large and important ones, most of the world saw little of the promised economic benefit from widespread and on-going trade and financial liberalization, initially. Many countries actually regressed, when evaluated against broader socio-economic development goals, including income inequality. We conclude that differences in initial conditions (history, culture, geography and levels of industrial and institutional development) preclude any single development policy package from being universally effective.

The expansion of urban areas into native habitat can have profound effects on avian populations and communities, yet little is known regarding the effects of urban features on avian reproductive success. The objective of this study was to examine the reproduction of an urban-enhanced species, the mourning dove, to determine how tree and urban landscape features affect nest-site selection and nest success. Mourning dove nests were located by systematically searching potential nest sites on a weekly basis from late-March through mid-September in 2003 and 2004. A total of 1,288 mourning dove nests were located and monitored on the Texas A&M University Campus. Of these nests, 337 (26.6%) were successful (fledged, ≥1). An equal number of potential nest sites were randomly generated in ArcGIS and assigned to non-nest trees to evaluate habitat variables associated with nest-site selection. Mourning dove nests were located in trees with a larger canopy diameter and diameter at breast height (DBH) than the computer generated potential nests and nest trees were located closer to roads and farther from buildings than non-nest trees. Within the study area, nest success was predominately influenced by the proximity of urban features with successful nests being located closer to roads and farther from buildings than unsuccessful nests.

Surface-mined land reclamation creates grass and shrub lands that provide important wildlife habitat, particularly for disturbance-dependent birds. Declines in disturbance-dependent birds have been observed for 30 years, emphasizing the importance of proper reclamation strategies. Understanding the influence of spatial factors on nesting ecology of avian populations can improve restoration strategies on reclaimed mines. We evaluated the influence of spatial factors on nest site selection, nest success, and nest parasitism of dickcissels (Spiza americana) on two sites reclaimed as wildlife habitat on the Big Brown Mine, Freestone County, Texas, in 2002–2003. We found 119 nests, 14 of which were parasitized by the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). Dickcissels were more likely to select nest sites farther from riparian areas and closer to brush-encroached areas. Nest success was not clearly explained by one or few variables. Parasitism was more likely to occur near riparian areas and roads. For these reasons, we suggest the establishment of larger wildlife habitat blocks, which would provide more field-interior habitat for dickcissels and similar species.

A number of studies on mammalian species that have adapted to urban areas suggest survival may be higher for urban populations than rural populations. We examined differences in fatalities between an urban and rural population of fox squirrels (Sciurus niger). We radiocollared (n = 50 rural, n = 78 urban) fox squirrels during approximately 2 years. We found monthly survival of rural fox squirrels (Ŝ = 0.936) was lower than urban fox squirrels (Ŝ = 0.976) over the same 12-month period. Nonetheless, when comparing a 24-month period of survival data on urban squirrels with an 18-month period on the rural squirrels (periods overlapped for 12 months), survival rates were more similar between urban (Ŝ = 0.938) and rural squirrels (Ŝ = 0.945). Our data suggest that sex and season may influence survival of urban squirrels and not rural squirrels. We also found that cause of fatalities differed between the urban and rural squirrels, with >60% of fatalities on the rural site caused by predation. In contrast, 60% of urban fox squirrel fatalities were caused by motor vehicle collisions. This study illustrates the need to advance our ability to understand, predict, and mitigate effects of urbanization on wildlife resources.

Tree squirrels are one of the most familiar mammals found in urban areas and are considered both desirable around homes and, conversely, a pest. We examined fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) habitat use in inner city and suburban areas using radiotelemetry. We estimated habitat selection ratios at differing scales by season and fox squirrel activity. Telemetry data suggests that during periods of inactivity radiocollared fox squirrels (n = 82) selected 1) areas with greater tree canopy, 2) live oaks (Quercus fusiromis and Q. virginiana), and 3) trees with larger diameters and canopies. When inactive during the winter and spring, fox squirrels also preferred, within their core areas, to use the inside of buildings, and during periods of activity in the autumn and spring, fox squirrels preferred grassy areas. During periods of activity, fox squirrels avoided using pavement but did not exclude it from their core-area movements. Fox squirrels' ability to use buildings and to tolerate pavement in core-area...

We radio-collared and tracked 16 (10 female, 6 male) Neotoma floridana smalli (Key Largo woodrats) from March–November 2002 and recorded a total of 631 locations. The average monthly ranges of individual male and female woodrats were 4756 (95% CI = 2376–7136) m2 and 2051 (95% CI = 1091–3011) m2, respectively. We found male and female ranges to be significantly different (P = 0.032). Female ranges varied with season (P = 0.032), while male ranges did not (P = 0.567). Spring (P = 0.033) and summer (P = 0.019) ranges were significantly different between sexes. At two spatial scales, Key Largo woodrats showed a preference for young habitat with selection ratios of 6.3 and 6.7. Six female ranges overlapped an average of 49% and 2 males overlapped an average of 8%. No woodrats were recorded crossing a major road. Study results suggest that N. f. smalli prefer early succession hammock, male woodrats should be introduced separately, and a major road is a barrier to woodrat movements.

Human dimension research published regarding public attitudes about wildlife or natural resource management often reflects an inadequate understanding on the part of the authors regarding attitudes, their social psychological frameworks, and their relationship to behaviors. In this paper we define attitudes, examine their relationship to behaviors, and examine some theoretical frameworks for attitudes. Additionally, we examine some shortcomings we believe are common in wildlife attitudinal research and make suggestions to improve the quality and consistency of the work.

Opportunities for wildlife undergraduates to engage in land conservation planning can bridge the gap between formal academic training and professional wildlife experiences. Land conservation plans are an important component in managing wildlife habitat. In 1995 state legislation offered Texas landowners the opportunity to remain under agricultural valuation (Texas House Bill 1358, Proposition 11, 1-d-1) by designating wildlife management activities as qualifying agricultural practices. To obtain a wildlife management tax valuation, a landowner must have an active, written wildlife management plan. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) biologists often provide technical guidance to landowners in this process. Allowing wildlife undergraduates to have an active role in this process offers a unique opportunity for them to gain practical “hands-on” experiences while improving their writing skills. Students enrolled in Wildlife Habitat Management and Conservation (WFSC 406) work in groups (3–4 students) to develop a management plan for 3 local landowners. In addition to writing an actual management plan, students gain experience in land surveying, vegetation sampling, GIS/GPS technology, and public speaking. Landowners receive 3 peer-reviewed management plans they can select from to implement on their property. Students assist TPWD biologists and Texas Cooperative Extension staff in providing technical guidance to local landowners. Wildlife education can be enhanced by integrating land conservation planning in the classroom via partnerships with natural resource agencies and landowners.

Over the last two decades, declines in trap success, stick-nest density and population density estimates have fueled concerns that the federally endangered Key Largo woodrat (KLWR, Neotoma floridana smalli) population is declining. Information on the current population status and habitat selection of KLWR is needed in the recovery of this population. We trapped on 60 (1-ha) randomly-placed grids (20 grids in each of three hardwood hammock age-classes). Grids were trapped from March–September 2002 and April–August 2004. Population estimates for the two trapping periods were 106 (95% ci 30–182) and 40 (95% ci 5–104) individuals, respectively. Greater than 80% of all KLWRs captures occurred in the young hammock age-classes (disturbed after 1971). Young hammocks were characterized by a more open canopy, smaller overstory trees, fewer logs, greater dispersion of overstory trees and a different species composition than old and medium age hammocks (P < 0.024). Contrary to previous research, KLWRs were f...

We propose that creating on-campus wildlife research projects propelled by undergraduate students and interns is a simple way to improve the quality of wildlife education and research. Wildlife educators and natural resource agencies alike have called for wildlife undergraduates to acquire more experience and technical and critical thinking skills before entering the work force. The benefits, especially in the aforementioned skills, from learning by experiencing are well documented. One way to increase learning experience opportunities and to include undergraduates in the research process is through the use of on-campus wildlife research projects. We used 2 on-campus research projects to illustrate the versatility and benefits of this approach. On the urban Texas A&M University (TAMU) campus (≈45,000 students, College Station), we established a fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) research project, and on the rural Sul Ross State University (SRSU) campus (≈2,400 students, Alpine, Texas), we established a...

We evaluated the effectiveness of supplemental stockings being proposed in the recovery of the federally endangered Key Largo woodrat (KLWR, Neotoma floridana smalli) using a stage-based, stochastic model. Supplemental stockings were evaluated with a population model using current trapping and telemetry data along with published and unpublished KLWR data. Model simulations predicted the KLWR had >70% probability of terminal extinction over the next 10 years even with the use of supplemental annual stockings. Supplemental stockings of KLWRs (⩽20 females) appear to delay the extinction of the species, but negative population trajectories accelerated after stockings cease. Model results illustrated the importance of determining limiting factors on the population prior to the use of supplemental stockings as a recovery option for this endangered woodrat population.

Worker exposures to metalworking fluids were characterized at a plant that produced air compressors. Full-shift, side-by-side air samples (n = 147) were collected and analyzed for total particulate matter, extractable total particulate matter, thoracic particulate matter, and extractable thoracic particulate matter. The thoracic particulate matter geometric mean of 0.32 m/m (3)was below the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.4 mg/m (3). The total particulate matter geometric mean of 0.52 mg/m (3), however, was above 0.5 mg/m (3), the total particulate matter concentration offered as a surrogate REL in the NIOSHCriteria for a Recommended Standard for Occupational Exposure to Metalworking Fluids.[1]Of the 83 total particulate matter results that were at or above smash 0.5 mg/m (3), only 50 (60%) of the corresponding thoracic particulate matter results were at or above 0.4 mg/m (3). These data indicated a conversion factor of 1.65 between thoracic particulate matter and total particulate matter concentrations and 1.40 between thoracic extractable particulate matter and total extractable concentrations. These factors were significantly different from the 1.25 used to compare total particulate matter with thoracic particulate matter concentrations in the NIOSHCriteria Document[1](p0.01) and call into question the validity of a universal conversion factor. The authors conclude that thoracic particulate matter exposure assessment should be done directly. In terms of protecting the worker, however, the 1.25 conversion factor appeared to be conservative since each time a total particulate matter result was below 0.5 mg/m (3), its paired thoracic particulate matter measurement was below 0.4 mg/m (3).

In 2001, letters filled with a powder containing anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) spores were delivered by mail to a number of governmental and media locations within the United States. In response, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provided guidelines for office personnel who might encounter a letter containing suspicious powder. These guidelines were developed during the crisis and in the absence of experimental data from laboratory or field investigations. An obvious need thus exists for quantitative and scientific verification for validation of these guidelines. This study attempts to address this need, adapting earlier work that used a multiple small office test site to create a model system in an open office test site in a vacated office building in which Bacillus atrophaeus spores (as a simulant for B. anthracis spores) were released by opening a letter. Using SF(6) as a tracer gas, smoke tubes (containing stannic chloride) to visualize airflow, culturable aerosol sampling, and aerosol spectrometry we were able to characterize airflow and unmitigated spore aerosol dissemination within the office test site. Subsequently, two scripted test scenarios were used to reproduce selected portions of the existing CDC response guidelines and a modified version where the contaminated letter opener warned co-workers to evacuate then waited 5 min before doing so himself. By not leaving together with other co-workers, the risk of the letter opener cross-contaminating others was eliminated. The total potential spore aerosol exposure of the letter opener was not affected by remaining still and waiting 5 min to allow co-workers to escape first before leaving the office. Closing office doors and quickly deactivating the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system significantly reduced spore aerosol concentrations outside the main open office in which they had been released.

In the natural resource and wildlife profession, we face difficulties in the production, diffusion, and transfer of rigorously tested science, especially when facing entrenched management paradigms. We present 3 case studies to illustrate the challenges in changing entrenched management paradigms for endangered species. Here we examine specifically what factors helped or hindered the adoption of management practices through the theoretical framework developed for the dissemination of technologies. An examination of 3 case studies suggests that active communication and advocacy of scientific findings, along with simple, visible results, will aid researchers in the acceptance and adoption of their research. Management agencies that increase openness and communication with outside experts, reduce bureaucratic procedures, and localize decision making increase the likelihood that new scientific ideas will be adopted by the agency. We also suggest adaptive resource management as a strategy for endangered species management may foster many of the characteristics that aid in the adoption of scientific ideas into management activities.

About two years ago the United States passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act, also called the "Simpson-Rodino" bill of 1986. The Act called for increased enforcement of migration policy, employer sanctions, and amnesty for those who could prove continuous residence since 1982. Despite considerable discussion and debate prior to the act, the legislation was passed without any comprehensive economic analysis of its potential impact on the United States or its main source of undocumented immigration, Mexico. Notwithstanding the politically charged atmosphere surrounding the bill, the sense among many in Congress and the White House that "we need to restore control over our borders," and the determination by Mexico to stay out of what it regarded as a domestic U.S. legislative matter, the absence of attention to basic economics in a bill so fundamental to the performance of both countries was surprising. In this paper we shall look at some implications of the recent immigration law for both economies, given their widely differing levels of income and productivity, the challenges each faces to restructure its economy given increased international competitiveness, and the particular problems and opportunities presented by a common border with growing labor market interdependence. By our calculations, the economic opportunity cost of Simpson-Rodin o as compared to continuation of the prior status quo will add up to a present value of $110 billion between now and the year 2000. A general equilibrium approach to the problem of migration policy indicates that the United States has even more to gain than Mexico from greater accessibility to Mexican labor in the next decade than Simpson-Rodino would permit. However, the gains to capital and the majority of higher skilled workers would be partially offset by slower earnings growth for the lowest 10 percent of its wage earners. Mexico, on the