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This paper discusses the conception of a joint intercultural students' research program of one German and two Kyrgyzstani teachers and students from the Otto-von-Guericke University of Magdeburg (Germany) and the American University of Central Asia (Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan). The paper conceptualizes such a research training program and gives reference to qualitative methods teaching in the two corresponding universities. What follows is a description of the chosen research topic: "The 'Intersections' of Gender, Family, and Society in Kyrgyzstan" and the course program. With different academic cultures concerning research ethics in the Anglo-Saxon and continental European contexts, a challenge for such a program will be addressed. A short review of the research results of the different students' teams is provided, and the paper is finalized with a self-reflection upon such a joint intercultural undertaking.

The research presented in this article is a systematic review of the literature on the assessment of mathematical modeling in the setting of mathematics education published in the previous five years. This research has compiled the current best information from around the world to offer an overview of the assessment of mathematical modeling for pre-service mathematics teachers or mathematics teachers. We followed the approach used in Joklitschke et al. (2021), which involved 10 steps in systematic literature review (SLR). We accessed using Web of Science (WoS), Scopus, and mathematics education journals that are ranked 1-10. Based on a full-text analysis of 18 peer-reviewed papers published in English, most of the research was conducted among pre-service mathematics teacher and most of the studies were conducted in Turkey, United States, and Germany. The future trends and opportunities were also discussed. We also found that most test types employed for measuring modeling competency were project, cognitive dimension, holistic approach, and the tests utilized more qualitative approach.

Intersectional approaches have become increasingly important for explaining educational inequalities because they help to improve our understanding of how individual experiences are shaped by simultaneous membership in multiple social categories that are associated with interconnected systems of power, privilege, and oppression. For years, there has been a call in psychological and educational research for quantitative approaches that can account for the intersection of multiple social categories. The present paper introduces the Multilevel Analysis of Individual Heterogeneity and Discriminatory Accuracy (MAIHDA) approach, a novel intersectional approach from epidemiology, to study educational inequalities. The MAIHDA approach uses a multilevel model as the statistical framework to define intersectional strata that represent individuals' membership in multiple social categories. By partitioning the variance within and between intersectional strata, the MAIHDA approach allows identifying intersectional effects at the strata level as well as obtaining information on the discriminatory accuracy of these strata for predicting individual educational outcomes. Compared to conventional quantitative intersectional approaches, MAIHDA analyses have several advantages, including better scalability for higher dimensions, model parsimony, and precision-weighted estimates of strata with small sample sizes. We provide a systematic review of its past application and illustrate its use by analyzing inequalities in reading achievement across 40 unique intersectional strata (combining the social categories of gender, immigrant background, parental education, and parental occupational status) using data from 15-year-old students in Germany (N = 5451). We conclude that the MAIHDA approach is a valuable intersectional tool to study inequalities in educational contexts.

International comparative ethnographic studies of ECEC (Early Childhood Education and Care) are difficult to conduct but worth the effort. Comparative studies featuring thick description and polysemic interpretations can challenge taken-for-granted assumptions, expand the menu of the possible, expose the provincialism of national approaches, and illuminate the global circulation of ECEC practices and ideas. Based on reflections on four major comparative international studies I have led, in this paper I describe effective strategies for conducting comparative ethnographic research in ECEC settings, explicate the rationale for doing so, and provide examples of how this approach can impact research, practice, and policy. Issues I address include the rationale for selecting countries for comparison, the formation of a research team, and distributing interpretive voice and power.

In our paper, we aim to give an overview about the emergence and evolvement of the history of education in Hungary. Nevertheless, we intend to surpass the traditional approach of giving a schematic description of these processes as we would like to depict the interconnectedness of the Hungarian history of education with the European research tendencies and the thematic variety of the Hungarian research activities. We used literature analysis, historical source analysis and descriptive statistical analysis as primary methods. Within Hungary, we pay special attention to the University of Budapest but we also reflect special peculiarities regarding the other full universities in the country. The Hungarian history of education followed the pathway of the German-speaking countries regarding the approach and the function until 1948. History of education had a self-legitimising role in the emerging national education system and modernised university environment; however, this characteristic feature did not exclude the incorporation of international research approaches. This function was slightly altered in the interwar period since leading researchers of the subfield contributed to maintaining the ideological coherence of the political structure. During the socialist period, researchers were expected to follow the directives of their Soviet colleagues; however, in the 1970s the homogeneity in themes and research approaches began loosening. As the result of the political regime change in 1989/1990, Hungarian research was given an opportunity to be integrated into the European exchange of ideas and implement research approaches prevalent in Western countries.

The growing need to improve the quality and efficiency of translation by using technology has stimulated the practice of and research into translation technology teaching (TTT). Naturally, there is a need to analyse the state of the art and development of TTT from a quantitative perspective, because such research is still very scarce. This paper uses the bibliometric technologies, CiteSpace and VOSviewer in particular, to delineate the publication information of TTT-related research mainly in two citation databases, i.e., Web of Science (WoS) and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), from the year 1999 to 2020. It finds that China is gaining importance in TTT-related research, that international English-language publications pay more attention to the teaching of MTPE, while Chinese-language publications focus more on corpus-based TTT, and that English publications tend to use empirical methods, while Chinese publications tend to adopt non-empirical methods. The differences between the two publication communities in research methods and focuses call for contact and exchange between the two communities.

Comparing places represents one of the most traditional threads of comparative inquiry. However, international and comparative (adult) education research has to date focused on comparing places more in the sense of territorial entities. In contrast, this paper moves away from understandings of national or regional territories as given, container-like units, criticised as methodological nationalism. It draws instead on theoretical approaches of social spatiality and, in particular, on Werlen's works on action-centred geography. Findings of qualitative research on organisations providing adult education in two cross-border regions at Germany's territorial periphery serve as an empirical framework, analysing the programme planning activities of their managerial staff. The paper argues that it is the pedagogical actions and practices of these professionals, rather than the territorial entities, that become the "tertium comparationis," eliciting the professionals' share in the overall process of (re)producing social space and, ultimately, territory.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to present the development of an integrated sustainability reporting. In this paper success criteria are named and empirical values when dealingwith specific challenges are formulated. The focus is on the development of criteria for reporting, the involvement of university members and quality assurance. Design/methodology/approach: The voluntary and compulsory reporting requirements of German universities are presented, and the concept for integrated reporting is developed from them. Possible criteria catalogues for the evaluation of sustainable development are presented and evaluated. However, the focus is on the practical experience that the university has made in the launch and implementation of an integrated sustainability reporting--both in terms of content and organisation. Findings: A prerequisite for the preparation of a sustainability reporting is that the university develops a common understanding of sustainability and formulates objectives. This results in a structure for the reporting which is self-explanatory. For the project management before, during and after the reporting, it is indispensable to structure the work sequence (data collection, data analysis, text editor, etc) and to ensure a process-accompanying communication. Participation by all university groups in reporting is necessary. Practical implications: Universities have a special responsibility for the sustainable development of society. To be accountable for their activities in the field of sustainability, the practical report provides a handbook on which universities can set up their own sustainability reporting. Originality/value: At German universities, there is a lively discussion on how to define a criteria catalogue to report objectively on sustainability. The Eberswalde University for Sustainable Development is involved in the discussion and, at the same time, sets a good example. This article describes the practical implementation of the Sustainability Report.

Taking the establishment of structured doctoral programmes in Germany as an example, this paper focuses on how knowledge production in certain academic fields reshapes their doctoral education in a widely changing policy context. Based on case studies of eight graduate schools in three research fields, namely economics, life sciences, and literature--cultural studies, this paper illustrates the different components of structured doctoral programmes in the above three fields, and analyses the heterogeneity in the motivation and pathways of doctoral education reform. This paper concludes that the structured doctoral programmes in Germany manifest several characteristics of the new mode of knowledge production. However, these characteristics have very different implications for different academic fields, which should be taken into consideration when making relevant policies.

Purpose: To extend knowledge about measurement equivalence of depression measures assessed by tablet and paper-pencil administration, the present study evaluated the effect of mode of administration (MoA) on scale and item level for the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and the Aachen Depression Item Bank (ADIB) in elderly patients.Methods: Primary care patients (N = 193, ≥60 years) were assessed following a crossover design in Leipzig, Germany. All participants filled out the PHQ-9 and the ADIB in both MoAs under study. Effects of MoA were analyzed by intra-class correlation, mixed-effects regression, and differential item functioning (DIF). Additionally, detection rates between both MoAs were compared using receiver operating characteristics analysis compared to a diagnostic interview (SCID-I, N = 163).Results: No effect of MoA was found in the PHQ-9 on scale score or item level. Two ADIB items showed DIF according to MoA. In terms of discriminatory power, MoA did not influence detection rates of both instruments.Conclusions: In summary, our findings suggest that no severe effect of mode of administration on self-report assessments of depression should be expected. It can be concluded that tablets provide a valid way to electronically assess depressive symptoms in elderly patients. Yet changes in item presentation can influence the psychometric properties and require equivalence testing using sophisticated analyses on item level such as DIF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on commonalities and differences of three approaches to large-scale professional development (PD) in mathematics education, based on two studies from Germany and one from the United States of America. All three initiatives break new ground in improving PD targeted at educating "multipliers", and in all three cases specific design principles for successful PD are defined, implemented, and discussed. All three teams systematically investigate the success of their PD activity and thereby discuss their theoretical assumptions, research questions, methods, and results. Given the goal of scaling up, the initiatives are pilot projects due to the relatively small number of participants. The paper highlights the diversity of approaches, each including various specific strengths but also some limitations. This is done by analyzing the three studies regarding the features "large-scale PD and scientific knowledge on it", "goals and design of PD", "research design and methods", and "research results and implications". Overall, the studies help to understand the enormous challenges of the field when aiming at large-scale PD and systematically investigating and reflecting its impact. One prominent challenge is teacher educators' double role of intervening and investigating. All three studies recommend a continued or even stronger focus on participants' practice and its challenges. It makes sense to assume that the focus on participants' practice and strengths is even more important when starting further cascades.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to introduce methodology and findings of a trend study in the field of e-learning. The overall interest of the study was the analysis of scientific e-learning discourses. What comes next in the field of academic e-learning? Which e-learning trends dominate the discourse at universities? Answering such questions is the basis for the adaptation of service strategies and IT-infrastructures within institutions of higher education. Design/methodology/approach: Which e-learning formats dominate the current scientific discourse? To answer this question, a trend study based on a content analysis was performed. The abstracts of 427 scientific articles of leading German-speaking e-learning conferences Gesellschaft für Medien in der Wissenschaft and E-Learning-Fachtagungen der Gesellschaft für Informatik e. V. (GMW and DeLFI)--published from 2007 to 2013--were examined. A category scheme was derived from the Horizon Report. The category scheme then was gradually expanded and adapted to the data material during the investigation. Findings: This paper found that the detailed analysis of the frequency distribution over the seven years reflects the intensity of scientific discussion towards e-learning trends within the investigation period, and conclusions about the didactical or technical potentials of innovations can be drawn because both conferences are different in terms of their objective. The authors also classified the life stages of selected innovations based on the Gartner hype cycles, and the striking findings of the study will be formulated in the form of assumptions, which reflect the development potential of learning management, mobile learning, virtual worlds, e-portfolio, social media and Massive Open Online Courses in German Higher Education. Research limitations/implications: Only abstracts of the selected contributions were investigated. Errors in the category allocation due to unclear terminology cannot be excluded. Organisers of the investigated conferences often define the (main) topics. This influenced the spectrum of represented topics overall, as well as the focus of individual contributions. The above-presented study was conducted at German-speaking conferences and, therefore, reflects the situation in Germany, Switzerland and Austria. No conclusions about actors or institutional relationships can be made, in contrast to the original assumptions of discourse analysis. The categorial classification of contributions does not allow any conclusions about the quality of the discourse. Originality/value: The study shows how proceedings of scientific conferences can be used for trend studies. It became clear that discourse analytical studies can be used complementary to other methods of future studies. The advantage of this methodology lies mainly in the easy access to the text material, as conference proceedings are mostly available online. In addition, the analysis of large amounts of data (or texts) can be greatly facilitated by use of digital technologies (e.g. by automatic analysis of keyword). This paper makes an important contribution to the diffusion of digital media in higher education.

This paper presents findings from two studies of publication patterns in leading English, German, European and US journals of education. The studies were funded by the German Research Association and conducted by an international team of researchers. All papers published in 14 selected journals between 2001 and 2010 were analysed in terms of their author profile, their methodological approach and their thematic focus. The analyses resulted in publication patterns for the selected journals and at an aggregated level for the four geographic areas in which journals are published, highlighting many similarities, but also distinct differences. As far as the differences are concerned, the lower share of female authors and the relative low proportion of papers drawing on empirical research in German journals are noteworthy. For US journals, the comparatively low importance of papers drawing on the international research discourse seems to be particularly important. Based on an analysis of related studies in this field the paper demonstrates a degree of alignment of publication patterns with disciplinary traditions and formation processes in the field of education. However, the trend analysis provided also shows that some of the traditional boundaries of education as an academic discipline are in a state of flux.

Among the surprising results of research on the relation between a person's material circumstances and his or her subjective well-being was the finding that this relationship appears to be rather weak (throughout this paper the terms "(general) life satisfaction", "(subjective) satisfaction", "happiness" and "subjective well-being" will be used interchangeably. The same applies to the terms "material circumstances", "material conditions", "material situation" and "material well-being"). However, more recently authors began to ask the question, whether this might at least in part be explained by the insufficiencies of income as an indicator for the material situation. Building on this idea, they have shown that the inclusion of alternative measures for the respondents' material situation--such as wealth measures in particular--reveals that the relationship between a person's material well-being and his or her subjective well-being might just be somewhat stronger than researchers thought before. The paper will follow this lead but will go beyond current research by first, systematically reviewing the various approaches available for measuring the material situation and second, by proposing the use of a so-called deprivation index, an alternative measure of material well-being, which is frequently used in the context of poverty research (compare e.g. Townsend in "Poverty in the United Kingdom", Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, 1979; Hallerod in "J Eur Soc Policy" 5:111-129, 1995; Nolan and Whelan in "J Eur Soc Policy" 6:225-240, 1996). It will be argued, that such a deprivation based measure will perform better than indicators like income or wealth when analyzing the relationship between material conditions and subjective well-being. This hypothesis will be tested using three different German datasets. Based on this data it will be shown that in all cases deprivation measures perform better in explaining differences in subjective well-being than the alternatives. However, both types of measures seem to capture slightly different aspects of the material situation, a result which has also been found in the poverty literature cited above. Thus using a combination of both seems to be the best alternative.

For about two decades only marginal relevance was attributed to action research as a research strategy by large sections of the German social science community. The growing international debate on key concepts such as community participation, community-based participatory research and participatory action research were largely ignored. In this paper we want to clarify our concept of action research and to provide arguments for the need to re-evaluate the research potential of this approach. We illustrate the arguments by an analysis of one of the most successful in-service education of teachers' courses in Austria, which is based on action research ("Education and subject matter didactics for teachers"). The second part of the paper argues that the growing number of practical action research examples in German-speaking countries indicates a social demand for this type of research. The paper ends with a theoretical discussion of frequent objections against action research in the German research tradition. (Contains 4 notes.)

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to offer a comparison of how human expertise is perceived by human resource development (HRD) scholars across several Western European countries and in the USA. Design/methodology/approach: A qualitative, exploratory approach using electronic mail was used for this study. In total, 36 leading HRD scholars from 11 different countries were interviewed. Findings: There is a propensity of several countries to converge towards common themes. Based on this fact, a European-US definition of expertise is offered: expertise is the combination of knowledge, experience, and skills held by a person in a specific domain. Research limitations/implications: One major limitation is the selection of "experts" to describe "expertise". Second, although all but one European interviewee spoke fluent English, the questions were asked in English. Third, virtual ethnography coupled with traditional interviewing is known to be best. Fourth, the research is deeply embedded in one field. Finally, the rather small sample size underrepresented some countries. Practical implications: The findings provide HRD practitioners with a better understanding of training and development practices and give additional ground for employee development. They shed light on cultural differences and on cross-national communication. As organizations increasingly expand worldwide and outsource, understanding expertise across nations can provide insights into selection and hiring procedures and help with cross-cultural training for expatriates. Expertise can also be used as a performance measure to develop employees for optimal performance. Originality/value: The paper explores a training and development construct internationally. (Contains 1 table.)

Spending just a few hours in the classroom situation as a participant observer, one definitely recognizes "boredom" as one of the main features of this situation. In spite of the obvious relevance of boredom in the classroom situation there is almost no research on the topic of boredom at school. Boredom seems to be a taboo of sorts in school research. The paper first deals with methodological problems concerning the exploration of boredom. How can boredom be analysed by the means of ethnography assuming that the ethnographer himself is not bored? On the other hand in the classroom situation boredom becomes a collective phenomenon. Boredom is shown and is communicated in the context of the students' peer culture. What is the "meaning" of boredom? Analysing ethnographic data, the paper suggests that "boredom" is a powerful sign distinguishing oneself from the specific task or the whole surrounding. Being bored means being detached. Concerning the teacher-student interaction there seems to be a tacit consent about the "normality" of boredom in school lessons. Everybody knows that school is (sometimes) boring, but the problem of boredom may not be made explicit. (Contains 1 figure and 14 notes.)

Purpose: To assess the Luneburg Sustainable University Project (the Project) in a non-European international context; to relate the project scholarly approach to selected scholarly and practice-oriented North American sustainability in higher education (SHE) methods; to analyze project innovations against North American initiatives. Design/methodology/approach: Benchmarking indicators were developed inductively in four SHE areas--governance/administration, curriculum/student opportunities, research/scholarship, and operations--via thematic content analysis of 15 descriptions of USA and Canadian universities active in SHE. Data were triangulated with data from the four Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education Campus Sustainability Leaders 2006. Findings: The assessment against selected North American peers suggests that the project is unique in its scholarly approach to and scientific foundation of sustainability in higher education. The transdisciplinary transformative case study is not replicated at any of the comparison institutions; however, elements of the approach and scholarly framework can be found at all North American universities participating in this assessment. North American institutions tend to excel in operational innovations to keep abreast of international developments, University of Luneburg is encouraged to commit to a climate-neutral campus strategy and to implement a sustainability management system, amongst other initiatives. Practical implications: Knowledge transfer and capacity-building North American post-secondary institutions can learn from the theoretically-guided, applied research-based approach to SHE. Through intensified exchange partnerships with North American peers, the project and the University of Luneburg stand to profit from community-based research approaches and the practice-oriented work of USA and Canadian campus sustainability offices. Originality/value: The paper contributes an "outsider's perspective" to the project evaluation. Methodologically, the paper contributes to inductive SHE indicator development. (Contains 5 tables and 4 notes.)

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to outline the particular character of the research and development project "Sustainable University--Sustainable development in the Context of University Remits" which lies both in its integrative perspective on universities and the attempt to transfer its findings onto other higher education institutions. Design/methodology/approach: The paper describes the testing and further development of transdisciplinary research methods (transformative approach, scenario development) for the purpose of both exploring and testing potentials/capabilities for sustainable development of a single institution (case study University of Luneburg, Germany) against the backdrop of sustainability concept; and making this kind of development transferable to other universities. The paper offers additional reinforcement of strategic scope/effectiveness by means of reference to findings of higher education research (e.g. relevance of neo-institutionalism). Findings: There is empirical evidence for successful development of transdisciplinary techniques for sustainability in higher education domains (among others management, research, and teaching--cf. other contributions of this issue). Further, dissemination of the "Luneburg Approach" by establishing an intermediate level of collaboration between sustainability activists within universities and in higher education policy and administration (e.g. constitution of working groups in northern Germany and at the federal level). Research limitations/implications: There is a need for enhancing research tools for transdisciplinary sustainability science; deliberating on international transferability (current focus: (solely) German academia). Practical implication: A systemic approach is indispensable: instead of focusing upon isolated sustainability fields of action (management, research, teaching, etc.), all-embracing advancement to encompass their strategic relationships and thus synergies. Originality/value: The paper provides a holistic view of academic organisations addressing the issue of how universities are to be proactive in advancing sustainable development. (Contains 4 figures, 1 table and 1 note.)

This paper describes a three-year curriculum innovation project on teaching about climate change. The innovation for this study focused on a socio-critical approach towards teaching climate change in four different teaching domains (biology, chemistry, physics and politics). The teaching itself explicitly aimed at general educational objectives, i.e., fostering students' communication and evaluation abilities as essential components for preparing young people for active participation in society. Participatory Action Research has been used as a collaborative strategy of cyclical curriculum innovation and research. Using past experiences and selected results from accompanying research, this project and its methodology will be reflected upon from the viewpoint of the chemistry group taking part in the project. Core issues reflected upon include how the project contributed to the creation of feasible curriculum materials, how it led to innovative structures in practice, and whether it supported experienced teachers' ongoing professional development. General considerations for the process of curriculum innovation will also be derived.

This paper discusses the contribution of international studies on educational effectiveness in the light of 4 papers presented at the new ICSEI Methodology of Research and Effectiveness (MORE) Network in Barcelona in January 2005 and published in this issue of the journal. A brief historical overview is used to provide a context for these papers and a number of themes are identified in relation to the secondary analysis of international datasets such as TIMSS and PISA. The value of creating a new international teacher observation and feedback instrument to facilitate collaborative international research is discussed. In addition, the paper discusses the value of comparative studies of education policy in different national systems using the example of a high profile study of successful countries (in terms of PISA 2000 results) initiated by the Deutsches Institut fur Internationale Padagogische Forschung to inform a review of the German system.

This paper reports the findings from an investigation into the distance learning support systems of a UK University's overseas MBA programme. This programme is provided to several countries around the world in alliance with the overseas' local higher educational institutions (HEIs), and is delivered primarily via online courses, but also with periods of face-to-face teaching by both UK and local staff. The aim of the research was to evaluate the learning support mechanisms that are used to deliver this programme overseas, and to determine their impact on the learning experience of the MBA students. The primary research method was questionnaire surveys which were conducted over two periods: April-July 2008, and January-March 2009. The first survey showed a high level of satisfaction with the MBA programme as delivered, but also indicated areas that could see further improvement. The impacts of programme changes were examined in the second survey which revealed students' improved satisfaction with the programme after the implementation of the changes in the programme support systems. The outcomes of this research have not only helped improve the learning support systems and enhanced the quality of this particular programme, but could also help provide guidelines for other HEIs that offer, or intend to offer, blended learning courses globally. (Contains 12 tables and 2 figures.)

This paper describes, by focusing on factor analytic structures, pupils' reactions towards the utilisation and preservation of nature. A previously hypothesised model based on these two domains (comprised of 5 primary factors) was shown to be valid for four different Western European pupil samples: CH, D, DK, IRL. The empirical basis of this present paper comprises a survey of about 900 French pupils of both genders aged between 11 and 16 years from rural areas who responded to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. Data from the remaining European samples added some 4000 respondents based on the same objective test each. The purpose of the present study was five-fold: Firstly, to test and confirm the hypothesised primary and secondary factor structure for the combined data set. Secondly, to apply the methods of linear structural relationship analysis to test the existence of two higher-order factors (the domains: "Preservation" and "Utilisation"). Thirdly, to investigate any age or gender effect in the primary factors. Fourthly, to provide an age-adjusted empirical instrument for evaluation purposes of educational programmes featuring conservation and environmental protection. Finally, to compare the means within-region factor scores in anticipation of substantial between-region differences. These differences followed a rather consistent pattern supporting the interpretation that "utilising" nature is negatively correlated with positive environmental reactions. (Contains 7 tables and 3 figures.)

Social work in the German rehabilitation sector is practiced with great variation and its interventions lack research evidence. The SWIMMER project aims to develop a program theory of social work in rehabilitation to explain this variation and to discuss possible conditions. The dealing with ethical dilemmas by social workers is one possible influence and the focus of this paper. The social workers' practice was analyzed using the triple mandate, a German-Swiss concept that describes three possible, sometimes simultaneous directives without a concrete call to action from society, the client or the profession. This qualitative, case-comparative research project collected data from interviews with social workers and managers, participant observation and counseling sessions in ten German rehabilitation facilities. Social workers were confronted with all three mandates. They prioritized either the societal mandate or the client mandate. A consequence for social work practice was the limitation of options under social law (mandate by society). Social workers relied on their professional experience to reflect on the mandates. They used a variety of strategies when faced with conflicting mandates. The research project has succeeded in systematizing the orientations of social workers in goal conflicts. Further investigation on this topic on a broader basis would be beneficial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the theme of learning outside of the home society through the use of ethnography and the techniques of field study for students living and working in Mexico, Austria, and Germany. Demonstrates through the observations of students how effective the use of field research methods can be in learning about social relations, cultural traditions, and social habits. (Author/VWL)

Quantitative metrics in research assessment are proliferating all over the world. The demand has led to an increase in bibliometric practitioners and service providers. Their professional roles and competencies have not yet been subject to systematic study. This paper focuses on one important service provider in evaluative bibliometrics--academic librarians--and analyzes their professional competencies from a sociology of professions perspective. To this end, expert interviews with 25 British and German information professionals and several documents have been analyzed qualitatively. Academic librarians compete with other occupations for professional jurisdiction in quantitative research assessment. The main currency in this competition is their expert knowledge. Our results show that academic librarians rely strongly on the know-how gained in their academic Library and Information Science (LIS) training and develop a specific jurisdictional claim towards research assessment, consisting primarily in training, informing and empowering users to proficiently manage the task of evaluating scientific quality themselves. Based on these findings, and informed by the theoretical framework of Andrew Abbott, our conceptual proposal is to adapt formal training in bibliometrics to the various specific professional approaches prevalent in the jurisdictional competition surrounding quantitative research assessment.

Introduction: The digitalisation of the German healthcare system enables a wide range of opportunities to utilize healthcare data. The implementation of the EHR in January 2021 was a significant step, but compared to other European countries, the implementation of the EHR in the German healthcare system is still at an early stage. The aim of this paper is to characterise the structural factors relating to the adoption of the EHR in more detail from the perspective of representatives of stakeholders working in the German healthcare system and to identify existing barriers to implementation and the need for change. Methods: Qualitative expert interviews were conducted with one representative from each of the stakeholder groups health insurance, pharmacies, healthcare research, EHR development and panel doctors. Results: The interviews with the various stakeholders revealed that the implementation process of the EHR is being delayed by a lack of a viable basis for decision-making, existing conflicts of interest and insufficient consideration of the needs of patients and service providers, among other things. Discussion: The current status of EHR implementation is due to deficiency in legal regulations as well as structural problems and the timing of the introduction. For instance, the access rights of various stakeholders to the EHR data and the procedure in the event of a technical failure of the telematics infrastructure are remain unclear. In addition, insufficient information and communication measures have not led to the desired acceptance of EHR use among patients and service providers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to purposefully access, reflect, and use evidence from educational research (Educational Research Literacy) is expected of future professionals in educational practice. Based on the presented conceptual framework, a test instrument was developed to assess the different competency aspects: Information Literacy, Statistical Literacy, and Evidence-based Reasoning. This paper addresses the question of whether this test allows monitoring students' development during courses on research methods in educational science. In winter semester 2013/14, two courses in Early Education and Teacher Training degree programs were accompanied. Both cross-sectional (multidimensional latent regression models) and longitudinal (paired t tests of plausible values) comparisons are reported. The results indicate no significant differences in competencies between the degree programs at start of the semester. For the end of semester, only data of the Early Education course was available. These course participants showed higher proficiency in all aspects of educational research literacy. In conclusion, the results are discussed with regard to the goals of the assessment of competencies in higher education, particularly the use of test feedback for course development, and desiderata for future research (e.g., ability to transfer research into practice) are stated.

The research we report on was conducted from our computer desktops. We have not met the people we have studied; they are part of what Eichhorn described as a "textual community", gathered around the threads of online conversations associated with a website servicing the needs of English-language speakers in Germany. The thread in question started in 2008 with a query from someone about to move to Berlin, seeking advice about the best international school in which to enrol her three children. The ensuing conversations are revealing, not only because of the schools canvassed and the manner in which they are discussed, but also because of the schools that are not charted into the discussion. This paper raises questions about qualitative research methodologies in online settings, particularly in relation to studies of the global middle-class. It examines claims about an emerging commitment to "nonlocal ethnography" and the surmising one can make about research subjects one never meets, but who remain comprehensible because of the broader cultural context in which they are situated. The research carries the promise of "rich enough" ethnography, reflecting a commitment to understanding what people "do", documenting and analysing the intricate realities influencing and shaping individual choices people make, the complexities they face and the realities they help create. The fact that it was done "at a distance", in so-called virtual spaces, does not undermine its ethnographic authenticity.

Background: Reading comprehension is frequently impaired in persons with aphasia (PWA). For goal‐setting and outcome measurement, speech and language therapists (SLTs) need to determine an individual's perspective of their reading difficulties and everyday reading activities. The Comprehensive Assessment of Reading in Aphasia (CARA) reading questionnaire provides a person‐centred tool to find out the individual perception of reading functions, reading‐related emotions and reading activities in PWA. It was developed and evaluated in English. So far, there is no equivalent instrument in German. Aims: To translate and adapt the CARA reading questionnaire into German language and culture, to evaluate its practicability and acceptance, and to provide the first psychometric properties of the German version. Methods & Procedures: Based on translation and adaptation guidelines, we conducted two forward translations that were merged and then adapted. A back translation was prepared and compared with the original version. It was found to be semantically equivalent by one of the authors of the original version. We performed pilot testing with 12 PWA, and the pilot version was adapted according to the comments of these participants. We then collected data on self‐reported perception of reading and on psychometric properties of the translated and adapted German version. A total of 22 German‐speaking PWA completed the questionnaire at least five times during an intervention study. We analysed retest reliability with Spearman correlation, internal consistency with Cronbach's alpha, internal responsiveness with the standardized response mean, as well as the relationship between outcomes of the questionnaire and text comprehension measures using repeated measures correlations. Outcomes & Results: Our data suggest good practicability and acceptance of the German version of the CARA reading questionnaire as well as appropriate validity, reliability and sensitivity to measure therapy‐induced change. We found moderate correlations between outcomes of the questionnaire and text‐level reading speed. Conclusions & Implications: The German version of the CARA reading questionnaire could be helpful in intervention planning and goal‐setting with German‐speaking PWA. By using the questionnaire, SLTs can find out about a person's individual perception of reading difficulties as well as individually relevant reading activities. The questionnaire provides a tool to measure change and is therefore valuable to demonstrate self‐reported individual progress. As reading speed seems to be an indicator of personal perception of reading difficulty, it is important to consider reading speed in reading interventions and in reading comprehension assessments. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: Reading comprehension is frequently impaired in PWA. Reading preferences, the perception of difficulties and the impact on everyday life reading activities are specific to the individual and thus need to be known for goal‐setting, intervention planning and monitoring of change. As part of a comprehensive assessment of reading, Morris et al. developed a person‐centred English language questionnaire for this purpose. So far, there is no equivalent tool in German. What this paper adds to the existing knowledge: In this study, we translated and adapted the questionnaire to German language and culture, and analysed its validity and reliability with German‐speaking PWA. We demonstrated that the German version is accessible for German‐speaking PWA, and that it has appropriate validity, reliability and sensitivity to measure self‐reported change. Outcomes of the questionnaire correlate with text level reading speed. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: The German version of the questionnaire could be a valuable self‐reported outcome measure to assess individual perceptions of reading and to measure progress (as perceived by an individual) as a consequence of recovery or intervention in either clinical or research settings. As reading speed might be an indicator of everyday life reading as perceived by an individual, it should be considered in reading assessments and interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Erich Christian Wittmann is one of the primary founders of mathematics education research as an autonomous field of work and research in Germany. The interview presented here reflects on his role in promoting mathematics education as a design science. The interview addresses the following topics: (1) The importance of subject matter in international traditions in mathematics education; (2) Mathematics education as design science; (3) The importance of the subject matter for research in mathematics education; and (4) The importance of the subject matter for teaching of mathematics.

Aims: To investigate factors that influence the willingness of inactive nurses to return to nursing in a crisis situation and to identify aspects that need to be considered with regard to a possible deployment. Design: A deductive and inductive qualitative content analysis of semi-structured focus group interviews. Methods: Semi-structured focus group interviews with inactive or marginally employed nurses, nurses who have been inactive for some time and nursing home managers in October and November 2021. The participating inactive nurses had declared their willingness for a deployment during the COVID-19 pandemic or not. Data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. Results: Communication was seen as essential by the participants for an informed decision for or against a temporary return to nursing and to potential or actual deployments. To make them feel safe, inactive nurses need to know what to expect and what is expected of them, for example, regarding required training and responsibilities. Considering their current employment status, some flexibility in terms of deployment conditions is needed. A remaining attachment to care can trigger a sense of duty. Knowledge of (regular) working conditions in nursing can lead to both a desire to support former colleagues and a refusal to be exposed to these conditions again. Conclusion: Past working experiences and the current employment situation play a major role in the willingness of inactive nurses to return to nursing in a crisis situation. Unbureaucratic arrangements must be provided for those who are willing to return. Summary Statement: • What already is known - In crisis situations, not every inactive nurse is willing or able to return to nursing and therefore, the 'silent reserve' may not be as large as suspected. • What this paper adds - Inactive nurses need to know what to expect and what is expected of them for their decision regarding a return to active patient care during a crisis situation. • Implications for practice/policy -- Inactive nurses need to be informed and should be offered free training and refresher courses to ensure patient safety. Impact: This research shows that the group of inactive nurses are not a silent workforce which can be activated anytime. Those who are able and willing to return to direct patient care in crisis situations need the best possible support -- during and between crises. Reporting Method: This study adhered to COREQ guidelines. No Patient or Public Contribution: The involvement of patients or members of the public did not apply for the study, as the aim was to gain insight into the motivations and attitudes of the group of inactive nurses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes the development and validation of an instrument to assess how students deal with emotionally challenging classroom situations (the DECCS Questionnaire). The questionnaire is based on a vignette with one learning and one performance situation in a classroom, and is intended for students in grades 4 to 7. On a sample of N = 639 students (M ag e = 10.6 years; SD = 1.25, 52.4% girls) in northwest Germany, factor analytic procedures for the subdimensions of students dealing with emotionally challenging classroom situations show that two factors can be distinguished each for students' appraisals, for students' adaptive behavior, for students' maladaptive behavior, and for students' desired teacher behavior. The questionnaire and subscales demonstrate good reliability and validity values. Thus, the DECCS questionnaire shows good psychometric properties and is well suited for determining how students deal with emotionally challenging classroom situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: It is often claimed that psychology students' attitudes towards research methods and statistics affect course enrolment, persistence, achievement, and course climate. However, the inter-institutional variability has been widely neglected in the research on students' attitudes towards research methods and statistics, but it is important for didactic purposes (heterogeneity of the student population). Aims: The paper presents a scale based on findings of the social psychology of attitudes (polar and emotion-based concept) in conjunction with a method for capturing beginning university students' attitudes towards research methods and statistics and identifying the proportion of students having positive attitudes at the institutional level. Sample: The study based on a re-analysis of a nationwide survey in Germany in August 2000 of all psychology students that enrolled in fall 1999/2000 ("N" = 1,490) and "N" = 44 universities. Methods: Using multilevel latent-class analysis (MLLCA), the aim was to group students in different student attitude types and at the same time to obtain university segments based on the incidences of the different student attitude types. Results: Four student latent clusters were found that can be ranked on a bipolar attitude dimension. Membership in a cluster was predicted by age, grade point average (GPA) on school-leaving exam, and personality traits. In addition, two university segments were found: universities with an average proportion of students with positive attitudes and universities with a high proportion of students with positive attitudes (excellent segment). Conclusions: As psychology students make up a very heterogeneous group, the use of multiple learning activities as opposed to the classical lecture course is required. (Contains 6 tables and 3 figures.)

In the eighteenth century, the German pedagogical discourse took place within the broader framework of an international circulation of pedagogical concepts and ideas. The trans-cultural nature of these intellectual exchanges is particularly evident in the thoughts and writings on female education. Translations of books and essays played a significant role in this transfer of pedagogical knowledge. The article focuses on the manner in which educational thought circulated across borders by studying one case in detail. The examination of John Burton's "Lectures on Female Education and Manners" (1793), which was published in German in several editions, will place particular emphasis on the manner in which educational ideas emerging from a specific cultural context are adopted into a different discursive system. The research methodology is based on the concept of "cultural transfer", an approach that has proven fruitful in transfer and comparative studies in recent years. It refers to key aspects of transfer theory, especially the consideration that ideas do not spread autonomously, but must be carried by intermediaries. Thus, the mechanisms of importing foreign cultural assets and the context of its reception will be at the core of this work. (Contains 74 footnotes.)

Several authors (e.g., Mcniff & Whitehead, 2006; Wallace, 1998) defend the idea that teachers' own involvement in research has the potential to encourage professional growth. Journal writing, teacher logs, written narratives and stimulated recall are some examples of methods that have been used by researchers to encourage and support teachers' reflective practice in teacher-researcher collaborative research. This paper discusses the use of video-stimulated reflection as both a research method and as a means for teacher professional growth. The research findings are drawn from a longitudinal study that investigates a model of Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) technology professional development programme. The research was carried out in the form of seven in-depth case studies with English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in German secondary/vocational schools, as they learn how to integrate the IWB into their teaching. Research data were collected via a variety of research instruments, namely classroom observations and field notes, video recordings of school lessons and teacher training workshops, interviews and video-stimulated reflection. Findings based on the analysis of the copious amount of data gathered indicate that the video-stimulated dialogues were used by the teachers as effective opportunities for reflection, self-evaluation and pedagogical development. (Contains 3 figures, 2 tables, and 2 footnotes.)

This paper focuses on teachers of secondary level religious education in England, Estonia, France, Germany, the Netherlands and Norway. It presents a study of the teachers' perceptions of and responses to the diversity within their classes, in relation to their professional role and their personal and professional biographies. The study employed biographical research methods and 36 teachers were interviewed. Key findings were that, in every country, there was a clear relationship between individual teachers' personal biographies and how they responded to religious and/or cultural diversity and common cross-national strategies for dealing with these aspects of diversity. However, socio-cultural factors within each country (including dominant views of the relationship between religion and education) affected the ways in which the teachers perceived the diversity within their classes and there were national differences in how teachers prioritised aspects of diversity. The study concludes that if teachers of religion are to extend the range of their responses to classroom diversity, they would benefit from opportunities to reflect on the relationship between their perceptions of and responses to religious and cultural diversity, their personal biographies, and national requirements and expectations related to their professional role.

Purpose: The overall purpose of the European Union-funded Leadership Improvement for Student Achievement (LISA) project was to explore how leadership styles, as conceptualized in the developed dynamic holistic leadership framework, directly or indirectly affect student achievement at the lower secondary level of education in seven European countries. This paper seeks to address this issue. Design/methodology/approach: In its methodological design the study is a mixture of research methods and collaborative action research shared by acting school leaders and researchers. A series of statistical analyses was carried out in order to gather evidence whether the data from the LISA project supported the initially developed holistic leadership theoretical framework. Consequently, first some descriptive statistics are introduced in order to acquaint the reader with the kind of data the survey used from the schoolteacher questionnaires. Further, some explanations are laid out with regard to the methodologies employed in order to analyze the data, such as the treatment of missing data and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis structural equation models (SEM); then, a description of the main findings is offered through the analyses, which were conducted in order to predict school performance level from the relevant leadership style, followed by between-countries comparisons and analyses. Finally, an in-depth discussion and interpretations of the main findings--both integrative and concludive in nature--are offered. Findings: The quantitative analyses stemming from confirmatory factor analysis and SEM identified five robust underlying dimensions of practised leadership styles across the seven participating European countries. Furthermore, the findings stemming from the logistic regression analyses pointed out clearly the complementary inter-relationships of the main research questions of the study and analytical strands, especially with regard to the impact of certain intermediate variables on student achievement. Originality/value: The expected results of this approach are predominantly assumed/seen as an enrichment in the grounding of hypothetical and theoretical ideas as well as professional development for both school principals and researchers. Such an equal contribution of school leaders and school leaders' organizations and researchers could probably provide a model for future professional development programs for both groups of professionals. (Contains 4 tables and 9 figures.)

The review of TLRP's research that is presented in this volume offers manifold aspects that are worth reflecting on. In my contribution, I concentrate on two aspects that are especially interesting from an international perspective or, more precisely, from a German point of view. The first is a general reflection on the education and science policies that frame educational research in the United Kingdom and Germany. The second is related to the concept of "effective pedagogy" that is presented in James and Pollard's contribution to this volume. I offer some considerations on research traditions and epistemological frameworks with respect to this concept and illustrate my remarks by looking for commonalities and possible differences between "effective pedagogy" and the German concepts of "Bildung" and "Didaktik".

Since the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child was ratified in 1991, children's right to have a voice, and to have their opinions heard, has led many providers and practitioners in the field of early years to seek ways to involve children's perspectives in the evaluation and development of practice. Those who value democracy understand that encouraging young children to actively participate has long term implications for participatory citizenship. Researchers in early childhood have also been sensitised to the challenge of inclusive research, in which our youngest children are viewed as active subjects, rather than objects, in a research process that is set in the context of a democratic encounter. The Centre for Research in Early Childhood in Birmingham, England has a strong ethical commitment to including the voices of children as an integral part of all its research and development work. We operate through an ethos of empowerment of all participants, and aim for participatory research practice which has at its heart an active involvement in promoting the rights of children as citizens with voice and power. This paper will trace a brief history of the children's participatory position in England and explore the struggles and challenges we, as researchers, have faced in making our personal commitment to children's participation a reality. It will draw upon the work of a series of research and development projects we have undertaken over the last fifteen years in which we tried to work alongside children to explore and document their realities of life in early childhood settings. These projects include the Effective Early Learning (EEL) Programme, the Accounting Early for Life Long Learning (AcE) Programme, the Children Crossing Borders Project (Bertram and Pascal 2007) and the Opening Windows (OW) Programme. Through the work of these projects, and with an especial focus on the Children Crossing Borders research, which was the precursor to the OW programme, we explain how we have attempted to provide space for multiple voices in the research process. We share our learning about how better to support and listen to the voices of young children, who are the most often silenced in the production of knowledge and understandings about their lives. From this experience, methodological and epistemological lessons for researchers and practitioners will be identified and further explored.

According to cross-sectional studies in sport science literature, decreasing sports activity with increasing age is generally assumed. In this paper, the validity of this assumption is checked by applying more effective methods of analysis, such as longitudinal and cohort sequence analyses. With the help of 20 years' worth of data records from the German Socio-Economic Panel, the development of sports activity over a lifespan is analyzed. According to inadequate cross-sectional analyses, sports activity decreases with increasing age. In contrast, longitudinal analyses show that sports activity increases with increasing age. Furthermore, cohort sequence analyses indicate that not only age but also cohort and period effects influence sports activity. Thus, different methods of analysis reveal opposite results. (Contains 5 tables and 5 notes.)

From the perspective of the ''person-object-theory of interest'' (POI) the development of interest and interest-related motivational orientations can be explained at the level of functional principles by referring to a dual regulation system that consists of both, cognitive-rational and partly subconscious emotional control mechanisms. Within this regulation system, emotional experiences related to the fulfillment of three basic needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) are presumed to play a crucial role. In the first part of this paper the basic ideas of this theoretical approach are explicated considering related concepts and models in other fields of educational and psychological research. In the second part exemplary research approaches and empirical results in the area of vocational education are presented referring to the question whether or not need-related experiences have an effect on the development of vocation-related interests and intrinsic motivational orientations. In final section some consequences for the direction of future research are discussed.

This article presents the author's critique of Anthony F. J. van Raan's article titled, "Measurement of Central Aspects of Scientific Research: Performance, Interdisciplinarity, Structure." van Raan makes an excellent case for using bibliometric data to measure some central aspects of scientific research and to construct indicators of groups: research groups, university departments, and institutes. He claims that, next to peer review, these indicators are indispensable for evaluating research and can be used in parallel with peer review processes. By way of an example, van Raan provides a table containing nine indicators for a German medical research institute. Two of these indicators--articles (P) and citations (C)--are established proxy measures for the size of a group and the impact of its published research (Katz & Hicks, 1997). The ratio between citations and articles (CPP) and the ratios between CPP and the mean Journal Citation Score and between the field-based world average and the Germany-specific world average--which are uniquely defined CPP reference values--are used to construct a set of indicators that van Raan suggests can be used to assess international research performance. This commentary focuses solely on the use of bibliometric indicators to compare international research performance. It addresses the fundamental question of whether CPP or measures like CPP can be used to accurately compare the performance of groups of different sizes. (Contains 2 figures and 4 footnotes.)

Research background: Economic relations between countries members of the EU and EU candidates are very strong. Germany and France have the leading economies of the EU, are in the top ten economies worldwide, and drivers of EU development. Serbia has strong economic relations with Germany and France, especially with Germany. Therefore, it is necessary to examine whether Germany and France impact the development of Serbia. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to determine if there is a positive influence of a developed country on a developing country. The aim of the paper is to determine whether there is a long- and short-term positive relationship between Germany and France (EU members) and the Serbian economy (EU candidate). Research methodology: A Vector Error Correction Model is used to analyze quarterly data from 2002Q2 to 2018Q2. Results: The results showed a statistically significant long-term relationship between Germany and France and Serbia's real GDPs, so EU members have a long-term positive impact on the economy of EU candidates. In the case of the French, there is a short-run positive impact on the Serbian economy. For Germany, it is not the case. Novelty: This paper fills the literature gap about the influence of a developed country on a developing country. Recommendations for policymakers in EU candidates could be that if they want to motivate people to accept the process of access to the EU, they must provide them with more information about long-run economic benefits from the association to the EU. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The digitization of German hospitals is proceeding continuously, leading to the implementation of new digital technologies, such as electronic health records (EHRs) or other technologies, used for the purpose of medical documentation tasks. Even though the replacement of paper documentation through digitized documentation in general promises to come along with plenty of benefits, the daily utilization of technologies might also lead to stresses and strains among the medical staff, eventually possibly leading to the development of different negative work and health-related outcomes. This study, therefore, aims at identifying persisting digitization-associated stressors and resources among medical hospital staff, examining their influences on different work and health-related outcomes, and finally, identifying potential needs for preventive measures. A quantitative study in the form of an online questionnaire survey was conducted among physicians working in the medical field of neuro- and vascular surgery in German hospitals. The study was carried out between June and October 2022 utilizing an online questionnaire based on several standardized scales, such as the technology acceptance model (TAM) and the technostress model, as well as on several scales from the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ). The study found medium levels of technostress among the participating physicians (n = 114), as well as low to medium levels of persisting resources. The queried physicians, on average, reported low levels of burnout symptoms, generally described their health status as good, and were mostly satisfied with their job. Despite the prevalence of technostress and the low levels of resources among the surveyed physicians, there is little awareness of the problem of digital stress, and preventive measures have not been widely implemented yet in the clinics, indicating a needs gap and the necessity for the strategic and quality-guided implementation of measures to effectively prevent digital stress from developing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Health technology assessments (HTAs) are used as a policy tool to appraise the clinical value, or cost effectiveness, of new medicines to inform reimbursement decisions in health care. As HTA organisations have been established in different countries, it has become clear that the outcomes of medicine appraisals can vary from country to country, even though the same scientific evidence in the form of randomised controlled trials is available. The extant literature explains such variations with reference to institutional variables and administrative rules. However, little research has been conducted to advance the theoretical understanding of how variations in HTA outcomes might be explained. This paper compares cases of HTA in England and Germany using insights from Kuhn (1962, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press) and Hall (1993, Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policymaking in Britain. Comparative Politics 25, 275-296) to demonstrate how policy paradigms can explain the outcomes of HTA processes. The paper finds that HTA outcomes are influenced by a combination of logical issues that require reasoning within a paradigm, and institutional and political issues that speak to the interaction between ideational and interest-based variables. It sets out an approach that advances the theoretical explanation of divergent HTA outcomes, and offers an analytical basis on which to assess current and future policy changes in HTA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comments on "Teachers' Work: Institutional Isomorphism and Cultural Variation in the U.S., Germany and Japan" (LeTendre, Baker, Akiba, Goesling, and Wiseman, 2001), applauding the blend of global culture and national culture perspectives, proposing a more systematic synthesis, discussing what it means to take both transnational parallels and cultural variation seriously, and noting implications for research and reform. (SM)