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The possibility of using luminescent microorganisms Photobacterium phosphoreum (strain IMB B-7071; Sq3) for rapid toxicological evaluation of feed contaminated with mycotoxins was examined based on the reduction of the luminescence intensity. Under the conditions of this study, feed with Ochratoxin A mycotoxin content at the level of maximum residue limits (MRL 0.05 mg/ kg) is characterized as non-toxic, while for T2-mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins and aflatoxin B1 (MRL 0.1, 1.0, 5.0, and 0.01 mg/kg, respectively) is characterized as toxic, and for zearalenone (MRL 1.0 mg/kg) as highly toxic. This indicates the need for further research to study the toxicological characteristics of mycotoxins in the body of laboratory and productive animals, possibly with further revision of the maximum allowable levels of relevant contaminants in feed in Ukraine., Na bazi redukcije intenziteta luminiscencije uspostavljena je mogućnost uporabe luminiscentnih mikroorganizama Photobacterium phosphoreum (soj IMB B-7071; Sq3) za izražavanje (do 30 minuta) toksikološke procjene hrane za životinje kontaminirane mikotoksinima. Međutim, ako je za okratoksin A u uvjetima ispitivanja hrane za životinje s udjelom mikotoksina pri razini najvećih dopuštenih količina rezidua (MRL) (0,05 mg/kg) hrana za životinje okarakterizirana kao netoksična, tada je za T2- mikotoksin, deoksinivalenol, fumonizin i aflatoksin B1 pri MRL (0,1; 1,0; 5,0, odnosno 0,01 mg/kg) hrana za životinje okarakterizirana kao toksična, a za zearalenon (MRL 1,0 mg/kg) – kao visoko toksična, što ukazuje na potrebu dodatnog istraživanja da se ispitaju toksikološke karakteristike mikotoksina u tijelu laboratorijskih i produktivnih životinja, moguće s dodatnom revizijom (naniže) najvećih dopuštenih količina relevantnih kontaminanata u hrani za životinje u Ukrajini.

The aim of the present study was to develop meat-based media with compositions similar to those of dry-fermented meat products and to evaluate their use in studying the growth of Aspergillus parasiticus and the kinetics of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) production. In our previous experiments, we found that the strain A. parasiticus ŽMJ7 produced a high amount of AFB1. Cooked meat agar (CMA2) was used as a novel complex meat-based medium with four variations: CMA2G (CMA2 supplemented with 1% glucose), CMA2YE (CMA2 supplemented with 0.2% yeast extract), and CMA2GYE (CMA2 supplemented with 1% glucose and 0.2% yeast extract). Media were inoculated with an A. parasiticus spore suspension (105 spores/mL) and incubated at 25 °C for up to 15 days. The A. parasiticus lag phase lasted less than 1 day, irrespective of the growth medium, with the exception of control medium CMA1 (cooked meat agar) as an already known meat-based medium. The highest mean colony growth rate was observed on CMA2 and CMA2G. Reversed-phase UPLC–MS/MS analysis was performed to determine the AFB1 concentration in combination with solid phase extraction (SPE). The highest AFB1 concentration in meat-based media was detected in CMA2GYE after 15 days of incubation (13,502 ± 2367 ng/mL media). The results showed that for studying AFB1 production in dry-fermented meat products, novel suitable media such as CMA2-based media are required. This finding could represent a potential concern with regard to the production of dry-fermented meat products.

5-metoksisterigmatocistin (5-MET) je slabo istraženi mikotoksin za kojeg je zabilježeno da ima citotoksična i genotoksična svojstva. Strukturno je srodan sterigmatocistinu (STC), zajedno s kojim ga mogu proizvoditi plijesni roda Aspergillus serije Versicolores. Te su plijesni često prisutne u zatvorenim vlažnim i prašnjavim prostorima. Takvi prostori mogu biti skladišta i proizvodni pogoni u pivovarama. S obzirom na to da je pivo u Hrvatskoj konzumirano u velikim količinama, prisutnost ovih aspergila i biosinteza mikotoksina predstavljaju javnozdravstveni rizik ako je pivo kao krajnji proizvod kontaminirano 5-MET. Za analizu je skupljeno 58 različitih uzoraka piva s hrvatskog tržišta. Ekstrakcija je provedena korištenjem acetonitrila kao otapala, isoljavanjem i propuštanjem uzorka kroz SPE kolonu. Pripremljeni ekstrakti analizirani su tankoslojnom kromatografijom. Stacionarna faza bio je silikagel 60, a mobilna faza smjesa toluena, etil-acetata i mravlje kiseline (90% v/v) u omjeru 5:4:1. Za pojačanje fluorescencije ploče su sušene, grijane i prskane etanolnom otopinom aluminijeva klorida. Limit detekcije za 5-MET iznosio je 3.2 μg/mL. 5-MET je detektiran u 27 od 58 (46,55%) uzoraka. Njegova prisutnost potvrđena je UV-Vis spektroskopijom nakon ekstrakcije strugotine s TLC ploče. Rezultati ovog istraživanja predstavljaju prvi nalaz 5-MET u pivu. Također, potvrđuju prikladnost primijenjene metode te predstavljaju signal za potencijalnu javnozdravstvenu opasnost, imajući na umu ogromnu potrošnju piva. Istraživanja koja uključuju veći broj uzoraka te primjenjuju sofisticiranije kromatografske tehnike (poput LC/MS) omogućila bi precizniju interpretaciju ovih rezultata i kvantitativnu analizu 5-MET. Uz to, omogućila bi osjetljiviju detekciju (detekciju 5-MET u manjim koncentracijama) i selektivniju detekciju (s većom razinom sigurnosti da je u pitanju 5-MET a ne neki strukturno srodan spoj). 5-methoxysterigmatocystin (5-MET) is unsufficiently investigated cytotoxic and genotoxic mycotoxin. It is structurally related to sterigmatocystin (STC) and produced namely by molds from the genus Aspergillus, series Versicolores. These molds are frequently found in damp and dusty indoor environments. In beer production, storage and production spaces fit this description. Given the high consumption of beer in Croatia, presence of these Aspergillus molds amd their production of mycotoxins constitutes a public health risk if beer in its end product state is contaminated with 5-MET. Fifty eight different samples of beer marketed in Croatia were collected for the purposes of this analysis. The extraction was performed by acetonitrile as a solvent, salt-induced precipitation and phase extraction with SPE columns. The prepared extracts were analysed by thin-layer chromatography. Silica gel 60 was used as stationary phase and a 5:4:1 mixture of toluene, ethyl-acetate and formic acid (90% v/v) as mobile phase. To enhance fluorescence, TLC plates were dried, heated and sprayed with an ethanol solution of aluminium chloride. Limit of detection (LOD) for 5-MET was 3.2 μg/mL. 5-MET was detected in 27 of 58 (46,55%) samples. Its presence was confirmed by UV-Vis spectroscopy following the extraction of the spot of interest from the TLC plate. This is the first time 5-MET has been detected in beer. Additionally, this study confirms the suitability of the applied method and serves as a signal for a potential public health risk, considering the high levels of beer consumption. Research that includes a larger number of samples and uses more sophisticated analytic techniques (such as LC/MS) would allow for a more accurate interpretation of these results and enable quantitative analysis. Additionally, it would increase sensitivity (making detection of smaller quantities of 5-MET possible) and selectivity (the likelihood that 5-MET is detected, as opposed to structurally related compounds).

Raw material mixtures in compound feeds may increase the risk of contamination with different mycotoxins, and their intake can lead to interactive toxic effects. As a result, there is a growing awareness of the risks posed to human and animal health by the presence of toxins produced by fungi in food and diet. The aim of this study is to assess the impact of the use of a mycotoxin binder (Micotec) on zootechnical performance in broilers. For this purpose, 3000 day-old chicks of the Arbor acres strain originating from the same hatchery were weighed and distributed equally into six groups [one control (C) and five experimental (Exp), as five repetitions receiving the mycotoxin binder Micotec at a dose of 0.1 kg]. All subjects (control and experimental groups) were fed a standard staple food suitable for each phase of rearing. The results showed significant differences between the experimental groups and the control one. The best zootechnical performances were recorded in experimental groups receiving the mycotoxin binder, compared to the control. The average weight in the finishing phase for the experimental groups was 3083.6 ± 140.7 g/subject, which was higher than the control group (2800 g/subject) (P, Mješavina različitih sirovina u krmnim smjesama može povećati rizik od kontaminacije s nekoliko mikotoksina, a njihov unos može dovesti do interaktivnih toksičnih učinaka. Kao rezultat, zbog prisutnosti toksina koje proizvode gljivice u hrani i prehrani postoji sve veća svijest o rizicima za zdravlje ljudi i životinja. Cilj je ove studije bio procijeniti učinak uporabe sredstva za vezivanje mikotoksina (Micotec) na zootehničku učinkovitost u tovnih pilića. U tu je svrhu, tri tisuće (3000) pilića soja Arbor acres starih jedan dan iz iste valionice izvagano je i homogeno podijeljeno u 6 skupina (1 kontrolna (C) i 5 eksperimentalnih (Exp) koje su uključivale 5 ponavljanja primanja sredstva za vezivanje mikotoksina Micotec) u dozi od 0,1 kg. Svi pilići i iz kontrole i iz eksperimentalnih skupina hranjeni su standardnom osnovnom hranom prikladnom za svaku fazu uzgoja. Dobiveni rezultati pokazali su značajne razlike između eksperimentalnih skupina i kontrolne skupine. Naime, bolja zootehnička učinkovitost u usporedbi s kontrolnom skupinom zabilježena je u eksperimentalnim skupinama koje su primale sredstvo za vezivanje mikotoksina. Prosječna masa u završnoj fazi za eksperimentalne skupine bila je 3083,6 ± 140,65 g / piliću što je više u usporedbi s kontrolnom skupinom (2800 g / piliću) (P

Slavonska kobasica je trajna kobasica koje se u seoskim domaćinstvima u Slavoniji proizvodi tradicionalnom tehnologijom, pri kojoj se tijekom zrenja na ovitku proizvoda mogu razviti plijesni. Cilj je ovog rada bio identificirati površinske plijesni i utvrditi njihov utjecaj na kvalitetu i zdravstvenu sigurnost proizvoda, uključujući pojavnost mikotoksina okratoksina A (OTA) i aflatoksina B1 (AFB1). Tijekom rada komunicirano je sa šest proizvodnih lokaliteta na području Slavonije. Pripremljeno je 18 uzoraka slavonske kobasice koje su analizirane na kraju proizvodnog procesa u trajanju od tri mjeseca. Ukupno je identificirano 8 različitih vrsta plijesni, među kojima je dominirao rod Penicillium (88,89 %). Osim šest Penicillium vrsta, izolirana je po jedna vrste iz rodova Aspergillus (8,33 %) i Mucor (2,78 %). Identificirani su i mogući izvori OTA i AFB1, Penicillium verrucosum i Aspergillus flavus, a određena je samo prisutnost OTA i to u koncentraciji od 5,10 μg/kg., Slavonian sausage is a cured sausage produced on rural holdings using traditional technology, in which moulds are permitted to develop on the product surface during the maturation period. The purpose of this study was to identify the surface moulds and determine their influence on product quality and safety, including the occurrence of the mycotoxins ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), from six production facilities in the Slavonia region. A total of 18 samples of Slavonian sausage were prepared and analysed at the end of the production process, i.e., after three months. A total of eight species of mould were identified, and the dominant genus was Penicillium (88.89%) with six species, one species from the genus Aspergillus (8.33%) and one species from the genus Mucor (2.78%). Possible causative agents of OTA and AFB1 were identified, Penicillium verrucosum and Aspergillus flavus, though only the presence of OTA was confirmed in a concentration of 5.10 μg/kg.

Jabolka zaradi svoje visoke vodne aktivnosti in vsebnosti sladkorjev omogočajo ugodne razmere za rast različnim plesnim. Najpogosteje se omenja plesni vrste Penicillium expansum, ki povzročajo modro plesen. Na jabolkih so te plesni sposobne sintetizirati sekundarne metabolite, med katerimi so tudi mikotoksini. V jabolkih in izdelkih iz jabolk je najbolj pogost patulin, ki je imunotoksičen in nevrotoksičen za ljudi, če se zaužije v visokih koncentracijah. Mejna vrednost za največjo dovoljeno vsebnost patulina v izdelkih iz jabolk je 50 µg/kg. Plesni najpogosteje vstopajo v notranjost sadja skozi poškodovano površino, kar se zgodi ob močnem dežju, napadu insektov ali neprevidnem rokovanju. Pogosto pride do okužb s plesnimi šele v skladiščnih prostorih. Najbolj priporočljivo je skladiščenje jabolk v hladilnicah in hladilnicah s kontrolirano atmosfero, kjer je nivo CO₂ in O₂ prilagojen tako, da je zorenje plodov čim bolj upočasnjeno. Kljub nizkim temperaturam in nizkim nivojem O₂ je rast plesni vrste P. expansum le upočasnjena in patulin še vedno lahko proizvajajo. Zato je patulin lahko prisoten v različnih izdelkih iz jabolk. Ker pa je patulin tudi termostabilen, je njegovo odstranjevanje zelo zahtevno. Učinkovito zniževanje vsebnosti patulina so pokazali nekateri procesi obdelave hrane, kot so čiščenje, pasterizacija in fermentacija. Poznamo pa tudi več fizikalnih, kemijskih in bioloških procesov odstranjevanja patulina iz izdelkov iz jabolk. Sem spadajo obdelava s toploto, svetloba UV, elektroporacija, uporaba visokih tlakov, ozona in mikroorganizmov. Nekateri postopki delujejo na principu adsorpcije patulina, drugi pa povzročajo njegovo degradacijo. Tudi s temi procesi obdelave odstranitev patulina iz končnih izdelkov ni možna v celoti, hkrati pa lahko pride tudi do nezaželenih sprememb v senzoričnih lastnostih in hranilni vrednosti živil. Apples provide favourable conditions for growth of various fungi, due to their high water activity and sugar content. Most commonly mentioned mould is Penicillium expansum, the cause of so called blue mould. On apples these fungi are able to synthesize secondary metabolites called mycotoxins. The most commonly present mycotoxin in apples and apple products is patulin, which is immunotoxic and neurotoxic to humans if ingested at high concentrations. The limit for maximum level of patulin in apple products is 50 µg/kg. Mould enters the fruit through the damaged surface, which occurs in case of heavy rain, insect attack or careless manipulation. However, mould infections often occur only in storage rooms. The most recommended way to storage apples is in refrigerated chambers and refrigerated chambers with controlled atmosphere, where the levels of CO₂ and O₂ are adjusted to slow down the ripening of the fruit. Despite low temperatures and low level of O₂ the growth of P. expansum is only slowed down and patulin can still be produced. Therefore, patulin can be present in various apple products. Since patulin is also thermostable, its removal is very difficult. Effective reduction of patulin has been demonstrated by certain food processing technologies, such as washing, pasteurization and fermentation. There are also several physical, chemical and biological processes of removing patulin from apple products. This includes heat treatment, light UV treatment, electroporation, use of high pressures, ozone and microorganisms. Some procedures function on patulin adsorption, while others provoke its degradation. Even with these processing technologies, the removal of patulin from apple products is not entirely possible, and there may also be negative changes in sensory quality and nutritional value of foods.

Plesni vrste Penicillium expansum povzročajo gnilobo številnih živil, med katerimi so te plesni najpogostejši kontaminanti jabolk. Ker plesni vrste P. expansum lahko tvorijo patulin, predstavljajo tudi tveganje za varnost živil. Glavni namen dela je bil določiti sposobnost njihove adhezije, saj večina strokovne literature opisuje bakterijsko adhezijo, medtem ko so raziskave adhezije plesni redke. V prvem delu smo metodo določanja adhezije z barvilom kristal vijolično (KV) optimizirali z izbiro gojišča (sladni agar in krompirjev agar) in starosti konidijev (7 in 10 dni) za pripravo inokuluma ter določitvijo valovne dolžine (570 nm in 584 nm) za kvantifikacijo adheriranih plesni. V drugem delu smo proučevali adhezijo plesni vrste P. expansum tako, da smo preverili vplive izbranih intrinzičnih in ekstrinzičnih dejavnikov. Rezultati so pokazali, da je za spremljanje adhezije boljše, ča uporabimo inokulum pripravljen iz 10 dni stare kulture, saj je bila adhezija tu veliko večja ter da gojišče, na katerem rastejo plesni za pripravo inokuluma, ne vpliva na adhezijo. Pri primerjavi rezultatov dobljenih z meritvami absorbanc sproščenega KV pri različnih valovnih dolžinah, razlik nismo zaznali. Med intrinzičnimi dejavniki smo ugotovili, da ima velik vpliv na adhezijo začetno število konidijev, saj je bila adhezija največja pri 108 K/ml (K: konidiji), ter čas adhezije plesni vrste P. expansum (adhezija po 20 urah je bila večja kot po 40 urah), medtem ko vrsta seva (tipski sev P. expansum ŽMJ 497, divji sev P. expansum ŽMJ 464) ni bistveno vplivala na adhezijo. Plesni vrste P. expansum dobro rastejo na številnih materialih, ki se uporabljajo tudi v živilski industriji, zato smo primerjali njihovo adhezijo na različnih površinah (polistiren, polipropilen, polietilen visoke gostote, polietilen tereftalat, steklo in nerjaveče jeklo). Največjo adhezijo smo določili na površini polistirena. Adhezijo plesni vrste P. expansum na vseh površinah smo opazovali tudi z vrstično elektronsko mikroskopijo in ugotovili, da so morfološke lastnosti povezane z vrsto površine. Zaključimo lahko, da je metoda barvanja s KV primerna kot preliminarna metoda določanja adhezije plesni in da se plesni vrste P. expansum dobro adherirajo na površino, vendar so potrebne nadaljnje raziskave. Strains of Penicillium expansum cause rotting of many foods, among which they are the most common contaminant of apples. As P. expansum can form patulin it is also a food safety risk. The main purpose was to determine P. expansum adhesion ability, since most scientific literature describes bacterial adhesion, while moulds adhesion is rare. In the first part, the method of determining adhesion with crystal violet dye (CV) was optimized by choosing medium (malt agar and potato agar) and age of conidia (7 and 10 days) for preparation of inoculum and determining the wavelength (570 nm and 584 nm) for adherence quantification. In the second part, we studied the adhesion of P. expansum by checking the influence of selected intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Results showed that for adhesion monitoring it is better to use an inoculum prepared from a 10-day-old culture, as the adhesion was much greater, and that the culture medium on which the moulds grow prior inoculum preparation, does not affect adhesion. When comparing the results obtained by measuring the absorbance of released CV at different wavelengths no differences were found. Among the intrinsic factors, we found out that initial number of conidia had a major influence since adhesion was highest at 108 K/ml (K: conidia), and adhesion time (adhesion after 20 h was greater than after 40 h), while strain (P. expansum ŽMJ 497 type strain, P. expansum ŽMJ 464 wild strain) did not affect adhesion. P. expansum strains grow well on many materials that are also used in food industry and we compared adhesion on different surfaces (polystyrene, polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, glass and stainless steel). The maximum adhesion was determined on the polystyrene. Adhesion of P. expansum on surfaces was also observed by scanning electron microscopy and it was found that the morphological properties are related to the type of surface. We can conclude that the KV staining method is suitable as a preliminary method for determining mould adhesion and that P. expansum adhere well to the surface, but further research is needed.

Cilj rada bio je razviti i validirati multimikotoksinsku metodu tekućinske kromatografije u kombinaciji s masenom spektrometrijom (LC-MS/MS) za detekciju i kvantifikaciju mikotoksina značajnih za mesne proizvode: aflatoksin B1 (AFB1), okratoksin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), sterigmatocistin (STC) i ciklopiazonična kiselina (CPA) te ispitati njihovu pojavnost u hrvatskim trajnim tradicionalnim mesnim proizvodima (TMP). Također, cilj je identificirati plijesni s površine TMP te ih dovesti u vezu s kontaminacijom mikotoksinima, uz dokazivanje prisutnosti toksikotvornih plijesni i gena odgovornih za njihovu biosintezu. Sa površine 250 analiziranih uzoraka TMP koji uključuju kobasice i suhomesnate proizvode uzorkovane tijekom 2 godine iz 5 regija Republike Hrvatske, ukupno je izolirano 535 izolata i identificirano 38 vrsta plijesni iz rodova Penicillium i Aspergillus. Identificirano je 9 različitih potencijalno toksikotvornih vrsta plijesni, od čega je 50 % potencijalnih AFB1 producenata (A. flavus), 58 % potencijalnih OTA producenata (P. nordicum, A. niger, A. westerdijkiae, A. welwitischie, A. tubingensis), 71 % potencijalnih CIT producenata (P. citrinum) te 48 % potencijalnih CPA producenata (P. commune, A. flavus, P. polonicum) imalo istraživane gene uključene u biosintezu mikotoksina. Razvijenom i validiranom visoko osjetljivom LC-MS/MS metodom odredile su se koncentracije mikotoksina STC do 3,93 μg/kg u 4 % uzoraka, OTA do 4,81 μg/kg u 10 % uzoraka te CPA do čak 335,5 μg/kg u 13 % uzoraka, dok AFB1 i CIT nisu detektirani u niti jednom uzorku TMP. U 21 % uzoraka kontaminiranih mikotoksinima, određeni su njihovi producenti. Pojavnost mikotoksina i površinskih plijesni dovedena je u vezu sa uvjetima proizvodnje TMP, uključujući tehnologiju i regionalne vremenske čimbenike. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a multimycotoxin method of liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC-MS /MS) for detection and quantification of mycotoxins important for meat products: aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), citrinin (CIT), sterigmatocystin (STC) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) and to investigate into their occurrence in Croatian dry-fermented traditional meat products (TMP). Also, the aim is to identify TMP surface molds and link them to the mycotoxin contamination, while proving the presence of toxigenic molds and genes responsible for their biosynthesis. From the surface of 250 analyzed samples including sausages and cured meat products sampled during 2 years from 5 Croatian regions, a total of 535 isolates and 38 species of molds of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus were isolated. Nine different potentially toxigenic mold species were identified, of which 50% of the potential AFB1 producers (A. flavus), 58% of potential OTA producers (P. nordicum, A. niger, A. westerdijkiae, A. welwitischi A tubingensis), 71% of potential CIT producers (P.citrinum) and 48% of potential CPA producers (P.commune, A. flavus, P. polonicum) had the investigated gene involved in mycotoxin biosynthesis. With the developed and validated highly sensitive LC-MS/MS method, concentrations of STC up to 3.93 μg/kg in 4% of samples, OTA up to 4.81 μg/kg in 10% of samples, and CPA up to 335.5 μg/kg in 13% of samples were detected, while AFB1 and CIT weren't detected in any TMP sample. In 21% of mycotoxin contaminated samples, their producers were identified. The occurrence of mycotoxins and surface molds has been linked to TMP production conditions including technology and regional weather factors.

Fumonizini B serije (B1, B2 i B3) se najčešće nalaze u žitaricama ihrani od žitarica, ali je potvrđeno njihovo prisustvo i u različitimvrstama voda. Fumonizini mogu negativno uticati na zdravlje ljudi iživotinja te se teži iznalaženju efikasne metode za njihovo uklanjanje.U tom cilju, ispitana je efikasnost razgradnje fumonizina u vodenojsredini primenom direktne i indirektne fotolize. Na primerudirektne fotolize fumonizina B1 (FB1) ispitani su optimalni usloviu pogledu početne pH-vrednosti primenom UV i simuliranog sunčevogzračenja (SSZ). Pri indirektnoj fotolizi primenjena su dva tretmana, uprisustvu H2O2, odnosno . I u ovom slučaju tretmani suoptimizovani u pogledu početne pH-vrednosti, kao i koncentracijeH2O2, odnosno takođe primenom UV i SSZ. Nadalje, ispitana jeefikasnost direktne i indirektne (H2O2) fotolize fumonizina B2(FB2) primenom UV i SSZ, na dve pH-vrednosti. Jedna pH-vrednost jeodabrana pri kojoj je razgranja najekonomičnija (pH 8), a druga prikojoj je razgradnja najefikasnija (pH 4). Ispitan je i sinergističkiuticaj između FB1 i FB2 tokom direktne i indirektne (UV/H2O2,odnosno UV/ ) fotolize. Najefikasnija metoda fotolize (UV/H2O2)je primenjena i za ispitivanje efikasnosti razgradnje fumonizina B3(FB3). Takođe je ispitana i efikasnost fotokatalitičke razgradnjeprimenom TiO2 Degussa P25, TiO2 Wackherr i ZnO kao fotokatalizatorai UV zračenja. Nađeno je da je fotokatalitička razgradnja FB1 i FB3primenom TiO2 Wackherr kao fotokatalizatora pri prirodnom pH (oko8) najefikasniji tretman za njihovo uklanjanje iz vodene sredine.Međutim, u slučaju FB2 fotokataliza se nije pokazala pogodna za njegovufotorazgradnju, jer primenom sva tri fotokatalizatora dolazi donjegove potpune adsorpcije.Nadalje, ispitan je uticaj tipova voda (matriksa) na brzinu razgradnjeFB1 primenom UV, UV/H2O2 i UV/ tretmana. Isto tako, da bi seispitao uticaj pojedinih jona čija je koncentracija u odabranimtipovima voda bila najviša, kao i huminske kiseline ispitan je injihov uticaj dodavanjem u reakcionu smešu količine koja odgovaraispitivanim vodama. Uticaj jona i huminske kiseline na efikasnostrazgradnje FB1 je ispitan primenom UV i UV/H2O2 tretmana.Citotoksična aktivnost standardnih rastvora različitihkoncentracija sva tri fumonizina ispitana je na četiri ćelijskelinije: Neuro-2a, MRC-5, H-4-II-E i BHK. Ispitan je i citotoksičniuticaj nastalih intermedijera nakon primene različitih tretmana zauklanjanje FB1, FB2 i FB3 na rast sve četiri ćelijske linije., Fumonisins of the B series (B1, B2 and B3) are most often found in cereals andcereal foods, but their presence has also been confirmed in various types ofwater. Fumonisins can adversely affect human and animal health, and effortsare being made to find an effective method to eliminate them. To this end, theefficiency of fumonisin degradation in the aqueous medium was investigatedusing direct and indirect photolysis. On the example of direct photolysis offumonisin B1 (FB1), the optimal conditions in terms of initial pH value wereexamined using UV and simulated solar radiation (SSR). In indirectphotolysis, two treatments were applied, in the presence of H2O2, respectively.In this case, the treatments were also optimized in terms of the initial pHvalue, as well as the concentration of H2O2, i.e. by using UV and SS radiation.Furthermore, the efficiency of direct and indirect (H2O2) photolysis offumonisin B2 (FB2) was examined under UV and SS radiation, at two pHvalues. One pH value was chosen at which degradation is the most economical(pH 8), and the other at which degradation is the most efficient (pH 4). Thesynergistic effect between FB1 and FB2 during direct and indirect (UV/H2O2and UV/ ) photolysis was also investigated. The most efficient methodof photolysis (UV/H2O2) was further used to test the degradation efficiency offumonisin B3 (FB3). In addition, the efficiency of photocatalytic degradationwas investigated using TiO2 Degussa P25, TiO2 Wackherr and ZnO asphotocatalysts under UV radiation. Photocatalytic degradation of FB1 and FB3using TiO2 Wackherr as photocatalysts at natural pH (about 8) was found tobe the most effective treatment for their removal from the aquaticenvironment. However, in the case of FB2, photocatalysis did not prove to besuitable for its photodegradation, because the use of all three photocatalystsleads to its complete adsorption.Furthermore, the influence of water types (matrix) on the rate of FB1degradation using UV, UV/H2O2, and UV/ treatments was investigated.Also, in order to examine the influence of individual ions whose concentrationin the selected types of water was the highest, as well as humic acids, theirinfluence was examined by adding to the reaction mixture an amountcorresponding to the tested waters. The effect of ions and humic acid on thedegradation efficiency of FB1 was investigated using UV and UV/H2O2treatments.The cytotoxic activity of the standard solutions of different concentrations ofall three fumonisins was examined on four cell lines: Neuro-2a, MRC-5, H-4-II-E and BHK. The cytotoxic effect of the resulting intermediates afterapplication of different treatments to remove FB1, FB2 and FB3 on the growthof all four cell lines was also examined..&nbsp

Mikotoksini, sekundarni metaboliti nekih vrsta plijesni, neizbježni su kontaminanti hrane i hrane za životinje. Obzirom na njihovu visoku pojavnost te toksikološka djelovanja neophodne su stalne kontrole pouzdanim analitičkim metodama i tehnikama, među kojima je najznačajnija tekućinska kromatografija-tandemska spektrometrija masa. U metodama koje se koriste za ispitivanje pojavnosti mikotoksina priprema uzoraka često zahtijeva korištenje mikrofiltracije, iako moguće interakcije između materijala korištenih membrana filtera i analita uglavnom nisu dovoljno ispitane, a mogu dovesti do gubitaka te pogrešaka u prikupljenim podacima o razini kontaminacije. U ovom radu ispitan je utjecaj pet različitih materijala filtera (najlon, politetrafluoretilen, polietersulfon, miješani celulozni ester te celulozni acetat) na 11 zakonski reguliranih mikotoksina (aflatoksini B1, B2, G1 i G2, deoksnivalenol, fumonizini B1 i B2, zearalenon, T- 2 i HT-2 toksini te ohratoksin A). Politetrafluoretilen se pokazao kao materijal koji najmanje utječe na gubitak svih analiziranih mikotoksina tijekom mikrofiltracije, dok ostali materijali mogu značajno doprinijeti smanjenju iskorištenja, posebice ukoliko se pravilno ne koriste.

Mikroorganizmi su neizbježno prisutni u ječmu, sladu, sladovini, a ponekad i u gotovom pivu. Uzročnici su brojnih problema u pivarskoj industriji. Mikrobna kolonizacija ječma javlja se već u polju tijekom vegetacijskog perioda ječma. Mikroflora na ječmu i od njega dobivenog slada utječe na brojne aspekte kvalitete samog proizvodnog procesa u sladarama i pivovarama i na kvalitetu gotovog piva. Osim toga, prisutnost mikrobne kontaminacije na ječmu rezultira stvaranjem antimikrobnih spojeva, čija prisutnost ukazuje na stres tijekom vegetacijskog perioda uzgoja ječma uzrokovanog mikrobnom kontaminacijom. Ako prežive proces kuhanja sladovine ovi spojevi mogu imat negativne ili pozitivne učinke na daljnji proces proizvodnje i na gotovo pivo. Nadalje mikroorganizmi prisutni na ječmu mogu i sami proizvoditi antimikrobne spojeve protiv drugih mikroorganizama koji također migu utjecati i na kvasac i na sam proces proizvodnje slad i piva. U ovom radu dan je osnovni pregled utjecaja mikroflore ječma na proces slada i kvalitete slada, proizvodnju sladovine i njezinu kvalitetu, proces vrenja i utjecaja na aktivnost pivarskog kvasca te na konačni proizvod, pivo., Microorganisms are inevitably present in barley, malt, wort, and sometimes in finished beer. They are the cause of numerous problems in the brewing industry. Microbial colonization of barley occurs already in the field during the vegetation transition of barley. The microflora on barley and the malt obtained from it affects numerous aspects of the quality of the production process in malthouses and breweries and on the quality of the finished beer. In addition, the presence of microbial contamination on barley results in the formation of antimicrobial compounds, the presence of which indicates stress during the vegetative period of barley cultivation caused by microbial contamination. If they survive the wort brewing process, these compounds can have negative or positive effects on the further production process and on the finished beer. Furthermore, the microorganisms present on barley can themselves produce antimicrobial compounds against other microorganisms that can also affect the yeast and the malt and beer production process itself. This paper provides a basic overview of the influence of barley microflora on the malting process and malt quality, wort production and its quality, the fermentation process and its influence on the activity of brewer's yeast and on the final product, beer.

Oxidative stress, which is characterized by disruption of the oxidant/antioxidant balance, causes pathological processes, including toxicities induced by certain mycotoxins. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of resveratrol on sirtuin deacetylases (SIRT2 and SIRT3), nitric oxide (NO), reduced glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in fumonisin B1-induced hepatotoxicity. Regarding the experimental design, forty BALB/c mice were divided into four groups corresponding to the control, resveratrol (10 mg/kg, i.p), fumonisin B1 (2.25 mg/ kg, i.p) and resveratrol + fumonisin B1 (10 mg/kg + 2.25 mg/kg) groups. At the end of the 14 day-treatment, expression levels of SIRT2 and SIRT3 protein in the serum and liver were revealed by western blotting and antioxidant/oxidant activity analysis. SIRT2 and SIRT3 expression levels in the liver were significantly decreased by fumonisin B1 in comparison to the control. However, resveratrol supplementation coupled with fumonisin B1 increased the expression levels of SIRT2 and SIRT3, in relation to the fumonisin B1 treatments alone, but did not exhibit significant differences from those of the control group. As substantial indicators of stress and damage, the 8-OH-2-deoxyguanosine, NO and MDA levels of the liver tissue were assayed, and were higher in the fumonisin B1-treated groups, in relation to the control. As expected, resveratrol treatment significantly reduced the levels of NO and MDA in comparison to the fumonisin B1 treatments alone. Also, resveratrol attenuated the liver 8-OH-2- deoxyguanosine levels in the resveratrol + fumonisin B1 group. In conclusion, the findings revealed that resveratrol might possess protective effects against fumonisin-induced hepatotoxicity through modulation of the expression of sirtuin proteins, and by protecting the cell from oxidative/nitrosative stress., Oksidacijski stres, koji obilježava poremećaj ravnoteže oksidansa i antiksidansa, uzrokuje patološke procese, uključujući toksičnost potaknutu određenim mikotoksinima. U ovom je radu istražen učinak resveratrola na sirtuin-deacetilazu (SIRT2 i SIRT3), dušikov oksid (NO), sniženi glutation (GSH) i malondialdehid (MDA) kod hepatotoksičnosti izazvane fumonizinom B1. Istraživanje je postavljeno tako da je 40 BALB/c miševa podijeljeno u četiri skupine: kontrolnu, skupinu koja je dobivala resveratrol (10 mg/kg, ip.), skupinu koja je dobivala fumonizin B1 (2,25 mg/kg, ip) i skupinu koja je dobivala resveratrol i fumonizin B1 (10 mg/kg+2,25 mg/kg). Nakon 14 dana određena je razina ekspresije proteina SIRT2 i SIRT3 metodom western blotting te analiza aktivnosti antioksidansa i oksidansa u serumu i jetri. Razina ekspresije SIRT2 i SIRT3 u jetri bila znakovito smanjena u skupini s fumonizinom B1 u usporedbi s kontrolnom skupinom. U skupini s dodatkom resveratrola i fumonizina B1, međutim, povećana je razina ekspresije SIRT2 i SIRT3 u usporedbi sa skupinom koja je dobivala fumonizin B1, no bez znakovite razlike između tih skupina i kontrolne skupine. Analizirani su ključni pokazatelji stresa i oštećenja, razine OH-2-deoksigvanozin, NO i MDA u tkivu jetre, koje su bile veće u skupini s fumonizinom B1, u usporedbi s kontrolnom skupinom. Kao što se očekivalo, primjena resveratrola znakovito je smanjila razine NO i MDA u usporedbi sa skupinom kojoj je primijenjen samo fumonizin B1. Također, resveratrol je smanjio razinu 8-OH-2- deoksigvanozina u jetri u skupini kojoj su dani i resveratrol i fumonizin. Rezultati pokazuju da bi resveratrol mogao imati zaštitni učinak u slučaju hepatotoksičnosti uzrokovane fumonizinom putem modulacije ekspresije sirtuin proteina i zaštite stanice od oksidacijskog/nitrosativnog stresa.

Iako je prošlo više od 50 godina od otkrića mikotoksina, oni su i dalje najzastupljeniji prirodni kontaminanti velikog broja poljoprivrednih kultura u svijetu. Nastaju kao proizvodi sekundarnog metabolizma plijesni, zbog čega njihova produkcija ovisi o različitim okolišnim uvjetima. Zbog izrazite stabilnosti, ovi spojevi mogu biti zastupljeni „od polja do stola“. Glavni izvor mikotoksina u ljudskoj prehrani su različite vrste žitarica i sjemenki uljarica. Mikotoksini koji predstavljaju najveću potencijalnu opasnost za zdravlje ljudi su aflatoksini, okratoksini, fumonizini, patulin, zearalenon i deoksinivalenol, a bolesti uzorokovane njihovim trovanjem nazivaju se mikotoksikoze. Ipak, posebnu zabrinutost izaziva kancerogeno djelovanje utvrđeno kod pojedinih vrsta mikotoksina. Premda je produkciju mikotoksina često nemoguće spriječiti, veliki značaj pridaje se razvoju strategija i metoda uklanjanja ili inaktivacije mikotoksina. Ovaj globalni problem pokušava se riješiti usvajanjem strogih regulatornih smjernica za glavne vrste mikotoksina. Cilj rada bio je utvrditi u kojim su uzorcima prisutne najveće koncentracije mikotoksina te odstupaju li dobiveni rezultati od maksimalno dopuštenih koncentracija (MDK) u periodu od 2016. do 2021. godine. Najveća prisutnost aflatoksina B1 i ukupnih aflatoksina zabilježena je u uzorcima kikirikija, te je 7 od ukupno 81 uzorka (8.6%) sadržavalo koncentracije iznad MDK. Određene koncentracije deoksinivalenola pronađene su u 17% uzoraka pekarskih proizvoda, no niti u jednom ne prelaze MDK. Zearalenon i okratoksin A nisu utvrđeni niti u jednom uzorku u koncentraciji iznad granice kvantifikacije. Although more than 50 years have passed since the discovery of mycotoxins, they are still the most abundant natural contaminants of a large number of crops worldwide. They are products of secondary metabolism of molds, therefore their biosynthesis largely depends on different environmental conditions. Duo to their extreme stability, these compounds can be present “from the field to the table”. The main source of mycotoxins in human nutrition are different types of cereals and oil seeds. Mycotoxins that represent the greatest potential risk for human health are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, pathulin, zearalenone and deoxynivalenol. Diseases caused by human poisoning with mycotoxins are called mycotoxicoses. Nevertheless, of a particular concern are the carcinogenic effects of certain types of mycotoxins. Although mycotoxin production is often impossible to prevent, strategies and methods for the removal or inactivation of mycotoxins are of great importance. One solution od this global problem it the adaptation of strict regulatory guidelines for the regulation of main mycotoxins. The aim of this study was to determine which samples had the highest concentration of mycotoxins and whether the obtained results deviate from the maximum allowed concentration in the period from 2016 to 2021. The highest presence of aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxins was recorded in peanut samples, and 7 out of 81 samples (8.6%) contained concentrations above maximum allowed concentration. Certain concentrations of deoxynivalenoa were found in 17% of bakery product samples, but in none of them maximum allowable concentration was exceeded. Zearalenone and ochratoxin A were not detected in any of the samples at concentrations above the quantification limit.

Bajam se kao i drugi orašasti plodovi smatra izuzetno zdravom hranom. Stoga su u ekološkim uvjetima Ravnih kotara provedena istraživanja prisustva ostataka pesticida i mikotoksina u jezgrama bajama sorti Ferragnes, Ferraduela i sjemenjaku bajama. Istraživanja su provedena u 2022. godini, pri čemu su se koristile najosjetljivije metode analize. Korištenjem GC/MS/MS i LC/MS/MS analize na rezidue 402 pesticida, nije utvrđena prisutnost ni jednog pesticida ni u jednom uzorku. Glede mikotoksina, istraženi su ukupni aflatoksini i najopasniji aflatoksin AfB1 i ni u jednom uzorku nisu detektirani. Uz sve nutritivne, intrinzične i ine prednosti ovo je velika dodana vrijednost, budući su mikotoksini utvrđeni u najproizvodnijim zemljama i brojnim trgovinama diljem svijeta. Dobiveni rezultati nam potvrđuju da se bajami bez opterećenja pesticidima i mikotoksinima mogu kategorizirati kao funkcionalna hrana, odnosno koristiti ih više, jer pojačavaju imunitet i preveniraju brojne bolesti kod ljudi. Istraživanja pridonose boljoj valorizaciji bajama proizvedenih u ekološkim uvjetima Ravnih kotara, cjenovnoj stimulaciji za proizvođače i zdravstvenoj dobrobiti za konzumente., Similary to other nuts, almond is considered to be extremely healthy. In this context, the research was conducted in the ecological conditions of the Ravni Kotari region on the presence of pesticide residues and mycotoxins in the seeds of the Ferragnes and Ferraduela almond varieties, as well as in the almond seedling. The study was done in 2022 and it used the most sensitive analytical methods. Following the GC/MS/MS and LC/MS/MS analysis for 402 pesticide residues, the results showed that no pesticide was detected in any of the samples. As far as mycotoxins are concerned, the analysis was carried out for total aflatoxins and the most dangerous aflatoxin AfB1, none of which were ultimately detected in any sample. In addition to all the nutritional, intrinsic and other advantages, this represents a great added value, since mycotoxins have been found in the most productive countries and in numerous stores around the world. The obtained results confirm that almonds can be categorized as functional food in the absence of pesticides and mycotoxins, i.e., the increased intake should be encouraged, since they strengthen immunity and prevent numerous diseases in humans. The research helps create better valorisation of almonds produced in the ecological conditions of Ravni Kotari region, at the same time benefiting manufacturers through price stimulation and consumers through the suggested health benefits.

Brošura za proizvođače mesnih proizvoda

Mikotoksini su raznolika skupina sekundarnih metabolita plijesni koji se mogu pronaći u hrani za ljude i životinje te zraku pljesnivih stambenih prostora. Uzrokuju bolesti (mikotoksikoze) konzumiranjem kontaminirane hrane, dermalnim putem ili inhalacijom spora. Mikotoksini se istražuju zbog toksičnih učinaka, gubitaka u poljoprivredi te povezanosti s klimatskim promjenama. Sterigmatocistin je sekundarni metabolit koji najčešće proizvode plijesni iz roda Aspergillus. Strukturno je sličan najtoksičnijem karcinogenu u prirodi – aflatoksinu. Toksični učinci sterigmatocistina nisu dovoljno istraženi, ali je klasificiran kao mogući karcinogen za ljude. Neke plijesni iz roda Aspergillus često uz sterigmatocistin proizvode 5-metoksisterigmatocistin, pogotovo u vlažnim stambenim prostorima. Pojam sindrom bolesnih zgrada opisuje skup simptoma bolesti respiratornog i središnjeg živčanog sustava te se mogu povezati s mikotoksinima. U ovom su pokusu mužjaci štakora soja Wistar jednokratno tretirani intratrahealnom instilacijom sterigmatocistinom, 5-metoksisterigmatocistinom i njihovom kombinacijom. U bronhoalveolarnoj tekućini mjerena je koncentracija albumina kao indikatora propusnosti membrane krvnih žila i aktivnost laktat dehidrogenaze u svrhu određivanja citotoksičnosti. Povećana koncentracija albumina i povećana aktivnost lakstat dehidrogenaze ukazuju na toksičnost ovih mikotoksina. Iako rezultati nisu statistički značajni, važan su doprinos poznavanju toksičnosti ovih mikotoksina izloženima putem dišnog sustava te ukazuju na potrebu budućih istraživanja o dugotrajnoj izloženosti sterigmatocistinu i 5-metoksisterigmatocistinu. Mycotoxins are a diverse group of secondary metabolites produced by molds and can be found in food and feed or air of moldy indoor spaces. They cause diseases (mycotoxicosis) via ingestion of contaminated food, through skin or inhalation of spores. Mycotoxins are studied for their toxic effects, because they cause agricultural losses, and in association with climate change. Sterigmatocystin is a secondary metabolite mostly produced by Aspergillus molds. Structurally it is similar to the most potent carcinogen found in nature – aflatoxin. Even though the toxic effects of sterigmatocystin are not well-known, it is classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans. Some Aspergillus molds often produce 5-metoxysterigmatocystin together with sterigmatocystin, especially in moldy indoor environments. The term sick building syndrome describes a group of respiratory and central nervous system disease symptoms that can be related to mycotoxins. In the present experiment, male Wistar strain rats were intratracheally instilled with a single dose of sterigmatocystin, 5-metoxisterigmatocystin and their combination. In bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, the following parameters were measured: concentration of albumin as an indicator of vascular membrane permeability and lactate dehydrogenase activity as an indicator of cytotoxicity. Results of acute treatment showed an increase in albumin concentration and increase of lactate dehydrogenase activity. Even though our results were not statistically significant, they contribute to the general knowledge on the toxicity of these mycotoxins and they are important for future research into long-term exposure to mycotoxins.

Nekatere plesni na površini salam so sposobne tvorbe mikotoksinov, ki so škodljivi za ljudi in živali. Z nalogo smo želeli ovrednotiti vpliv kolagenskega ovoja na tvorbo in prehajanje mikotoksinov s površine salam v nadev. V ta namen smo zasnovali modelni sistem zorenja salam, pri katerem smo maso za salame nanesli v petrijevke. V vzorcih smo določali vsebnost mikotoksina AFB1 (aflatoksina B1), ki so ga tvorile na površino nacepljene plesni vrste Aspergillus parasiticus ŽMJ7. Vsebnost AFB1 smo določali v gojišču YES (gojišče s kvasnim ekstraktom in saharozo), v masi za salame, na katero nismo nanesli kolagenskega ovitka in v masi za salame z nepoškodovanim ali s poškodovanim ovitkom. Polovico vzorcev smo inkubirali pri temperaturnem programu za zorenje salam, drugo polovico pa pri 25 °C. Za ekstrakcijo na trdni fazi (SPE) smo uporabili kolone ISOLUTE Myco, vsebnost AFB1 pa smo določali s HPLC. Večina AFB1 se je tvorila že v prvih 7-14 od 21 dni zorenja. AFB1 se je začel hitreje tvoriti pri temperaturnem programu za zorenje salam, kasneje razlik med vzorci, zorjenimi pri dveh različnih temperaturnih režimih, ni bilo. Največ AFB1 se je tvorilo v gojišču, bistveno manj v masi za salame brez ovitka, najmanj mikotoksina pa so vsebovali vzorci, pri katerih smo uporabili ovoj. Kolagenska bariera je namreč vplivala na kar 80-90 % zmanjšanje vsebnosti AFB1 v nadevu za salame. Na to ni toliko vplivalo zaviranje prehajanja mikotoksina skozi ovoj v nadev, pač pa že sama prisotnost kolagenskega ovitka. S površine ovitka v nadev je skozi kolagensko bariero sicer difundirala približno polovica le-tega. Poškodba ovitka ni vplivala na večjo vsebnost AFB1 v nadevu. Certain molds on the surface of dry sausages are capable of forming mycotoxins that are harmful to humans and animals. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate the influence of a collagen casing on formation of AFB1 mycotoxin and the surface-to-interior diffusion of AFB1 in dry sausages. For this purpose, we designed a model system for ripening dry sausages, where the stuffing of dry sausages was applied to petri dishes. The content of AFB1 mycotoxin, that was formed on the surface by Aspergillus parasiticus ŽMJ7, was determined in the samples. The AFB1 content was measured in YES (Yeast Extract Sucrose Agar), in stuffing of dry sausages with no collagen casing applied and in stuffing with undamaged or damaged casing placed on top of it. Half of the samples were incubated using a temperature program for ripening sausages and the other half at 25˚C. ISOLUTE Myco columns were used for solid phase extraction (SPE) and the AFB1 content was determined by HPLC. The majority of AFB1 was formed in the first 7-14 days of the total 21 days of ripening. AFB1 began to form more rapidly in samples exposed to the temperature program for ripening sausages. There were no differences in AFB1 content between samples from the two different temperature groups in the later stages of ripening. The majority of AFB1 was formed in YES, significantly less was formed in the dry sausage stuffing without casing. The least AFB1 was determined in samples on which collagen casings were used. The presence of collagen barrier reduced the content of AFB1 in dry sausage stuffing by as much as 80-90%. This was not a result of collagen casing preventing the mycotoxin AFB1 from diffusing through the barrier into the interior of the sausage. The collagen casing by itself strongly reduced the overall formation of the mycotoxin. Approximately half of the AFB1 diffused from the surface into the stuffing through the collagen barrier. Damaging the casing did not affect the content of AFB1 in the stuffing of dry sausages.

Mikotoksini su sekundarni produkti metabolizma koje plijesni sintetiziraju tijekom rasta na supstratima biljnog i životinjskog porijekla. Uz značajne štete koje uzrokuju gospodarstvu, mikotoksini su uzročnici bolesti mikotoksikoza. Iako bi najbolje rješenje kod kontrole mikotoksina u lancu proizvodnje hrane bila sama prevencija onečišćenja, u praksi je to nemoguće. Zbog toga se provode razne metode dekontaminacije. Metode koje se koriste za uklanjanje mikotoksina dijelimo na fizikalne, kemijske i biološke. Fizikalne metode uključuju korištenje visokih temperatura, UV, x i γ-zraka te mikrovalova, dok u kemijske ubrajamo tretiranje s različitim kemijskim sredstvima. Upotreba bioadsorbensa pokazala se kao učinkovit, isplativ i iznimno ekološki prihvatljiv način uklanjanja mikotoksina iz raznih produkata prehrambene industrije. U ovom radu ispitala se sposobnost vezanja aflatoksina B1 na bioadsorbense koji su ujedno i nusproizvodi pri preradi ribe. Rezultati istraživanja su pokazali dobro vezanje AFB1 pomoću ribljih ljuski i kosti kao i potencijal ovakve vrste adsorbensa u dekontaminaciji mikotoksina. Mycotoxins are secondary products of metabolism that molds synthesize during growth on substrates of plant and animal origin. In addition to the significant damage they cause to the economy, mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to both humans and livestock. Although the best solution in controlling mycotoxins in the food production chain would be pollution prevention alone, in practice this is impossible. Therefore, various decontamination methods are performed. The methods used to remove mycotoxins are divided into physical, chemical and biological. Physical methods include the use of high temperatures, UV, x and γ-rays and microwaves, while chemical include treatment with various chemical agents. The use of bioadsorbents has proven to be an effective, cost-effective and extremely environmentally friendly way of removing mycotoxins from various products of the food industry. This work examined binding efficiency of aflatoxin B1 to bioadsorbents, which are also by-products of fish processing. The results of the study showed good binding of AFB1 by fish shells and bones as well as the potential of this type of adsorbent in mycotoxin decontamination.

The main purpose of this study was to isolate airborne fungi and assess seasonal variations in air contamination with their particulates by determining the levels of their propagules in the nave and exonarthex of a church. We also monitored indoor microclimate as a determining factor for fungal proliferation on wall paintings, spore release, and transmission through the air. The temperature and relative humidity of the nave favoured fungal growth. A total of 33 fungi were isolated, mainly of the phylum Ascomycota, and to the lesser extent of the phyla Zygomycota and Basidiomycota. The most common were the fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus (23.55 % and 20.58 %, respectively). Sørensen’s quotient of similarity (0.37) suggests moderate species overlap and constant exchange of fungal propagules between the nave and exonarthex. The autumn had the highest diversity, with 17 documented taxa, followed by the summer and the winter. The spring had only eight taxa. Quantitative analysis of the airborne mycobiota in the nave (430±84.85 to 1880±106.07 CFU m-3) and exonarthex (715±59.62 to 2295±91.92 CFU m-3) showed very high contamination throughout the year, with values exceeding the maximum permissible concentrations by most standards. Many of the fungi determined in this study are known for their biodeteriogenic, toxigenic, and allergenic properties, and are a threat not only to occasional visitors and staff, but also to valuable works of art decorating nave walls., Glavni cilj ovoga istraživanja bio je izolirati gljive iz zraka i procijeniti sezonske promjene u onečišćenju zraka gljivičnim propagulama u naosu i egzonarteksu istraživane crkve. Također su praćeni mikroklimatski parametri kao ograničavajući čimbenici za razvoj i rast gljiva na zidnim slikama, za oslobađanje spora i njihovu transmisiju kroz zrak. Zabilježena temperatura i relativna vlažnost zraka u naosu pogodovale su razvoju i rastu gljiva. Dokumentirana su 33 taksona gljiva, uglavnom pripadnika koljena Ascomycota, a manje su zastupljeni oni Zygomycota i Basidiomycota. Najčešće su bile prisutne plijesni rodova Penicillium (23,55 %) i Aspergillus (20,58 %). Sørensenov indeks sličnosti (0,37) upućuje na stalnu i umjerenu razmjenu gljivičnih propagula između naosa i egzonarteksa. Uzorci uzeti u jesen pokazali su najveću raznolikost sa 17 zabilježenih taksona, a oni uzeti u proljeće samo osam taksona. Kvantitativna mikološka analiza u naosu (430±84,85 do 1880±106,07 CFU m-3) i egzonarteksu (715±59,62 do 2295±91,92 CFU m-3) pokazala je visoku godišnju razinu onečišćenja zraka, s vrijednostima koje prema većini standarda prelaze dopuštene koncentracije. Mnoge identificirane gljive mogu dovesti do biodeterioracije, proizvesti mikotoksine i izazvati alergijske reakcije. Stoga su nepoželjne u sakralnim objektima ne samo zbog očuvanja murala nego i zbog zaštite zdravlja zaposlenih, posjetitelja i konzervatora.

Mikotoksini so molekule z majhno molekulsko maso, ki so sekundarni metaboliti gliv. So izredno stabilni in lahko preživijo tudi toplotno obdelavo. Glive okužijo navadno zrnate pridelke, kot so pšenica, rž in koruza. Zaradi njihove pogostosti pojavljanja in tveganja za zdravje živali in človeka agencije, kot so Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), ustvarjajo smernice za njihovo vzorčenje, merjenje ter določajo meje v prehrani in krmi. Znanih je več načinov za določevanje koncentracije mikotoksinov v vzorcu. Poznamo imuno-kemijske metode, ki se uporabljajo rutinsko in so zelo robustne. Med nekoliko bolj zahtevne in natančnejše metode pa uvrščamo kromatografske metode. Te se lahko delijo na tekočinsko ali plinsko kromatografijo ter še glede na način detekcije, in sicer z ultravijolično svetlobo ali masno spektrometrijo. Pri kromatografiji, sklopljeni z masnim spektrometrom, je ključen vmesni korak ionizacije vzorca z ionskim izvorom. Cilj tega magistrskega dela je bila optimizacija nastavitev masnega spektrometra Agilent’s 6300 Ion Trap za analizo mikotoksinov z LC/MS metodo. Preučevali smo dve metodi ionizacije mikotoksinov: desorpcijsko ionizacijo z razprševanjem v električnem polju (DESI) ter desorpcijsko foto ionizacijo pri atmosferskem tlaku (DAPPI). Pri obeh metodah smo želeli optimizirati nastavitve masnega spektrometra tako, da v vzorcu zazna določen mikotoksin ter prikaže čim bolj intenziven signal. Nastavitve smo optimizirali s pomočjo ionizacijskih metod: ionizacijo z razprševanjem v električnem polju (ESI), foto ionizacijo pri atmosferskem tlaku (APPI) ter APPI z mikročipom (µAPPI). Zaradi konstantnega pretoka vzorca skozi ionizator v masni spektrometer smo lahko z omenjenimi ionizacijami raziskali optimalne nastavitve za posamezni mikotoksin ter celo izvedli njihovo nadaljnjo fragmentacijo na manjše ione. To smo storili tako, da smo nastavili masni spektrometer na želeno tarčno molekulsko maso iona. Ta je nato za vsak parameter spreminjal območje napetosti. Vrednost, ki je podala največji signal, je shranil ter nadaljeval z naslednjim parametrom masnega spektrometra. V magistrski nalogi smo se osredotočili na optimizacijo parametrov za metodi DESI in DAPPI, za mikotoksine deoksinivalenol, nivalenol, T-2 toksin, HT-2 toksin ter zearalenon. Uporabili smo že pripravljene raztopine mikotoksinov določenih koncentracij pripravljenih je bilo tudi več različnih topil in dopantov, med katerimi smo v sklopu optimizacije izbrali najustreznejšega. Pri metodah DESI in DAPPI smo vzorce nanesli neposredno na ploščice, kjer so se posušili. Tako pripravljene ploščice smo postavili na nastavljivo stojalo, priključeno na masni spektrometer. Na ploščice smo nato pod kotom usmerili mešanico nosilnega plina ter dopanta, ki je ioniziral vzorec ter ione ponesel v masni spektrometer. Ker vzorci niso bili razporejeni čez celotno ploščico, smo poleg spektra vzorca posneli tudi spekter ozadja, ki smo ga lahko nato s pomočjo programske opreme odstranili in tako dobili boljši grafični prikaz rezultatov. Pri nekaterih meritvah z ESI, APPI in µAPPI nismo uspeli dobiti jasnega signala za določen mikotoksin, čeprav smo poskusili vse možne optimizacije nastavitev. V pomoč pri pridobitvi signala so bili adukti nastalih ionov, na osnovi katerih smo lahko optimizirali nastavitve parametrov spektrofotometra. Nekaterih meritev zaradi pomanjkanja mikročipov in založnih raztopin mikotoksinov nismo uspeli dokončati. Optimizacijo metod DESI in DAPPI lahko označimo kot uspešno, saj smo za večino vzorcev pri meritvah dobili rezultate, ki so ustrezno prikazali vsebnost določenega mikotoksina ali njihovih fragmentov ter aduktov. Edini problematični mikotoksin je bil nivalenol, kjer je ion ozadja z enako maso kot masa iona nivalenola motil optimizacijo. Proti koncu raziskovalnega dela smo odkrili potencialno rešitev za ta mikotoksin z merjenjem njegovega formatnega adukta, vendar je za meritve zmanjkalo delujočih mikročipov. V primerjavi z DESI se je DAPPI metoda izkazala za učinkovitejšo, saj so bili odzivi vzorcev z njo intenzivnejši. V sklopu našega dela bi optimizirane metode lahko uporabili za nadaljnje določanje mej zaznavanja DESI in DAPPI ter raziskovanje vsebnosti mikotoksinov na surovih vzorcih različnih žitaric. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolic products of Fungus species. In food (human or feed), they are mostly found on crops as a result of a fungal infection. The crop can be infected during the growth period or while it is stored under inappropriate conditions after the harvest. Because the toxicity of mycotoxins in high dosages can lead to different diseases or in worst cases death, the detection of them is essential. Many worldwide agencies that are involved in health, food safety, and agriculture (European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations (FAO), etc.) release guidelines with the maximum allowed concentrations for mycotoxins in food and feed and also for their sampling and measuring. Many methods for sampling and measuring were already developed ranging from simple detections with enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay (ELISA) on a commercial strip to complex liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry methods (LC-MS methods). Before we can analyze the sample with a mass spectrometer (MS), we must prepare it with an ionization process. The mass spectrometry method measures the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of charged particles (ions). Mass spectrometer with electric and magnetic field divides ions in the sample by their mass and displays them on the computer as peaks of different intensity in the graph. The aim of this thesis was the optimization of MS parameters for detection of mycotoxins Deoxynivalenol, Nivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and Zearalenone using desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) and desorption atmospheric pressure photo-ionization (DAPPI). The optimization was performed using electrospray ionization (ESI), atmospheric pressure photo-ionization (APPI), and microchip APPI (µAPPI) as preparation methods. Besides MS parameters variations, different spraying solvents and dopants were tested. The setup for DESI and DAPPI was constructed from moving modules, which allowed us to move our sample in front of MS and also test different plate surfaces, on which the samples were presented. The results of this thesis could be used for further analysis of DESI and DAPPI limits of detection (LoDs) and further detection of mycotoxins on infected food and feed.

Mikotoksīnu noteikšana kaķu barībā izmantojot AEŠH-MS/MS. Maģistra darbs uzrakstīts latviešu valodā, tā apjoms ir 43 lappuses. Darbs satur 20 attēlus, 7 tabulas, 49 literatūras avotus, 7 pielikumus. Literatūras apskatā veikts novērtējums par ergota alkaloīdu un citu plašāk izplatīto mikotoksīnu klasifikāciju, to ietekmi uz cilvēku un dzīvnieku organismu. Apskatītas vairākas analīzes metodes mikotoksīnu noteikšanai, padziļināti izpētīta šķidruma hromatogrāfijas un masspektrometrijas metodes. Eksperimentālajā daļā veikta 20 sausās kaķu barības paraugu analīze, noteiktas 8 ergota alkaloīdu un 8 citu mikotoksīnu koncentrācijas. Paraugi analīze ir veikta, izmantojot AEŠH-MS/MS metodi., Mycotoxin determination in cat food using HPLC-MS/MS. The master’s thesis is written in Latvian, it consists of 43 pages. It contains 20 figures, 7 tables, 49 references, 7 attachments. The theoretical part of the master’s thesis contains information about the classification of ergot alkaloids and other mycotoxins, their impact on human and animal health and some pharmaceutical uses. A review of multiple mycotoxins analysis methods with a focus on chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods was performed. In the experimental part 20 samples of dry cat food were analysed with the HPLC-MS/MS method, 8 ergot alkaloids and 8 other mycotoxins were determined.

Herbal substances, herbal preparations and herbal medicinal products, as well as traditional herbal medicinal products are of natural origin and have a higher risk of microbial contamination compared to chemical drugs. This review addresses microbial contaminants and chemical contaminants as products of microbial presence, referring mainly to mycotoxins. An overview is given on how to ensure suitable microbial quality, considering the importance of preventative measures, manufacturing processes and by applying decontamination processes in the frame of current regulatory aspects. Satisfactory quality regarding microbiological and mycotoxin contamination should be a result of mainly preventive measures, rather than interventions for decreasing the contamination. Evaluation should be based on a case-by-case risk assessment and usually includes tests and limits given in Ph. Eur. (for example TAMC, TYMC, absence of certain specified micro-organisms, testing on mycotoxins) in order to ensure a safe final product for the consumer or patient.

Analītiskās metodes izstrāde mikotoksīnu noteikšanai notekūdens paraugos. Pavļenko R., zinātniskais vadītājs Dr. ķīm., prof. Bartkevičs V. Bakalaura darbs, 49 lappuses, 27 attēli, 18 tabulas, 35 literatūras avoti, 1 pielikums. Latviešu valodā. Mikotoksīni ir toksiskie pelējuma sēnīšu metabolisma produkti, kas rodas, sēnītēm augot pārtikā, kā arī apkārtējā vidē. Ir pierādīts, ka mikotoksīnu izplatība pārtikā var izraisīt negatīvu ietekmi uz cilvēku veselību. Šī darba mērķis ir izstrādāt metodi mikotoksīnu noteikšanai notekūdens paraugos, lai turpmākajos pētījumos būtu iespēja aprēķināt, izmantojot 5-hidroksiindoletiķskābi kā populācijas biomarķieri, iedzīvotāju ekspozīciju ar mikotoksīniem. Analizējot dažus notekūdens paraugus, tika detektēti deoksinivalenols, beauvericīns, enniatīns A, enniatīns A1, enniatīns B un ennitatīns B1., Development of the analytical method for the determination of mycotoxins in wastewater samples. Pavļenko R., supervisor doc. Bartkevičs V. Bachelor’s thesis, 49 pages, 27 figures, 18 tables, 35 literature references, 1 appendice. In Latvian. Mycotoxins are toxic products of moulds that occur when fungi grow on human and animal food as well as the environment. The spread of mycotoxins in food has been shown to have adverse effects on human health. The aim of this work is to develop a method for the determination of mycotoxins in wastewater samples, so that in future studies it will be possible to calculate the exposure of the population to mycotoxins using 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid as a population biomarker. Deoxynivalenol, beauvericin, enniatin A, enniatin A1, enniatatin B and ennitatin B1 were detected in some wastewater samples.

Sinteza mikotoksina odvija se u specifičnim okolišnim uvjetima od kojih se temperatura, vlaga i CO2 navode kao ključni čimbenici za produkciju mikotoksina. Klimatske promjene te sve češći vremenski ekstremi značajno mijenjaju te čimbenike pa se posljedično narušavaju poznati obrasci kontaminacije plijesnima i sinteze mikotoksina na poljoprivrednim kulturama. Međutim, smatra se da će promjene povezane s kontaminacijom mikotoksikogenim plijesnima biti regionalne i usko u vezi s pojedinim vrstama plijesni, jer svaka vrsta ima svoje optimalne okolišne uvjete za rast i stvaranje toksičnih metabolita. Predviđa se da bi aflatoksini mogli postati učestali kontaminanti žitarica u Europi, a u tropskim predjelima moguće je izumiranje aflatoksikogenih plijesni zbog visokih temperatura. Za mikotoksikogene plijesni koje produciraju okratoksine, kao i za predstavnike roda Fusarium, također će biti izmijenjeni obrasci rasprostranjenosti i produkcije mikotoksina. Posebno zabrinjava porast prisutnosti plijesni F. graminearum, F. poae i F. langsethiae na žitaricama u sjevernoj i srednjoj Europi te posljedično kontaminacija tih usjeva deoksinivalenolom te T-2 i HT-2 toksinima. Pojavnost F. verticillioides i kontaminacija kukuruza fumonizinima bit će još više izražena na području južne Europe, kao i kontaminacija vina okratoksinima od plijesni A. carbonarius. S obzirom na očigledne klimatske promjene i posljedice koje one ostavljaju, nužna su daljnja istraživanja koja bi omogućila uspješno osmišljavanje strategija za prevenciju kontaminacije usjeva mikotoksinima u budućnosti., Mycotoxin synthesis takes place in specific environmental conditions, where temperature, humidity, and CO2 are considered the key factors in mycotoxin production. Due to climate change and increasingly frequent weather extremes those factors significantly change, hence, the previously established patterns of mold contamination and mycotoxin synthesis in agricultural crops are disrupted. However, the changes in mycotoxigenic mold contamination are expected to have a regional character, closely dependent on individual mold species, as each species grows and synthesizes toxic metabolites at optimal environmental conditions. Aflatoxins are predicted to become frequent grain contaminants in Europe, whilst the aflatoxigenic molds could go extinct in the tropics due to high temperatures. Also, the distribution and mycotoxins synthesis patterns of mycotoxigenic molds that produce ochratoxins and the members of the Fusarium genus will be modified. The increased presence of the molds F. graminearum, F. poae, and F. langsethiae on grains in northern and central Europe and the consequent contamination of these crops with deoxynivalenol and T-2 and HT-2 toxins are particularly concerning. The occurrence of F. verticillioides and maize contamination with fumonisins will be even more pronounced in southern Europe, as well as the contamination of wine with ochratoxins produced by A. carbonarius. Given climate change and its consequences, further research is necessary to design strategies for preventing crop contamination with mycotoxins in the future.

Mikotoksini su toksični sekundarni metaboliti plijesni koji kontaminiraju usjeve diljem svijeta te čine velike štete u gospodarstvu. U svijetu je poznato oko 400 vrsta plijesni koje uzrokuju mikotoksikoze - različite bolesti u ljudi i životinja. Sinteza mikotoksina povezana je s određenim ekološkim uvjetima od kojih su temperatura, oborine i vlaga ključni čimbenici za produkciju toksina. Zbog klimatskih promjena, ovi čimbenici se drastično mijenjaju pa se posljedično narušavaju poznati obrasci sinteze mikotoksina čime se dovodi u pitanje sigurnost proizvodnje hrane u budućnosti. Mikotokiskogene plijesni imaju sposobnost prilagodbe na nove klimatske uvjete stoga bi u sljedećih 20 godina kontaminacija mikotoksikogenim plijesnima mogla zadati velike probleme u poljoprivredi i osiguranju zdravstvene ispravnosti hrane. Aflatoksini, postat će potencijalna opasnost u umjerenom klimatskom pojasu, dok bi u tropskim krajevima mogli potpuno nestati zbog previsokih temperatura. S druge strane, fuzarijski mikotoksini koji su karakteristični za umjereni pojas mogli bi se pojaviti u sjevernim predjelima svijeta gdje će činiti velike štete na žitaricama i kukuruzu. Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of molds which are contaminating crops around the world thus causing immense damage to the global economy. There are approximately 400 kinds of molds known in the world causing mycotoxicosis – different diseases to humans and animals. Synthesis of mycotoxins is connected with certain ecological conditions out of which temperature, precipitation and moisture are key factors for toxins production. Due to climate changes, these factors change drastically; therefore known patterns of mycotoxins synthesis are disturbed, bringing safety of the food production into question. Mycotoxigenic molds have the ability to adapt to new climatic conditions, so in the next 20 years, contamination of mycotoxigenic molds could become a major problem in agriculture and food safety. Aflatoxins would become a potential danger in moderate temperature zone while in the tropics they could disappear completely due to too high temperatures. On the other hand, fusarium mycotoxins which are characteristic for the moderate temperature zone could occur in northern regions of the world where they will cause great damage to cereals and corn.

Okratoksin A je sekundarni metabolit plijesni iz rodova Aspergillus i Penicillium, a klasificiran je kao potencijalni ljudski karcinogen. Istraživanja su pokazala da određeni sojevi kvasaca mogu smanjiti koncentraciju OTA u raznim medijima. Unatoč tome, utjecaj OTA na produkte fermentativnog metabolizma kvasaca nije istraživan. Stoga je cilj ovog rada istražiti utjecaj OTA na fermentacijska svojstva odabranih sojeva kvasaca: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (5), Saccharomyces cerevisiae DMSZ, Saccharomyces bayanus (8), Hanseniaspora uvarum i Pichia guilliermondii, kao i na njihov rast. Pomoću tekućinske kromatografije visoke djelotvornosti (HPLC) određeni su fermentativni produkti kvasaca, a sposobnost njihovog rasta ispitana je određivanjem broja živih stanica u prisutnosti OTA u koncentracijama 2, odnosno 4 μg mL-1. Iz dobivenih rezultata može se uočiti kako OTA najmanje inhibira fermentacijsku aktivnost kvasca Saccharomyces cerevisiae DSMZ. Najveći broj živih stanica zabilježen je kod kvasca P. guilliermondii nakon 24 sata uzgoja. Ochratoxin A is a secondary metabolite of molds that belong to Aspergillus and Penicilium genera, and is classified as a potential human carcinogen. Studies have shown that certain strains of yeasts can reduce the concentration of OTA in various media. However, the influence of OTA on the products of fermentative yeast metabolism has not been investigated, therefore the aim of this study is to investigate the influence of OTA on fermentation properties of selected yeast strains: Saccharomyces cerevisiae (5), Saccharomyces cerevisiae DMSZ, Saccharomyces bayanus (8), Hanseniaspora uvarum and Pichia guilliermondii, as well as on their growth. Yeast fermentation productswere determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and their growth ability was examined by determining the number of living cells in the presence of OTA at concentrations of 2 and 4 μg mL-1. From the obtained results it can be noticed that OTA least inhibits the fermentation activity of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae DSMZ. The highest number of living cells was recorded in the yeast P. guilliermondii after 24 hours of cultivation.

Mikotoksini su štetni metaboliti nekih vrsta plijesni koji se mogu naći u brojnim namirnicama i krmivu. Kontaminacija mikotoksinima može rezultirati ekonomskim gubicima te toksično djelovati na zdravlje ljudi. Od primarne je važnosti suzbiti kontaminaciju mikotoksinima što se ostvaruje fizikalnim, kemijskim i biološkim metodama. Danas se stavlja veliki naglasak na biološke metode koje se temelje na biotransformaciji i adsorpciji mikotoksina mikrobnim kulturama i njihovim staničnim komponentama. U ovom radu navedeni su rezultati dosadašnjih istraživanja uklanjanja mikotoksina pomoću organskog otpada kao biosorbensa. Mycotoxins are harmful metabolites of some types of moulds that can be found in numerous foods and feeds. Contamination with mycotoxins can result in economic losses and have a toxic effect on human health. It is of primary importance to reduce mycotoxin contamination, which is possible by physical, chemical and biological methods. Today, great emphasis is placed on biological methods based on biotransformation and adsorption of mycotoxins by microbial cultures and their cellular components. This paper presents the results of previous research on the removal of mycotoxins using organic waste as a biosorbent.

Število bolnikov z avtoimunskimi motnjami v zadnjih desetletjih močno narašča. Večina bolezni je še vedno neozdravljivih in na mnogo dejavnikov, ki prispevajo k njihovemu razvoju, ne moremo vplivati, vseh pa sploh še ne poznamo. Hrana je ena izmed komponent, za katero je dokazano, da lahko odločilno prispeva k začetku in nadaljnjemu razvoju bolezni. Porušena homeostaza in kronično vnetje črevesja lahko skupaj z genetskimi in epigenetskimi dejavniki ter napačno dieto vodi do nastanka različnih avtoimunskih motenj. Tako lahko pomanjkanje vitamina D vodi v razvoj multiple skleroze, prevelika količina soli lahko pripomore k razvoju revmatoidnega artritisa, mlečni izdelki z visoko vsebnostjo β-kazeina prispevajo k razvoju diabetesa tipa 1 ter gluten lahko sproži nastanek celiakije. Veliko raziskav je pokazalo tudi, da lahko mikotoksini dodatno oslabijo delovanje imunskega sistema ter tako pripomorejo k razvoju avtoimunskih stanj. The number of patients with autoimmune disorders have been rising sharply in recent decades. Most diseases are still incurable and many of the factors that contribute to their development cannot be influenced and many of them are still unknown. Food is one of the components that has been shown to make a significant contribution to the onset and further development of the disease. Disrupted homeostasis and chronic inflammation of the gut, along with genetic and epigenetic factors and poor diet, can lead to the development of various autoimmune disorders. Thus, vitamin D deficiency can lead to the development of multiple sclerosis, too much salt can contribute to the development of rheumatoid arthritis, milk products with high β-casein content may cause type 1 diabetes, and gluten can trigger celiac disease. Many studies have also shown that mycotoxins can further weaken the immune system and thus contribute to the development of autoimmune conditions.

Aflatoksin B1 (AFB1) je strupen sekundarni presnovek nekaterih sevov plesni rodu Aspergillus, ki zaradi mnogih škodljivih lastnosti predstavlja resen problem za zdravje ljudi. Poleg tega povzroča velike ekonomske izgube v kmetijstvu in živilstvu. AFB1 najdemo v številnih živilih kot so koruza, riž, drevesni oreščki, arašidi, in suho sadje. Lahko se tvori pred ali med skladiščenjem. Učinkovit način nadzora AFB1 je ustrezen način pakiranja živila. Študije so pokazale, da so nekateri polimerni embalažni materiali dobra bariera za pline in vlago, ki sta glavna dejavnika, ki vplivata na rast plesni. Med te embalažne materiale štejemo polietilen-laminiran aluminij, etilen vinil alkohol, polipropilen in druge materiale. Učinkovitost različnih materialov proti tvorbi AFB1 je boljša z dodatkom eteričnih olj in aktivnih spojin. Zaradi okolju prijaznih lastnosti v zadnjem času vse bolj prihajajo v veljavo naravni užitni premazi za živila, kot sta hitozan in želatina s karboksimetil celulozo, ki sta prav tako učinkovitejša z dodatkom eteričnih olj. Tvorbo AFB1 lahko upočasnimo tudi s pakiranjem v atmosfero s spremenjeno plinsko sestavo (MAP). Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a toxic secondary metabolite synthesized by different Aspergillus strains. Its harmful properties represent a serious problem to human health. Additionally, it causes serious economic damage in agriculture and food industry. AFB1 can be found in corn, rice, tree nuts, peanuts and dried fruits and can be produced before or during storage. An effective way to control AFB1 in foods is choosing a suitable method for packaging. Some of the polymer materials represent a barrier for gases and moisture, the major factors that have influence on growth of molds. Such polymers are polyethylene-laminated aluminium, ethylene vinyl alcohol, polypropylene and other materials. The effectiveness of different materials against the formation of AFB1 can be increased by adding essential oils and other active compounds. Edible food coatings like chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose-gelatin film have recently become popular due to their environmentally friendly properties which also become more effective by addition of essential oils. The synthesis of AFB1 can be controlled by modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) as well.