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The neoliberal approach taken to the transition from socialism to capitalism in the six former Yugoslav republics has revealed its weaknesses in all spheres of economic activities, including food production. These countries have lost sovereignty with respect to regulating important national policy areas like food trade and production. Liberalisation of the food trade has adversely affected national economies by destroying many small-scale farmers and food producers. Corporate supermarkets have been taking over an ever bigger slice of the retail pie. Social movements are calling for direct democratic control over resources and food production to be regained. The article examines the prospects of these countries to overcome the increasing food insecurity by introducing food sovereignty Neoliberalni pristop k tranziciji iz socializma v kapitalizem v šestih nekdanjih jugoslovanskih republikah je razkril svoje slabe strani v vseh sferah ekonomskih dejavnosti, vključno s proizvodnjo hrane. Te države so izgubile svojo suverenost pri reguliranju pomembnih področij nacionalnih politik, kot sta proizvodnja hrane in preskrba s hrano. Liberalizacija preskrbe s hrano je z uničenjem številnih malih kmetovalcev in proizvajalcev hrane škodljivo učinkovala na nacionalne ekonomije. Trgovske korporacije so prevzemale vse večji delež maloprodajnega kolača. Družbena gibanja pozivajo k temu, da bi ponovno pridobili neposredni demokratični nadzor nad viri in proizvodnjo hrane. V članku obravnavamo možnosti teh držav, da bi premagale naraščajočo prehransko negotovost, tako da bi vpeljale prehransko suverenost

Tranzicijsko obdobje in prehod v tržno gospodarstvo sta pustila sled tudi na železniških tirih. Ločitev od skupne države je zahtevala postopne spremembe železniške zakonodaje in povezovanje v evropsko železniško omrežje. Korenite spremembe je zaznati po vstopu Slovenije v EU, saj je država kot članica zavezana spoštovati skupne direktive Evropske komisije. Kompleksnost sistema, kot je železniški, zahteva visoko stopnjo varnosti. Sprva je bil pri zagotavljanju varnosti v večino procesov vključen človeški dejavnik, ki je tudi danes v manjši meri prisoten. Z napredkom tehnologije in avtomatizacijo procesov se je stopnjevala raven varnosti tudi v železniških sistemih. Upravljanje tveganj je zahteven in dolgotrajen proces, ki se izboljšuje z razumevanjem nalog, učenjem iz izkušenj in dosledno integracijo v izvajalnih procesih. Za zagotavljanje varnosti v železniškem sistemu sta odgovorna tako upravljavec kot prevoznik, vsak na svojem področju. S posodabljanjem infrastrukture in integracijo sodobnih sistemov vodenja prometa in nadzora pomožnih sistemov se izboljšuje varnost in s tem zagotavlja bolj stabilno oskrbo gospodarstva, ki je v tesni povezanosti z železnico. Da bi preprečili nastanek nesreč ali ponovitev le-teh, vsaka železniška uprava vodi statistiko izrednih dogodkov. Le-ta je podlaga za prikaz stanja varnosti v sistemu. Določila direktive EU nalagajo državam članicam, da je treba vsak dogodek oziroma nesrečo raziskati in sprejeti priporočila oziroma smernice za izboljšanje stanja. The transition period and the transition to the market economy had an impact on the railway system. The separation from the common state required gradual change of the railway legislation and integration into a European railway network. Radical changes occurred after Slovenia's admission into the EU, because as a member state it is committed to respect common directives of the European Commission. The complexity of a system, such as the railway system, requires high security levels. At first, most security-ensuring processes included a human factor, which is also required today, but to a lesser degree. The advancement of technology and process automatization resulted in an increase of security levels of railway systems. Risk management is a complex and lengthy process, which can be improved by better understanding tasks, learning from experience and ensuring consistent integration in implementation processes. Both, the operator and the carrier, are committed to ensuring security in the railway system, each in their own field. Together with infrastructure upgrading and integration of modern systems for traffic management and support system control, security is also improved, thus ensuring more stable economy provision, which is closely connected to the railway system. In order to prevent accidents from happening or reoccurring, every railway administration keeps record of extraordinary events, which reveals the security level of a system. According to decrees of EU regulations, members states must investigate every event or accident and adopt recommendations or measures to remedy said situation.

Tržište taksi usluga u Republici Hrvatskoj je u kontinuiranom rastu posljednjih nekoliko godina. Tu činjenicu dokazuje rast brojnih poslovnih pokazatelja čije se kretanje analizira u ovom završnom radu. Najznačajniji poslovni pokazatelji koji su narasli tijekom razdoblja od 2009. do 2019. godine su broj poduzetnika te broj novo zaposlenih. Broj poduzetnika je narastao s 22 (u 2009. godini) na 1343 (u 2019. godini), dok je broj novo zaposlenih narastao s 47 (u 2009. godini) na 1859 (u 2019. godini). S druge strane, postojali su i poslovni pokazatelji koji su tijekom promatranog razdoblja padali. Tako je prosječna mjesečna plaća po zaposlenom u 2009. godini iznosila 3.037 kuna dok je u 2019. godini pala na iznos od 2.802 kune. Važno je istaknuti i liberalizaciju kao jedan od razloga rasta taksi tržišta u Republici Hrvatskoj. Naime, ona je omogućila slobodniji ulazak i izlazak s tržište, smanjenje cijena, ali je uzrokovala povećanje prometnog nereda i gužvi te pad korištenja javnog prijevoza. Taxi market in the Croatia has been growing continuously for the last few years. This fact is proven by the growth of numerous business indicators and their dynamics which is analysed in this final thesis. The most significant business indicators that grew during the period from 2009 to 2019 are the number of entrepreneurs and the number of new employees. The number of entrepreneurs increased from 22 (in 2009) to 1343 (in 2019) while the number of new employees increased from 47 (in 2009) to 1859 (in 2019). On the other hand, there were some business indicators that fell during the observed period. The average monthly salary per employee was 3,037 HRK in 2009, while it dropped to the amount of 2,802 HRK in 2019. It is important to point out liberalization as the key factor and one of the reasons for the growth of the taxi market in the Croatia. It enabled easier entry and exit into/from the market, reduction of prices, but it also caused more traffic jams and a decline in the use of public transport.

Napredak tehnologije, dobri odnosi na tržištu i liberalizacija doprinose, kako pojedinačno, tako i zajedno na cjelokupni razvoj ekonomije zemlje. Promjene poput napretka i liberalizacije su tržište telekomunikacije u Hrvatskoj promijenile u oligopolističko. Koliko god dug i težak proces promjene bio, operateri se imaju još vremena natjecati i boriti da stvore konkurencijsko stanje koje mogu nazvati idealnim. Development od tehnology, making business in good term with other participants and liberalization contribute to economy growth combined all together just as much as individually. Changes in development and liberalization changed market of communication in Croatia into oligopoly Although the process was long and hard, participants have enough time to compete and to fight to make it ideal for business to grow in.

Tržište telekomunikacijskih usluga je važan segment razvoja svake zemlje. Kako je spomenuto tržište prvenstveno bilo u stanju zakonitog monopola, povećanjem njegove važnosti povećava se i potreba otklanjanja, odnosno regulacije prvobitnog stanja prema stanju konkurencije pri čemu bitnu ulogu imaju regulatorna agencija i agencija za zaštitu tržišta. Na hrvatskom tržištu telekomunikacija, na koje je u ovom radu stavljen naglasak, liberalizacija je velikim dijelom provedena, no potrebne su daljnje regulatorne akcije nadležnih tijela kako bi se postiglo ciljno stanje konkurentskog tržišta po uzoru na razvijene zemlje Europske Unije, kojoj Republika Hrvatska teži. Naime, unatoč sve većem broju operatora i davatelja usluga, na hrvatskom telekomunikacijskom tržištu i dalje postoje operatori sa znatnijom tržišnom snagom koji imaju vladajući položaj.

Liberalizacija mednarodne menjave je že od 18. stoletja ključnega pomena za gospodarski razvoj in rast držav, saj je rast BDP-ja v številnih državah, sploh manjših, zelo odvisna od zunanjega povpraševanja. Veliko vlogo pri pospeševanju trgovine imata Svetovna trgovinska organizacija in številni bilateralni in multilateralni prostotrgovinski sporazumi, s katerimi poskušajo države odstraniti trgovinske ovire. Argumenti, ki podpirajo prosto trgovino, so specializacija držav, dvig povpraševanja in zaposlenosti, večja produktivnost, več tujih naložb itd. V času gospodarskih kriz se prosta trgovina omenja tudi kot razlog za krizo, kar lahko pripelje do simpatiziranja z ukrepi protekcionizma. Argumenti, ki jih razvija protekcionizem proti prosti trgovini, so izguba delovnih mest in strukturna brezposelnost, nezmožnost razvoja (mlade) industrije, preusmeritev povpraševanja k najcenejšim, cenovni dumping, večja konkurenca itd. Statistični podatki vseeno kažejo na pomen odprtosti gospodarstev za trgovino. Ravno ta odprtost med državami članicami EU je pripomogla k temu, da je EU danes eno od vodilnih gospodarstev na svetu. Prosta trgovina je v EU dvignila povpraševanje in s tem pospešila gospodarsko dinamiko. Najbolj pomembni zunanji trgovinski partnerici EU sta Kitajska in ZDA. S slednjo je EU od leta 2013 do začetka leta 2019 želela skleniti sporazum TTIP, vendar do sporazuma zaradi argumentov, ki so tudi protekcionistični, in zato strahu pred učinki, ni prišlo. The liberalization of international trade has been crucial to the economic development and growth of countries since the 18th century, as GDP growth in many, especially smaller countries, is increasingly dependent on external demand. The World Trade Organization and a number of bilateral and multilateral FTAs play an important role in facilitating trade and removing barriers to trade. The arguments that support free trade are, for example, specialization of countries, increase in demand and employment, higher productivity, more foreign investment, etc. In times of economic crises, free trade is also mentioned as one of the reasons for them, which can lead to sympathy with protectionist measures. The arguments developed by protectionism are job loss and structural unemployment, inability to develop an (infant) industry, demand shifting to the cheapest, price dumping, increased competition, etc. However, statistics show the importance of openness to trade for economies. It is this openness between EU Member States that has made the EU one of the world's leading economies today. Free trade has lifted demand in the EU, boosting economic momentum. EU's most important foreign trade partners are China and the US. With the latter, the EU wanted to conclude a Transantlantic Trade and Investment Partnership, in short TTIP, from 2013 to the beggining of 2019. The agreement did not come to light due to arguments, which were also protectionist, and, therefore, fear of the effects.

Tržište poštanskih usluga, kako u Republici Hrvatskoj, tako i u većini ostalih svjetskih država, prolazi kroz velike promjene kao posljedica sve češćeg korištenja elektroničke komunikacije te supstitucije poštanskih usluga. Napredak tehnologije utječe i na promjene ponašanja korisnika, kao i na njihova očekivanja u vezi s kvalitetom i brzinom usluge. U Republici Hrvatskoj djeluju gotovo svi na svjetskoj razini prepoznati pružatelji usluga paketne distribucije, a njihov je cilj da u što kraćem vremenu i uz što višu razinu kvalitete usluge isporuče pošiljku primatelju. Cilj ovog rada je analizirati stanje na poštanskom tržištu u Republici Hrvatskoj. Posljednjih godina sve je izraženiji utjecaj supstitucije poštanskih usluga elektroničkim, što se ogleda u padu obujma pismovnih pošiljaka. S druge strane raste broj distribuiranih paketa kod većine poštanskih operatora u zemljama članicama i to zahvaljujući rastu elektroničke trgovine. Navedeni trendovi nisu zaobišli ni hrvatsko poštansko tržište na kojem su se također korisnici okrenuli češćoj online kupovini, što je potenciralo trend rasta dostavljenih paketa. Temeljem provedene analize zaključuje se kako unatoč uspostavi potpune liberalizacije hrvatskog poštanskog tržišta i dalje dominira nacionalni operator, Hrvatska pošta d. d., no on pod utjecajem promjena na tržištu poslovanje više ne temelji isključivo na tradicionalnim poslovima, već širi svoju ponudu dodatnim uslugama., In Croatia, as in almost all other countries of the world, the postal services market has been going through big changes that are the consequence of the growing use of electronic communication and the fact of the postal services being substituted by it. Technological advancement also influences the changes in the behaviour of users and their expectations regarding the quality and the speed of the service provided. Almost all of the world-renown package distribution service providers whose goal is to deliver the parcels as quickly and as efficiently as possible operate in the Republic of Croatia. The goal of this paper is to analyse the state of affairs on the postal market in the Republic of Croatia. Over the last years, postal services have been increasingly substituted with electronic services, as evidenced by fewer letters being sent by the post. On the other hand, the number of the distributed parcels has been growing, due to the development of e-commerce. These trends are also present on the Croatian postal market, where buyers have become increasingly oriented towards online shopping, resulting in more packages being delivered. Based on the conducted analysis, the conclusions are drawn that, despite of the fact that the Croatian postal market has been completely liberalized, the market is still dominated by the national operator Hrvatska pošta d.d. However, under the influence of the market changes, the operator expands its offer by providing additional services and not just relying on the traditional business activities.

U današnje vrijeme informacijske tehnologije predstavljaju jednu od ključnih generičkih tehnologija jer su usko vezane uz područja gospodarstva, znanosti, društvenoga i privatnoga života i u njih unose značajne promjene mijenjajući načine na koji ljudi rade i žive te ustroj i način poslovanja suvremenih tvrtki. Informatika kao znanost o informacijama predstavlja važnu odrednicu suvremenog svijeta odlikovanog globalizacijom, a ICT sektor predstavlja važnu sastavnicu svakog pojedinog gospodarstva. Svrha i cilj ovog rada je, uz teorijske odrednice ICT sektora i njegove uloge u suvremenom gospodarstvu, dati uvid u detaljnu analizu ICT sektora Republike Hrvatske. Nowadays information technology is one of the key generic technologies because it is closely relate to the fields of economics, science, social and private life and bring significant changes to them by changing the ways in which people are working and living and in which modern companies operate. Information science represents an important determinant of the contemporary world characterized by globalization, and the ICT sector is an important component of each individual economy. Aside from presenting a theoretical background of the ICT sector and its role in modern economy, additional purpose of this paper is to provide an insight into the detailed analysis of the ICT sector of the Republic of Croatia.

Liberalizacija javnih služb je nedvomno eden izmed najpomembnejših, če ne celo najpomembnejši proces, ki se je v zadnjih letih odvil na področju energetike. Proces je omogočil, da so se nekatere energetske dejavnosti, ki so bile skozi zgodovino tradicionalno dojete kot dejavnosti splošnega gospodarskega pomena, ki se lahko izvajajo le preko državnega monopola, razvile v panoge, ki so podvržene tržnim zakonitostim. Zaradi specifičnosti, ki jih ima energetika kot t.i. mrežna dejavnost, pa je bilo o liberalizaciji javnih služb v praksi nemogoče razmišljati, dokler se na podlagi pravnih aktov Evropske Skupnosti ni začelo postopno ločevanje energetskih dejavnosti na tiste, ki se lahko izvajajo tržno, in tiste, ki praviloma predstavljajo naravni monopol. V obdobju od sredine devetdesetih let 20. stoletja do leta 2009 je bilo v pravnem rede držav članic Evropske Unije tako implementiranih šest ključnih direktiv, tri iz področja električne energije in tri iz področja zemeljskega plina, ki so omogočile razvoj energetike v povsem drugi smeri. Dandanes si tako lahko vsako gospodinjstvo prosto izbira dobavitelja električne energije, na proizvodnem trgu obstaja konkurenca med različnimi proizvajalcu, kot javne službe pa se na podlagi s strani države podeljenih monopolnih pravic izvajajo zgolj tiste dejavnosti, kjer konkurenca bodisi ni mogoča bodisi ni smotrna. Liberalisation of public services is without a doubt one of the more important, if not the most important, processes which have occurred in the field of energy in recent years. The process has enabled certain activities in the field of energy, which have historically been perceived as activities of general economic interest, which may only be carried out through a state monopoly, to develop into activities that are subject to laws of markets. Due to specifics of the field of energy, where the activities have always been considered as the so-called network industries, it was in practice unimaginable to even consider liberalisation of public services, before the legal acts of European Community had provided a basis for their gradual unbundling. The activities, which may be carried out freely on the market were therefore separated from the ones, which are generally considered as a natural monopoly. Between nineteen-twenties and 2009, six crucial legal Directives, six in the field of electricity and three in the field of natural gas, have been implemented in the legal systems of the Member States of the European Union, thus enabling the development of energy industries in a completely different direction. Nowadays, every household is able to freely choose its own supplier of electricity, there is competition between several producers in field of production, and the only activities that are carried out as public services, based on state granted monopoly rights, are the ones, where competition is either not possible or not reasonable.

Avtor se v magistrskem delu ukvarja z vertikalnimi sporazumi, ki se pojavljajo na različnih stopnjah dobave električne energije in zemeljskega plin. Vertikalni sporazumi so v energetskem sektorju pogosto uporabljen pogodbeni model. Že ime samo razkrije, da se tovrstne pogodbe aplicirajo zgolj na vertikalne tipe razmerij. Komisija in tudi evropski zakonodajalec že od nekdaj priznavate drugačne učinke sporazumov, glede na to ali so sklenjeni med konkurenti (horizontalno razmerje) ali pa med podjetji, ki delujeta vsaka na različni stopnji dobavne/distribucijske verige. Povedano drugače, glavna karakteristika vertikalnih razmerij je, da predstavlja produkt enega podjetja »input« drugega. To pomeni, da so dejavnosti pogodbenic sporazuma medsebojno dopolnjujoče, oz. komplementarne. V teoriji je na splošno priznan manjši negativni učinek, ki ga lahko ustvarijo vertikalni pogodbeni odnosi. Neposredno to priznava tudi Komisija, ko je s sprejetjem Uredbe 330/2010 vzpostavila t.i. varni pristan, ki varuje vertikalne sporazume, ki vsebujejo določene omejitve konkurence pred prepovedjo iz člena 101 (1) PDEU, vse dokler so kumulativno izpolnjeni vsi pogoji iz uredbe. Dodana vrednost te uredbe je ravno v določitvi uporabe člena 101(3) PDEU za nekatere skupine vertikalnih sporazumov, ki sicer spadajo pod člen 101(1) PDEU. S tem je Komisija a priori opredelila skupino vertikalnih sporazumov, za katere je mogoče z zadostno gotovostjo zatrjevati, da izpolnjujejo pogoje iz člena 101(3) PDEU. Slednji odstavek je še vseeno zadnja možnost, da pogodbenici vertikalnega sporazuma dokažeta, da sporazum prinaša učinkovitosti za konkurenco do takšne mere, da pretehtajo nad protikonkurenčnimi učinki. Iz tega sledi, da je glavna konkurenčnopravna določba, ki ureja vertikalne sporazume ravno člen 101 PDEU. Vendar je ta določba zelo abstraktna, saj pokriva vse vrste ravnanj med dvema subjektoma, med drugim tudi vertikalne sporazume. Komisija je za voljo jasnejšega pregleda, predvsem pa v podporo podjetjem, ki se znajdejo v vertikalnem pogodbenem razmerju, sprejela poleg Uredbe 330/2010 tudi Smernice o vertikalnih sporazumih. S temi Smernicami je determinirala splošna načela za ocenjevanje vertikalnih sporazumov. Njena uporabnost je vsesplošna. Ne glede na to, da gre za t.i. mehko pravo (ang. soft law), vseeno podaja oprijemljive podatke, tako glede same uporabe in razlage člena 101 PDEU, kakor tudi spremljajočega sekundarnega prava EU in nasploh pristop k ocenjevanju vertikalnih sporazumov. Pogoj za uporabo člena 101 PDEU je, da vertikalni sporazumi lahko vplivajo na trgovino med državami članicami, hkrati pa v zadostni meri preprečujejo, omejujejo ali izkrivljajo konkurenco. Primarni cilj člena 101 je zagotoviti, da pogodbenici ne uporabljata sporazuma na način, ki bi škodoval potrošnikom. Poleg imperativa maksimiziranja potrošnikov koristi, pa je v energetskem sektorju ravno tako pomembna vzpostavitev integriranega notranjega energetskega trga. Zgolj enoten, povezan energetski trg omogoča krepitev konkurence na ravni EU. V zadnjih dveh desetletjih je prišlo do drastične spremembe v tržni strukturi sektorja energetike. Proces, imenovan liberalizacija, je poleg odprave monopolnih struktur uvedel tudi spremembe na področju pogodbenih relacij v vertikalnih razmerjih. Nezdružljivi s členom 101 (1) PDEU so tako vsi sporazumi, ki ponovno ustvarjajo ovire konkurenci in prispevajo k delitvi enotnega trga v meje držav članic. Evropska Komisija je že v začetku procesa liberalizacije zarisala metodologijo ocenjevanja vertikalnih sporazumov. Prvotno dojemanje in ocenjevanje vertikalnih omejitev je bilo deležno glasnih kritik, ki so letele na preveč formalističen pristop k uporabi člena 101 (1) PDEU, ki se je kazal kot zadržanost do sprejetja pozitivnih učinkov, ki jih lahko prinesejo nekatere vrste vertikalnih omejitev. Posledično je mnogo vertikalnih sporazumov nerazumljivo in po nepotrebnem zapadlo pod prepoved iz člena 101 (1) In the master's thesis, the author deals with vertical agreements that occur at various stages of supply chain, regarding electricity and natural gas. Vertical agreements are commonly used contractual model in the energy sector. The name itself reveals that such contracts are applied only to vertical types of contractual relationships. The European Commission and also the European legislator have long since acknowledged the different effects of the agreements, depending whether they are concluded between competitors (horizontal relationships) or between companies that operate in different stages of the supply/distribution chain. In other words, the main characteristic of vertical ralationships is, that the product of one enterprise represents an input of another. This means that the activities of the parties to the agreement are mutually complementary. In theory, a lesser negative effect is generally perceived by vertical contractual relationships. This is also recognized directly by the Commission when it established the so-called a safe harbor, protecting vertical agreements that are containing a specific restrictions to competition, before the prohibition referred to in Article 101 (1) TFEU, as long as all the conditions laid down in the regulation are fulfilled cumulatively. Throughout the master's thesis, the emphasis is marely on the application of the regulation. The added value of this regulation is in determining the application of Article 101 (3) TFEU to certain categories of vertical agreements and the corresponding concerted practices which would normally fall under Article 101 (1) TFEU. By doing so, the Commission has a priori defined a group of vertical agreements for which it is possible to state with sufficient certainty that they fulfill the conditions laid down in Article 101 (3) TFEU. The latter paragraph is, nevertheless, the last possibility for the parties to the vertical agreement to prove, that the agreement brings efficiency to competition to the extent, that they deminish the anti-competitive effects. It follows that the main competition law provision governing vertical agreements is Article 101 TFEU. However, this provision is very abstract, since it covers all types of conduct between two subjects, including vertical agreements. The Commission has, for the purpose to present a clearer review and, above all, to support companies involved in a vertical contractual relationship, adopted beside Regulation 330/2010 also Guidelines on Vertical Agreements. These guidelines determined the general principles for the assessment of vertical agreements. Its usability is universal. Although it has a instrument of so-called soft law, gives tangible data both in terms of the use and interpretation of Article 101 TFEU, as well as accompanying EU secondary law and in general the approach to the assessment of vertical agreements. The condition for the application of Article 101 TFEU is that vertical agreements can affect trade between Member States while at the same time effectively preventing, restricting or distorting competition. The primary objective of Article 101 is to ensure that the parties do not apply the agreement in a way that would harm consumers. In addition to the imperative of maximizing consumer benefits, the creation of an integrated internal energy market is equally important in the energy sector. A unified, integrated energy market allows for increased competition in the European Union. Over the past two decades there has been a drastic change in the market structure of the energy sector. Process called liberalization, has in addition to the abolition of monopoly structures also introduced changes in contractual relations in vertical relations. Therefore, incompatible with Article 101 (1) TFEU are all agreements that provide barriers to competition and turining the single market within the borders of the Member States. At the beginning of the liberalization process, the European Commission

Glavni cilj ovog rada je prikazati sadašnje i definirati potencijalno buduće stanje hrvatskog tržišta mobilne telefonije. Kako bismo što lakše otkrili navedeni cilj postavili smo dvije istraživačke hipoteze, a za potrebe istraživanja koristili smo metodu komparacije s odabranim tržištima u svijetu i Europskoj Uniji. Rezultati su prikazali kako je hrvatsko tržište mobilne telefonije u svojim osnovnim karakteristikama vrlo slično tržištima ostalih članica Europske Unije i kako bi ono uskoro postati duopol s obzirom na negativne trendove koji se događaju na globalnom tržištu mobilne telefonije zadnjih godina. The main goal of this paper is to present current situation and to define potential future situation of the Croatian mobile telephony market. In order to discover this goal more easily we set two research hypotheses and the main tool for the research was method of comparison with chosen markets in the world and European Union. The results have shown that Croatian mobile telephony market, in its fundamental characteristics, is very similar to the markets of member states of European Union and this market could soon become duopoly given the negative trends that have taken place in global mobile telephony market recent years.

V tem članku se avtor ukvarja z vprašanjem, v katerih primerih naj država oziroma njena pristojna regulatorna telesa na "liberaliziranih" infrastrukturnih trgih vršijo ex ante regulacijo. V ta namen uporablja ekonomsko teorijo kot instrument za presojo utemeljenosti ex ante regulacije. Avtor v tej zvezi ugotavlja, da je ex ante regulacija intenzivno oblastno poseganje na trg, ki se v tržnem gospodarstvu uporablja le izjemoma. Tipičen primer, ko naj se vrši ex ante regulacija, je t. i. položaj "ozkega grla", položaj, ko sta kumulativno izpolnjena dva pogoja, in sicer ko gre za infrastrukturo, ki je neophodna za poslovanje oz. delovanje podjetja na spodnjem, vertikalno povezanem trgu, vendar zaradi učinka naravnega monopola ne obstaja dejanski substitut, in ko zaradi učinka nepovratnih oz. ireverzibilnih stroškov ne obstaja potencialen substitut, ki bi discipliniral lastnika oziroma imetnika edine infrastrukture. In this article the author deals with the question in which cases the state or its competent regulatory body should perform ex ante regulation on 'liberalized' infrastructure markets. The author for this purpose applies economic theory as an instrument for assessing merits of ex ante regulation. The author in this regard ascertains that ex ante regulation means intensive public authority intervention on the market, which should be applied only exceptionally in a market economy. A typical example when ex ante regulation should be performed, is the so called bottleneck situation, i. e., a situation when two cumulative conditions are met. Namely, when there is an infrastructure indispensable for business activities on the downstream market but there is no active substitute because of a natural monopoly effect, and when there is no potential substitute that would discipline the owner of the sole infrastructure because of sunk costs.

Jedan od najvažnijih oblika energije je upravo električna energija. Njena uporaba u svijetu raste te se na njoj zasniva opći društveni razvitak kao i ekonomski rast i razvoj. Učinkovitost liberalizacije tržišta električne energije ugrožena je zbog izostanka reakcije kućanstava kao krajnjih korisnika. Trenutno je u RH mali udio kućanstva, kao krajnjih korisnika, promijenio opskrbljivača. Zbog toga je HEP i dalje monopolist iako postoji konkurencija. navedeno ukazuje na nužnost ispitativanja stavove kućanstava o promjeni opskrbljivača, kako bi se utvrdili razlozi takvog ponašanja. Rezultati istraživanja ukazuju na činjenicu da lojalnost prema sadašnjem opskrbljivaču utječe na odluku kućanstava o promjeni opskrbljivača električnom energijom, da troškovi traženja informacija negativno utječu na odluku kućanstava o promjeni opskrbljivača eklektične energije te da očekivanje male ekonomske koristi negativno utječe na odluku kućanstava o promjeni opskrbljivača elektične energije. Rezultati do kojih se došlo provedenim istraživanjem, pružaju podlogu na temelju koje nositelji ekonomske politike mogu kreirati mjere kojima će utjecati na bolje informiranje krajnjih korisnika s ciljem upoznavanja s prednostima koje im liberalizacija na tržištu električne energije donosi. On of the most important part of energy is eletrical energy. It's using in world growing, and on it's is based socio economic development. Effectivenes of liberalization is endangered because of absence of reaction households as final users. Currently in Croatia, there are not so many households, as final users who switch supplier. This is why HEP is still monopolist on the market regardless competition. Because of that it was important to explore household's attitude to ensure reasons of that behaviour. The results showed that loyality to current supplier and information search costs negativly affect on decision households on changing supplier. Also, the expectation of small economic benefits negativly affects on houselholds decision to switch supplier of eletrical energy. Final results of this research give basis to owners of economic policy which they can use it to create measures, which they can affect on informing final costumers to see advantages that liberalization brings to them.

Autores analītiskā izpēte par komercbаnku darbību kā finanšu sektora sastāvdaļu ir sadalīta trīs daļās, kurās tiek raksturota finanšu liberalizācijas nozīme, analizēta Latvijas komercbanku darbība un apskatīta banku un tautsaimniecības attīstības savstarpējā mijiedarbība. Nοzīmīgu lοmu rеģiοnālajā еkοnοmikā rοd bаnku ѕаvѕtаrрējā kοnkurеnсе, ѕīvā сīņа, раr liеlāku tirguѕ dаļu un kliеntu рiеѕаiѕtīšаnu, аiz kuras, iеѕрējаmѕ, ѕlēрjаѕ bаnku аgrеѕīvа рοlitikа un kοnfidеnсiālаѕ mеtοdеѕ, kаѕ rеzultātā nοѕаkа kаtrаѕ bаnkаѕ рiеѕаiѕtītο kliеntu lοkа рlаšumu un tā nοturēšаnаi nерiесiеšаmο раkаlрοjumu klāѕtа ѕniеgšаnu. Dаrbа mērķiѕ – rаkѕturοt komercbаnku darbību kā finanšu sektora sastāvdaļu, izѕkаtοt tеοrētiѕkοѕ аѕреktuѕ еkοnοmikas litеrаtūrā un аnаlizējοt kοmеrсbаnku, ѕtаtiѕtikаѕ inѕtitūсiju un сitu аvοtu ѕniеgtο infοrmāсiju, iеgūtοѕ rеzultātuѕ арkοрοjοt ѕесinājumοѕ un аtѕеvišķοѕ рriеkšlikumοѕ. Darba apjoms ir 74 lappuses. Darbā iekļautas 7 tabulas un 24 attēli. Darbā izmantoti 59 informācijas avoti., Author’s analytical research on activities of commercial banks as a component of financial sector is arranged in three parts in which is described financial liberalization importance, analyzed performance of Latvian commercial banks and examined interactions between banks, and development of national economy. Mutual competition among banks plays an important role in regional economy. Vastness of customer base and services which are necessary for it’s retention determine the aggressive policy and confidential methods, hidden behind fierce battle for the bigger market share, and customer attraction. Objective of the thesis is to describe activities of commercial banks as a component of financial sector, summarize the results and make separate proposals following the research of theoretical aspects from economic literature and analyzing the information provided by commercial banks, statistical agencies and other sources. Bachelor paper consist 74 pages, 7 tables, 24 figures and is based on 59 sources of information.

Predmet istraživanja ovog završnog rada je učinak liberalizacije tržišta električne energije na cijenu električne energije. Uvažavajući postulate ekonomske teorije prema kojima liberalizacija tržišta u pravilu dovodi do pojačanog tržišnog natjecanja te posljedično nižih cijena, intencija ovog završnog rada bila je istražiti hoće li se isti učinak postići i na tržištu električne energije. Naime, elektroenergetski sektor se od početka 90-ih godina prošlog stoljeća, pod utjecajem neoliberalne ideologije, ali i značajnog tehnološkog napretka, počeo udaljavati od do tada dominantne tržišne strukture monopola ka savršenoj konkurenciji u djelatnostima proizvodnje i opskrbe električnom energijom. U radu je pretpostavljen ograničeni učinak liberalizacije ovog tržišta zbog specifičnih, prvenstveno fizikalnih, svojstava električne energije, ali i zbog strateškog značaja elektroenergetskog sektora. Provedeno istraživanje obuhvatilo je tržišta električne energije zemalja članica Europske unije te Bosnu i Hercegovinu zaključno s 2015. godinom. Rezultati istraživanja pokazali su kako liberalizacija tržišta električne energije (mjerena i sintetičkim i pojedinačnim pokazateljima) nema statistički značajan utjecaj na cijenu električne energije. Učinci liberalizacije tržišta električne energije na cijenu električne energije u Bosni i Hercegovini potpuno su izostali. The subject of this thesis is the effect of electricity market liberalization on electricity prices. Bearing in mind the economic theory postulate which states that market liberalization generally leads to market competition and consequently lower prices, the intent of this thesis is to examine whether the same postulate applies to electricity market. Since the early 1990s, and under the influence of neoliberal ideology as well as significant technological advances, the power sector began to move away from monopoly as a dominant market structure to perfect competition in the activities of electricity generation and supply. This thesis assumes a limited effect of electricity market liberalization on electricity prices due to specific properties (physical in particular) of electricity, as well as the strategic importance of the power sector. This study includes electricity markets in the European Union and Bosnia and Herzegovina until the end of 2015. Research results indicated that the electricity market liberalization (measured by synthesized as well as individual indicators) does not have a statistically significant effect on electricity prices. The effects of electricity market liberalization on electricity prices for Bosnia and Herzegovina are non-existent.

Razvoj telekomunikacijskog tržišta ima značajnu ulogu u razvoja ekonomije svake zemlje. Tehnološki napredak u vidu komunikacije i informatičke tehnologije, nužan je za rast i napredak. Liberalizacijom tržišta, Hrvatsko monopolističko tržište telekomunikacija postaje oligopolističko. Svrha i cilj ovog rada je utvrditi postojeće stanje na tržištu, odnosno analizirati konkurentske snage i odnose koji postoje na njemu, kao i pravne propise koji reguliraju natjecanje na telekomunikacijskom tržištu. Development of the telecommunication market plays an important role of every country's economy. Technological progress in communication and information technology is necessary for growth and progress. Liberalization of the telecommunication market transforms market structure from monopoly to oligopoly. The purpose and the aim of this paper is to identify the existing market situation, analyse the competing forces and relationships that exist on it, as well as to give insights into the legal regulations that exist on the telecommunications market.

Koristeći se prije svega metodologijom povijesnih znanosti, a bazirajući se na arhivskim izvorima i dostupnoj literaturi, u članku se prikazuje proces liberalizacije medija koji se 1960-ih i na početku 1970-ih odvijao u Hrvatskoj. Taj proces promatra se u kontekstu širih društveno-političkih procesa toga vremena, koje se u hrvatskoj historiografiji najčešće karakterizira kao reformsko. Mediji su u Hrvatskoj u navedenom razdoblju prolazili kroz fazu zamjetnog razvoja u tehnološkom i profesionalnom smislu, ali i u pogledu shvaćanja svoje uloge kao neovisnoga društvenog čimbenika. Presudan utjecaj na proces koji se može nazvati liberalizacijom medija imale su političke promjene u tom razdoblju. Veliki poticaj bio je Ustav SFRJ iz 1963. te politički pad Aleksandra Rankovića 1966., a vrhunac liberalizacije medija u Hrvatskoj dogodio se za Hrvatskoga proljeća. Slomom Hrvatskoga proljeća potkraj 1971. i na početku 1972. godine, u kojem su mediji imali važnu ulogu, proces jačanja slobode medija bio je naprasno prekinut. U članku se proces liberalizacije i njegov kraj promatra ponajprije kroz djelovanje Društva novinara Hrvatske, krovne novinarske organizacije u tadašnjoj Hrvatskoj, te kroz djelovanje tada glavnih hrvatskih medija., This article shows the process of liberalization of the media that took place in the 1960s and early 1970s in Croatia. By using the methodology of historical sciences and based on previously unpublished archival sources and relevant literature, the author researches this process in the context of wider social and political processes of the 1960s, which Croatian historians usually characterize as the reform period. For the Croatian media, this period was a phase of significant development in both the technological and professional sense, but also in terms of criticism in which the media started to change their role as an independent social factor. Numerous Croatian journalists started to adopt the liberal concept of the public sphere and the role of media, but the process was stopped by the highest political officials in late 1971 and early 1972. The liberalization process and its end is analyzed through the activities of the Croatian Journalists Society, the umbrella organization of journalism in the Socialist Republic of Croatia and through the activities of the biggest Croatian media companies of that time.

Posljednjih petnaestak godina elektroenergetski sektor Europske Unije, a ujedno i Hrvatske prolazi proces reformiranja kako bi se unaprijedila njegova efikasnost, povećala kvaliteta i sigurnost opskrbe, a cijene smanjile za krajnjeg potrošaĉa. Prije provoĊenja reformi elektroenergetski sektor je bio prirodni vertikalno integrirani monopol u drţavnom vlasništvu što se kako model organizacije trţišta elektriĉne energije pokazalo neefikasnim u ostvarivanju realne cijene. Republika Hrvatska je u postupku pristupanja EU morala uskladiti svoje zakonodavstvo s trećim paketom elektroenergetskih pravila, a zatim i ustroj elektroenergetskog sektora. Poseban naglasak je bio na ukidanju monopolistiĉkog vlasništva i uvoĊenju konkurencije. HEP kao nositelj hrvatskog elektroenergetskog sektora prošao je kroz reforme deregulacije, liberalizacije, restrukturiranja te privatizacije. Konaĉni cilj procesa reforme jest uvoĊenje konkurencije na trţište elektriĉne energije i davanje mogućnosti krajnjem kupcu da bira dobavljaĉa, tj. distributera od kojega će kupovati elektriĉnu energiju. Iz primjera se moţe zakljuĉiti da privatizacija i regulacija same po sebi ne dovode do poboljšanja ekonomskih performansi elektroenergetskog sektora toliko koliko uvoĊenje konkurencije stimulira poboljšanje ekonomskih performansi što je bio sluĉaj u Hrvatskoj pojavom konkurencije 2013. godine. Over the last fifteen years, the European Power Sector of the European Union and Croatia have undergone a reform process to improve its efficiency, increase quality and security of supply, and lower prices for the final consumer. Prior to the implementation of the reform, the power sector was a natural vertically integrated monopoly in state ownership, as the model of the organization of the electricity market proved ineffective in realizing the real price. In the process of EU accession, the Republic of Croatia has had to align its legislation with the third package of power rules, and then the structure of the power sector. Special emphasis was placed on the abolition of monopoly ownership and the introduction of competition. HEP as the holder of the Croatian power sector has undergone reforms of deregulation, liberalization, restructuring and privatization. The ultimate goal of the reform process is to introduce competition on the electricity market and to give the end customer the option of choosing a supplier, ie a distributor from which he will buy electricity. From the example it can be concluded that privatization and regulation itself does not lead to an improvement in the economic performance of the power sector as such as the competition stimulates the improvement of economic performance, which was the case in Croatia in 2013. when competition appeared.

Prin abordarea generală examinăm geneze şi mecanismele în crizele financiare majore şi ne concentrăm pe criza sub-primelor. Considerăm că în epoca globalizării financiare crescute o abordare corectă trebuie să ia în considerare pe lângă factorii funamentali mai multe echilibre şi caractere autoîmplinite ale crizelor financiare. În criza globală recentă din nou globalizarea financiară implementată în perioade de mare mobilitate de capital internaţional se presupune că ar fi produs criza bancară internaţională. Integrarea progresivă şi sofisticarea ridicată a produselor şi pieţelor financiare a adus noi forme şi un character global evenimentelor crizei în recenta criza sub-primelor. Using generation approach we examine the genesis and mechanisms in major financial crisis and focus on the recent sub - prime crisis. We believe that in the era of increased financial globalization a reliable approach has to consider besides fundamental factors multiple equilibriums and self - fulfilling character of financial crises. In recent global crisis again financial globalization implemented in periods of high international capital mobility have reputedly produced international banking crises. Progressing integration and increasing sophistication of the product and financial marketsbrought new forms and more global character of the crises events in the recent sub - prime crisis.

The article deals with the development of the new paradigm of the European rail freight system predominantly suitable for the feeder lines (market niches). Taking into consideration the so far adopted legal solutions of the EU Commission for internationalisation (liberalisation) of the European railway system, the concept of the new rail freight model was developed in order to contribute to the increase of the quality, as well as to the growth of the volume of the rail freight services in Europe. Based on the findings about the disadvantages of the existing rail freight paradigm, the new solution consisting of the three interrelated and interconnected subsystems: institutional, technical/technological and organisational, is proposed. New liberalised access to the entire European rail infrastructure network will increase the competition and most probably attract new railway freight service providers. The introduction of the suggested innovative solutions in form of small, self-propelled, bi-directional train formation that can be automatically coupled and decoupled and equipped with the innovative loading and unloading equipment (enabling loading/unloading operations wherever the truck can stay parallel to the train), is to be expected predominantly on the feeder lines (market niches) of the European railways. Članek obravnava predlog novega modela železniškega tovornega prometa, ki je prvenstveno primeren za stranske železniške proge (za tržne niše) na evropskih železnicah. Upoštevajoč sprejete pravne ukrepe Evropske komisije za pospešeno internacionaliziranje (liberalizacijo) evropskega železniškega sistema, smo razvili modelno zasnovo novega možnega sistema tovornega prometa, ki bi dvignil kvaliteto železniških storitev in prispeval k rasti obsega prepeljanega tovora na evropskih žcleznicah. Na osnovi analize slabosti prevladujočega obstoječega modela železniškega tovornega prometa v Evropi smo za oblikovanje novega združili spoznanja iz treh medsebojno povezanih in soodvisnih podsistemov: institucionalnega (pravnega), tehnično-tehnološkega in organizacijskega. Nov svoboden dostop na celotno evropsko železniško infrastrukturno omrežje bo gotovo povečal konkurenco in pritegnil nove ponudnike železniških prevoznih storitev. Realno je pričakovati uvedbo (novega modela) združenih parcialnih inovativnih rešitev obliki kratkih, v obe smeri voznih vlakov z lastnim pogonom, ki se lahko samodejno priklapljajo in razklapljajo in so opremljeni z inovativo nakladalno/razkladalno opremo, ki lahko izvaja operacije natovarjanja in raztovarjanja kjerkoli na železniški progi lahko vzporedno stojita vlak in tovornjak. Nov model bo prišel do izraza predvsem na stranskih železniških progah (pokrivanje tržnih niš) evropskih železnic.

Političko-kulturnim pristupom u ovome radu se povijesno-analitički te kritički analizira politička kultura u Bosni i Hercegovini. Ponajprije se određuje politička kultura, njezin povijesni razvoj u osmanlijskom, austro-ugarskom i jugoslavenskom razdoblju te posljedice i utjecaji takvog razvoja na suvremenu političku kulturu u BiH. Političku kulturu, naime, oblikuju njezine državne i institucionalne organizacije te njezini konkretni ljudski subjekti. Specifično pak, politička kultura BiH razvijala se u suprotstavljanju i sukobljavanju triju glavnih religijskih i etničkih zajednica - muslimansko-bošnjačke, pravoslavno-srpske i katoličko-hrvatske. Demokratizacijom i liberalizacijom bosanskohercegovačkog društva devedesetih godina prošlog stoljeća takva povijesna suprotstavljanja i sukobljavanja triju glavnih religijskih i etničkih zajednica nisu dovela do stvaranja zajedničkog političkog identiteta konstitutivnih naroda BiH, nego su njihove nepomirljive razlike i isključivost prouzročili međusobne ratne sukobe u BiH (od kojih se BiH kao država još nije konsolidirala)., The article historically-analytically and critically analyzes the political culture in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The primary focus of the article is determining the political culture, its historical development in the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and Yugoslav period, and the consequences and impacts of such development on contemporary political culture in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Having in mind that, according to Putnam, Džaja and Kasapović, political culture has been shaped by state and institutional organizations and specifically its human operators, political culture in Bosnia and Herzegovina has evolved confrontationally between the three main religious and ethnic communities of Muslim-Bosnian, Orthodox-Serbian and Catholic-Croatian. At the time of democratization and liberalization of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian society in the 1990s, such historical confrontations and conflicts between the three main religious and ethnic communities did not lead to the creation of a common political identity of the constituent people of Bosnia and Herzegovina but rather, their irreconcilable differences and exclusivity caused mutual war conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina(out of which Bosnia and Herzegovina as a state has not yet consolidated).

The issue of relations between the government and the individual in Croatia during the period of socialist Yugoslavia has previously been almost completely outside the scope of the historical research. This book aims to change this, focusing on the 1960s, which are usually considered to be a decade of reforms in the history of the communist systems.

Organizacija željezničkog putničkog prijevoznika u Europskoj uniji je neizostavan korak prema optimizaciji i konkurentnosti putničkog prijevoznika željeznicom. Proces organizacije pojedinih kompanija na području željezničkog prijevoza putnika mora se gledati kroz povijesne i aktualne tržišne aspekte koji na velikom dijelu tržišta i dalje čine ograničavajuće čimbenike. Politika i zakonodavstvo uvjetuju razvoj prometa i same prometne politike te čine okosnicu razvoja kroz financijsku i zakonodavnu potporu sustavu. Zakonodavstvo uzročno posljedično utječe na samu organizaciju kompanija koje se trude razvijati u konkurentnom i inovativnom smjeru. Različitost pristupa prilikom odabira organizacijskih struktura u području prijevoza putnika željeznicom ovisiti će o stupnju liberalizacije tržišta, pristupu pojedinih kompanija te zakonodavstvu. Odabir pojedinih organizacijskih struktura u željezničkom sektoru analizira se kroz rezultate koje kompanije generiraju. Liberalizacija željezničkog putničkog prijevoza u pojedinim državama uvjetovala je drugačiji pristup organizaciji samih kompanije što se u radu analizira kroz kritički osvrt na poslovanje kompanije Arriva koja je dio koncerna Deutsche Bahna.

Autor teorijski određuje koncept liberalizacije 1960-ih godina u Jugoslaviji, odnosno Hrvatskoj te prikazuje kako je taj proces utjecao na pojavu Hrvatskog proljeća.

Poštni sektor v EU je bil v zadnjih dvajsetih letih predmet obsežnih regulativnih sprememb. S postopnim in kontroliranim odpiranjem prej zaprtega (monopolnega) trga poštnih storitev konkurenci, sta se uresničevala glavna cilja poštne politike EU, in sicer vzpostavitev notranjega trga poštnih storitev in zagotavljanje visoko kakovostne univerzalne poštne storitve. Zasledovani cilji na področju poštnih storitev so jasno razvidni iz Direktive o poštnih storitvah in njenih dveh dopolnitev, ki tvorijo regulativni okvir poštnih storitev v EU. Poštne storitve so izjemnega pomena in imajo daljnosežne ekonomske in socialne učinke, zato njihova ureditev ni ostala zgolj na nivoju evropskega, nadnacionalnega koncepta storitev splošnega gospodarskega pomena. S posebno sektorsko regulacijo, ki se dotika elementov, kot so univerzalnost poštne storitve, kontinuiteta zagotavljanja storitev, kvaliteta in dostopna cena storitev, varnost uporabnikov, dostop do poštnega omrežja, kar je odraz skupnih vrednot in ciljev EU, so bili postavljeni temelji univerzalne storitve v poštnem sektorju. Nadnacionalni koncept univerzalne storitve je bistven del procesa tržne liberalizacije poštnega sektorja, ki je z odpravo pravnih in dejanskih ovir uvedel konkurenco na prej zaprte (monopolne) trge poštnih storitev. Zgolj proces liberalizacije prej zaprtega (monopolnega) trga poštnih storitev, v smislu odprave izključnih in posebnih pravic, ki so ustvarjale monopol, ne bi dal želenih učinkov, zato še zmeraj obstoji potreba po nadaljnji (novi) regulaciji oziroma intervenciji države v poštni sektor. Z obsežnimi sistemskimi spremembami, ki smo jim priča v poštnem sektorju, so povezana številna kompleksna ekonomska vprašanja, ki se nanašajo na uvedbo in varstvo konkurence, in socialna vprašanja, ki se nanašajo na zagotavljanje kvalitetnih poštnih storitev pod dostopnimi pogoji, vsem uporabnikom, ne glede na njihov geografski položaj. Za uresničevanje cilje poštne politike EU so ključna splošna pravila konkurenčnega prava EU in posebna sektorska regulacija. Pri tem gre za komplementaren (dopolnjujoč si) odnos. Zaenkrat ni pričakovati, da bi splošna pravila konkurenčnega prava EU v celoti lahko nadomestila in posledično odpravila potrebo po obstoju posebne sektorske regulacije. S procesom liberalizacije trga poštnih storitve je neločljivo povezana tudi spremenjena vloga države. Če smo državi v preteklosti lahko pripisali vlogo »lastnika«, ko je praviloma sama skrbela za zagotavljanje in izvajanje poštnih storitev, ji danes lahko pripišemo vlogo »regulatorja«. Vloga države danes je bistveno bolj kompleksna, tudi odgovorna, saj mora v procesih prepletanja številnih politik, ekonomskih in socialnih vprašanj, najti najprimernejše ravnovesje za izpolnjevanje, ne toliko svojih ciljev, ampak ciljev poštne politike EU. Izjemnega pomena pri tem so tudi novo ustanovljeni nacionalni regulativni organi, ki so zadolženi za dosledno izvajanje sektorske regulacije, država pa jim mora zagotavljati ustrezne pogoje za njihovo strokovno in neodvisno delovanje. Z dokončno odpravo izključnih in posebnih pravic, ki so dolgo časa dajale podlago monopolom in bile glavni vir financiranja izvajanja poštnih storitev, se postavlja kompleksno vprašanje nadomestnega (alternativnega) načina financiranja izvajanja univerzalne poštne storitve. Izvajanje univerzalne storitve lahko izvajalcem povzroča neupravičeno finančno breme in stroške, ki jih ne bi imeli, v kolikor teh storitev ne bi izvajali. Izvajanje univerzalne storitve je v javnem interesu, zato mora država, ob izpolnjevanju pogojev primarne zakonodaje EU, kot tudi posebne sektorske zakonodaje, zagotoviti ustrezna nadomestila (državno pomoč). Pomembno vlogo pri ugotavljanju skladnosti državnih pomoči z notranjim trgom in pravom EU ima Evropska Komisija. In the last twenty years, the postal sector in the EU has undergone many regulatory changes. With a gradual and controlled opening of the until then captive (monopoly) market of postal services to competition, two main goals of the EU postal politics have been realized, i.e. an establishment of the internal market of postal services and a provision of the high quality universal postal service. The goals are clearly stated in the Postal Service Directive and its two amendments that form a regulatory framework for the postal services in the EU. Postal services are of exceptional importance and have far-reaching economic and social effects, therefore their regulation has not remained only on the level of the European international concept of services of general economic interest. With special sectoral regulation that deals with subjects as universality of postal service, service provision continuity, quality and affordable price of services, users’ safety, access to postal network, which reflect common EU values and goals, the bases of the universal service in the postal sector were established. International concept of the universal service is an essential part in the postal sector market liberalization process that has abolished legal and factual obstacles and introduced competition to previously captive (monopoly) postal service markets. The liberalization process itself, i.e. abolishing exclusive and special rights that created monopoly, would not have had the desired effect, therefore the need for a state’s (further) regulation of i.e. intervention in the postal sector still exists. Recent large-scale changes in the postal sector are connected to numerous complex economic issues dealing with introduction and protection of competition, and social issues dealing with provision of quality postal services under attainable conditions for all users, irrespective of their geographical location. For the pursuance of EU postal policy targets, general rules of EU competition law and special sectoral regulation are of key importance, having a complementary relations. For now it is not to expect that general rules of EU competition law could replace the special sectoral regulation in full and consequently put an end to it. Inseparably connected to the liberalization process of the postal service market is also a changed role of the state. If, in the past we could consider the state as an “owner” that typically took care for the provision and execution of postal services on its own, today we consider it a “regulator”. The state’s role today is considerably more complex and with greater responsibility as it has to find the appropriate balance in interwound processes of numerous politics and economic and social issues, in order to execute, not so much its own targets, but the targets of the EU postal policy. Newly established national regulatory authorities that are responsible for the consistent implementation of the sectoral regulation are of immense importance and the state has to create conditions for their professional and independent operation. With the final abolition of exclusive and special rights that were the bases for monopoly position and a main source of postal service financing for a long time, a complex question rises about substitutive (alternative) way of financing the provision of the universal postal service. The universal service provision can create an unfair financial burden and costs for its providers that in case of not providing the service, they would not have. Provision of the universal service is of public interest, therefore the state has to – besides implementing the primary Community legislation and special sectoral legislation – provide proper and due financial compensation (state aid). The European Commission plays an important role in a state aid – national market – EU legislation conformity assessment.

Nakon poraza Sila osovine u Drugom svjetskom ratu istočna Europa, uključujući iJugoslaviju, postaje sovjetska interesna sfera. U poslijeratnom razdoblju Jugoslavija je bila najodaniji i najdosljedniji sovjetski saveznik, u potpunosti imitirajući sovjetsko društvo i gospodarstvo. Donošenjem Rezolucije Informbiroa 1948. Jugoslavija se našla izolirana od strane Istoka i Zapada. Jedina sila koja ju je mogla zaštititi od Sovjetskog Saveza bile su Sjedinjene Države. Zauzvrat je Jugoslavija trebala ispuniti neke uvjete Zapada, za što je primila prvenstveno novčanu potporu i vojne donacije. Jednako važni bili su odnosi s Italijom i Zapadnom Njemačkom jer su te dvije države bile glavna izvorišta zapadne kulture. Dolazak Hruščova u Beograd 1955. vodi do pomirbe sa Sovjetima. Jugoslavija je bila zagovornik neblokovske politike, a istomišljenike je pronašla u Egiptu i Indiji te zemljama trećeg svijeta. Te tri države osnovale su Pokret nesvrstanih. Pokretanje gospodarstva i društvene promjene pedesetih imale su kao posljedicu porast standarda i nove društvene reforme. Jugoslavija se okretanjem Zapadu otvorila slobodnom tržištu i dala svojim građanima okus Zapada. Na taj su način Hollywood i rock'n'roll osvojili Jugoslaviju i promijenili sliku i očekivanja njenog društva. Following the defeat of the Axis in World War II, Eastern Europe, including Yugoslavia, entered into the Soviet sphere of interest. In the early post-war period Yugoslavia was the most loyal Soviet ally, completely imitating Soviet society and economy. Following the Resolution of Cominform in 1948, Yugoslavia was left isolated from both the East and the West. United States were the only world power that could protect it from USSR. Yugoslavia had to fulfil some of the Western demands and in return, it received primarily financial help and military donations. Equally important were relations with Italy and West Germany, because these two countries were the main sources of Western culture. Arrival of Khrushchev to Belgrade in 1955, led to reconciliation with the Soviets. However, Yugoslavia was an advocate of the non-block policy and it found supporters in Egypt, India and other Third World countries. These three states founded the Non-Aligned Movement. Development of economy and social reforms of the fifties brought to the increase of the standard of living and new social reforms. By turning to the West, Yugoslavia opened itself to free market and gave its citizens some flavour of the West. In this way Hollywood and rock'n'roll conquered Yugoslavia and changed the society’s image and expectations.

Kineska vanjska politika je kroz zadnjih 50 godina postala iznimno složena i dinamična. Od dugogodišnje izolacije, nova Kina se 1980-ih željela oprezno uzdignuti kao nova svjetska velesila. Početni istupi Kine s ciljem jačanja vlastite pozicije na svjetskoj sceni su bili u znaku nastojanja Kine da se uključi najutjecajnije ekonomske i trgovinske organizacije poput WTO-a. Nakon 20 godina borbe zbog otpora SAD-a i Japana, Kina je postala vrlo važan akter u svim svjetskim događanjima, te trenutno radi na stvaranju novog ekonomsko-političkog bloka koji isključuje SAD kao svjetskog hegemona, te stavlja Kinu na mjesto vodeće sile u regiji. Problemi teritorijalnih sporova i kineska nepopustljivost stvara daljnje napetosti između Kine i susjednih zemalja, koje su u strahu od agresivne kineske politike, krenuli u bližu suradnju s SAD-om, u nadi da će zaustaviti kinesku ekspanziju u regiji.

V magistrskem delu je obravnavan razvoj regulacije trga poštnih storitev v Sloveniji in Evropski uniji po letu 1997. Povzeta je vsebina treh Poštnih direktiv in njihov vpliv na spreminjanje slovenske zakonodaje s področja poštnih storitev. Prikazana je organiziranost urejanja poštnega sektorja v Evropski uniji in vloga Evropske komisije in Evropskega parlamenta pri oblikovanju enotne evropske politike na področju poštnih storitev. Posebej so obravnavani nekateri ukrepi za regulacijo in nadzor trga poštnih storitev, kot so zagotavljanje izvajanja univerzalne poštne storitve, določanje obsega univerzalne poštne storitve, možni načini financiranja, ukrepi za regulacijo cen, določanje standardov in merjenje kakovosti izvajanja univerzalne poštne storitve, pogostost dostave in urejanje dostopa do poštnega omrežja. Vpliv regulacije poštnega sektorja na razvoj konkurence, cene pisemskih poštnih pošiljk in kakovost prenosa poštnih pošiljk je predstavljena v drugem delu naloge na nivoju Slovenije in za področje Evropske unije. Na osnovi opravljene analize dosedanjih ukrepov urejanja trga poštnih storitev v Sloveniji je ocenjena uspešnost njegovega izvajanja in podan predlog sprememb ter smernice nadaljnjega razvoja regulacije trga poštnih storitev v prihodnjih letih. The thesis examines the evolution of the regulation of postal services in Slovenia and the European Union since 1997. It covers the three Postal Directives and their impact on changing the Slovenian legislation on postal services. It describes the structure of regulation of the postal sector in the European Union and the role of the European Commission and the European Parliament in shaping a common European policy on postal services sector. In addition, it highlights some measures for regulation of the postal services market, such as ensuring the universal postal service, defining the scope of the universal postal service, methods for price control, standards and quality of the universal postal service, frequency of delivery and access to the postal infrastructure. The impact of the regulation of the postal sector on the development of competition, the price of letter-mail and the quality of service is presented in the second part of the study at the level of Slovenia and the European Union. Taking into account the past measures of regulation in Slovenian postal market this study offers likely developments of the regulatory framework for postal services in the coming years and some recommendations with regard to key issues.

NTI je kategorija investicij, ki odraža cilj, ki ga ima rezidenčno podjetje enega gospodarstva (neposredni investitor) za vzpostavitev trajnega interesa v podjetju (podjetje z neposredno investicijo), ki je v tujini. NTI imajo lahko tako pozitiven vpliv na državo gostiteljico kot tudi negativen vpliv. Tokovi NTI služijo financiranju deficita v tekočem računu in prav tako prispevajo k dodatnemu izvozu ali izboljšanju učinkovitosti celotnega domačega gospodarstva. NTI lahko tudi delujejo kot kanal za prenos tehnologije in vseh vrst idej in organizacijskih veščin, managerskih praks, ki povečujejo celotno produktivnost, sploh v razvijajoči ali manj razviti državi gostiteljici. Ponavadi NTI niso dovoljene v vojaško povezanih industrijah, telekomunikacijah, infrastrukturi, farmaciji, pomorskem transportu ipd. Največkrat so te omejitve utemeljene z zakonom kot problem državne varnosti in zato so takšne ekstremne omejitve zakonsko upravičene in mednarodno sprejete. Raziskava je osredotočena na NTI v državah BRICS. Vse države BRICS imajo relativno stabilno gospodarsko rast, pri čemer Kitajska in Indija nimata le stabilne rasti temveč tudi visoko gospodarsko rast. Države BRICS so hitro razvijajoča se gospodarstva, ki so se pojavila kot glavne prejemnice NTI in pomembne izhodne investitorice. V zadnjem desetletju, so se prilivi NTI v BRICS več kot potrojili na ocenjenih 263 milijard USD v letu 2012. Posledično je njihov delež v svetovnih tokovih NTI naraščal tudi v času krize in dosegel 20 % v letu 2012, v primerjavi z letom 2000 kjer je ta delež predstavljal 6 %. Države BRICS so tudi postale pomembne investitorice, njihove izhodne NTI so se povečale iz 7 milijard USD v letu 2000 na 126 milijard USD v letu 2012 oziroma 9 % svetovnih tokov, v primerjavi z desetimi leti prej, kjer je delež svetovnih tokov bil 1 % (UNCTAD, 2013, str. 1). FDI is a category of investment where the resident enterprise of one economy (direct investor) has a goal to establish a permanent interest in another enterprise abroad (enterprise with direct investment). FDI can have a positive as well as a negative impact on the host economy. FDI flows can contribute to fund deficit in the current account and also contribute to additional export or further improvement of the efficiency of overall domestic economy. FDI can also operate as a channel for technology transfer and a variety of ideas and organizational skills, managerial practices which increase the overall productivity especially in a developing or less developed host economy. Usually, FDI is not allowed in military-related industries, telecommunications, infrastructure, pharmaceutical industries, maritime transport, etc. Most of these restrictions are justified by the law as an issue of national security and, therefore, such extreme restrictions are legally entitled and internationally accepted. The study is focused on the FDI in the BRICS countries. All BRICS countries have relatively stable economic growth except for China and India, which both have not only a stable growth but also a high economic growth. BRICS countries are emerging economies, which have emerged as the main recipients of the FDI and the significant outward investors. In the last decade, the FDI inflows more than tripled to an estimated 263 billion USD in 2012. As a result, their share in global FDI flows grew even during the crisis and reached 20 % in 2012 in comparison with 2000, wherein the share accounted for 6 %. BRICS countries have also become significant investors, their outward FDI increased from 7 billion USD in 2000 to 126 billion USD in 2012, or 9 % of global flows compared with ten years earlier, where the share of global flows was only 1 % (UNCTAD, 2013, p. 1).

For decades air transport has been an industry managed exclusively by states, in Europe and worldwide. States were the sole owners of both national air carriers (flag carriers) and airports, providing them with unlimited financial means. Also, air transport was highly regulated, i.e. limited in terms of traffic rights which granted the so-called “freedoms of the air” only to carriers from the state of arrival and the state of departure, respectively. Airport management was simply a reflection of exercising such rights by the carriers. Only in the last two decades, through creation of the internal market, air transport has been liberalised within the European Union (hereinafter: EU). These changes prompted a partial opening of the market of “air transport-related” services – first and foremost airport services, at least the ones whose “nature” allows market opening. The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has long published documents on the basic principles regarding airport services, as well as the charges paid by air carriers for such services. Not only did those principles become binding by their transposition into EU law, but they also enabled further changes, i.e. created a regulatory framework for partial liberalisation of such services. The application of competition law to air transport and related services, which were for such a long time known for strong state protectionism, has led to rich and extensive legislation by both the European Commission and the European Court of Justice. Most recently, the Commission has published the Guidelines on State aid to airports and airlines (2014/C 99/03), thus trying to create an adequate framework for the growing number of air carrier business models and subsequent problems with applicable law. Namely, the emergence of low-cost carriers, airline alliances as well as “hybrid” models (a combination of legacy carrier and low-cost carrier), combined with partial privatisation of airports, caused the applicable legal framework to grow as well, imposing obligations on the Member States to open their markets – a move which lead to various agreements between air carriers and airports, potentially incompatible with competition law. In this paper I will give an overview of the applicable legal framework on airport services provided within the EU, the stage of liberalisation of such services and the reasoning behind such regulatory measures. Also, I will show the consequent evolution of the Commission’s guidelines on airport and airline state aid, focusing specifically on problems with the application of such framework in the Republic of Croatia, taking into account the volume of traffic and high seasonality. Finally, I will try to find a reason for the recent failure in the attempt to change the existing regulatory framework for airport and groundhandling services and examine the potential consequences of these developments on further market opening in the so-called “aviation value chain” (supporting services by the air navigation service provider)., Zračni promet desetljećima je, kako u Europi tako i u svijetu, bio isključivo predmetom državnog interesa. Države su bile jedini vlasnici zračnih (nacionalnih) prijevoznika (tzv. flag carriers), kao i zračnih luka, te su i jedni i drugi uživali neograničenu financijsku pomoć. Uz to, poslovanje prijevoznika bilo je strogo regulirano, tj. ograničeno: pravo obavljanja zračnog prijevoza iz/u određene države pripadalo je samo zračnim prijevoznicima država između kojih se prijevoz obavlja, a poslovanje zračnih luka bilo je samo odraz korištenja takvih prava. Tek je u posljednjih dvadeset godina stvaranjem jedinstvenog tržišta potpuno liberaliziran zračni prijevoz unutar Europske unije. Paralelno s takvim promjenama u zračnom prijevozu donekle su liberalizirane i usluge koje “prate” takav prijevoz – prije svega usluge koje se prijevoznicima pružaju u zračnim lukama, a koje su po svojoj prirodi takve da omogućuju otvaranje tržišta. Aerodromske usluge, kao i naknade koje se za njih naplaćuju prijevoznicima, odavno su predmetom smjernica koje je izdala Međunarodna organizacija za civilno zrakoplovstvo (International Civil Aviation Organisation; ICAO). Navedene smjernice dobile su obvezujući karakter tek transpozicijom u propise EU-a, a navedenim zakonodavstvom otišlo se i korak dalje – stvoren je pravni okvir za otvaranje tržišta dijela takvih usluga. Primjena prava tržišnog natjecanja na granu prijevoza i s njim povezane usluge, koje su toliko dugo bile obilježene snažnim državnim protekcionizmom, dovela je pak do bogate prakse Europske komisije i Europskog suda. Jedan od posebno bitnih dokumenata čine Smjernice o državnim potporama zračnim lukama i zračnim prijevoznicima (2014/C 99/03), kojima se nastoji adekvatno odgovoriti na probleme u primjeni postojećeg pravnog okvira i činjenicu sve većeg broja poslovnih modela zračnih prijevoznika. Naime, pojava niskotarifnih prijevoznika, zatim alijansi te tzv. “hibridnih” modela (kombinacija klasičnih linijskih i niskotarifnih prijevoznika), kombinirana s djelomičnom privatizacijom zračnih luka i sve opsežnijim pravnim okvirom kojim se definiraju obveze država članica da otvore tržište usluga koje se pružaju u zračnim lukama dovela je do raznih vrsta ugovora između prijevoznika i zračnih luka i potencijalnog kršenja prava tržišnog natjecanja. U ovom radu prikazat ćemo primjenljivi pravni okvir za usluge koje se pružaju u zračnim lukama EU-a, mjeru u kojoj su one liberalizirane, logiku takvih zakonodavnih promjena te prikaz postupnog prilagođavanja smjernica Europske komisije iz područja prava tržišnog natjecanja trenutačnoj situaciji i promjenama u načinu poslovanja zračnih prijevoznika i zračnih luka. Pritom ćemo se posebno osvrnuti na probleme u primjeni navedenih propisa na zračne luke u Republici Hrvatskoj, s obzirom na opseg prometa i visoku sezonalnost, te ćemo pokušati odgovoriti na pitanje zašto najavljene promjene u regulaciji aerodromskih usluga nisu uspjele i kako bi to moglo utjecati na liberalizaciju drugih usluga u tzv. “prehrambenom lancu” zračnog prometa (pomoćne usluge koja obavlja pružatelj usluga u zračnoj plovidbi).

Razvoj stanovanja pokazao se kroz pola stoljeća komparativnih istraživanja ambivalentnim i empirijski teško mjerljivim predmetom istraživanja. S vremenom su istraživački napori urodili konstrukcijom tročlane podjele na jukstapozicijsku, konvergencijsku i divergencijsku paradigmu. Divergencijska paradigma, u koju se ubrajaju različite „teorije srednjeg dometa“, trenutno je najrazvijenija u komparativnim stambenim studijama te će biti korištena pri preliminarnom opisu razlika i sličnosti razvijenih država članica EU-a u pogledu stanovanja. Unatoč marginaliziranom istraživačkom statusu konvergencijske stambene paradigme, cilj je ovog rada njezina revitalizacija u stambenim studijama kroz komparativnu analizu proturječnosti konvergencijskih trendova liberalizacije i europeizacije stambenih politika koji se izravno ili neizravno odnose na stambene promjene u razvijenim državama članicama EU-a. Proturječnosti konvergencijskih trendova stambenih politika zasebno su problematizirane na primjeru globalne financijske krize 2008. godine i posljedične krize u EU-u te njihovog utjecaja na stanovanje.