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Abstract Elucidating the intricate interactions between viral pathogens and host cellular machinery during infection is paramount for understanding pathogenic mechanisms and identifying potential therapeutic targets. The RNA modification N 6-methyladenosine (m6A) has emerged as a significant factor influencing the trajectory of viral infections. Hence, the precise and quantitative mapping of m6A modifications in both host and viral RNA is pivotal to understanding its role during viral infection. With the rapid advancement of sequencing technologies, scientists are able to detect m6A modifications with various quantitative, high-resolution, transcriptome approaches. These technological strides have reignited research interest in m6A, underscoring its significance and prompting a deeper investigation into its dynamics during viral infections. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the historical evolution of m6A epitranscriptome sequencing technologies, highlights the latest developments in transcriptome-wide m6A mapping, and emphasizes the innovative technologies for detecting m6A modification. We further discuss the implications of these technologies for future research into the role of m6A in viral infections. Graphical Abstract

Red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) is a severe and highly destructive invasive species. It has invaded mainland China since 2004. Understanding the foraging behavior patterns of workers in different habitats and conditions can help to develop scientific prevention and control measures. In this study, we used bait traps to measure the foraging activity of workers in newly established fire ant nests in various habitats and time periods. The results showed that the presence or absence of vegetation cover was an important factor affecting the foraging activity of fire ant workers. In bare land habitats, the foraging range and number of fire ant workers were significantly different from those in habitats with vegetation cover. The analysis of the daily average activity patterns of fire ants showed that the number of workers in sweet potato fields showed a bimodal pattern. In contrast, those in bare land and sugarcane fields showed an unimodal pattern, and those in pineapple fields showed a fluctuating pattern. It is worth noting that the bimodal and unimodal peaks in sweet potato, bare land, and sugarcane fields all occurred at 10:00 and 16:00. Therefore, in natural environments, vegetation cover, and temperature are important factors affecting the foraging activity of fire ants.

Abstract The extensive use of neonicotinoids on food crops for pest management has resulted in substantial environmental contamination. It is imperative to develop an effective remediation material and technique as well as to determine the evolution pathways of products. Here, novel ball-milled nitrogen-doped biochar (NBC)-modified zero-valent iron (ZVI) composites (named MNBC-ZVI) were fabricated and applied to degrading neonicotinoids. Based on the characterization results, NBC incorporation introduced N-doped sites and new allying heterojunctions and achieved surface charge redistribution, rapid electron transfer, and higher hydrophobicity of ZVI particles. As a result, the interaction between ZVI particles and thiamethoxam (a typical neonicotinoid) was improved, and the adsorption–desorption and reductive degradation of thiamethoxam and ·H generation steps were optimized. MNBC-ZVI could rapidly degrade 100% of 10 mg·L−1 thiamethoxam within 360 min, its reduction rate constant was 12.1-fold greater than that of pristine ZVI, and the electron efficiency increased from 29.7% to 57.8%. This improved reactivity and selectivity resulted from increased electron transfer, enhanced hydrophobicity, and reduced accumulation of iron mud. Moreover, the degradation of neonicotinoids occurred mainly via nitrate reduction and dichlorination, and toxicity tests with degradation intermediates revealed that neonicotinoids undergo rapid detoxification. Remarkably, MNBC-ZVI also presented favorable tolerance to various anions, humic acid, wastewater and contaminated soil, as well as high reusability. This work offers an efficient and economic biochar-ZVI remediation technology for the rapid degradation and detoxification of neonicotinoids, significantly contributes to knowledge on the relevant removal mechanism and further advances the synthesis of highly reactive and environmentally friendly materials. Graphical Abstract

The red imported fire ant Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) is native to South America; however, its introduction to other countries has caused serious biodiversity, agricultural, and public health problems. As toxic bait is an effective method to control fire ant populations, the aim of this study was to determine the most effective concentration of sulfoxaflor, flupyradifurone, and triflumezopyrim as ingredients for baits against S. invicta under laboratory and field conditions. Sulfoxaflor, flupyradifurone, and triflumezopyrim had no effect on the feeding behavior of the fire ants. However, they significantly reduced the climbing, walking, and arrest abilities of the fire ant workers after 10 days of treatment, and insecticides were horizontally transferred from workers to alates or larvae. Specifically, sulfoxaflor and triflumezopyrim at 0.05% concentration were the most effective in exterminating fire ants. Sulfoxaflor and triflumezopyrim are nonrepellent and effective insecticides against S. invicta.

Bactrocera dorsalis is a highly invasive and destructive pest distributed worldwide. Chemical insecticides remain the primary measure for their control; however, this species has already developed resistance to several insecticides. In recent years, there have been several reports of monitoring B. dorsalis resistance in China, but continuous monitoring results are lacking and do not even span a decade. In this study, we monitored the dynamics of resistance to seven insecticides among 11 geographically distinct Chinese populations of B. dorsalis (2010–2013; follow-up in 2023). The 11 populations were found to adapt rapidly to antibiotic insecticides (spinosad, emamectin benzoate, and avermectin), reaching high levels of insecticide resistance in several areas. Overall, a decreasing trend in resistance to organophosphorus insecticides (chlorpyrifos and trichlorfon) was observed, whereas pyrethroid (beta-cypermethrin and cyhalothrin) resistance trends were observed to both increase and decrease. The monitoring of field resistance among different B. dorsalis populations over the duration of this study is important for improving the efficiency and sustainability of agricultural pest management, and the results provide a scientific basis for the development of more effective resistance management strategies.

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a global economic pest that poses a serious threat to the fruit industry. In the southwest of China, Yunnan Province sustains a severe infestation of B. dorsalis. An automated monitoring system designed for B. dorsalis was employed in this study to elucidate the annual population dynamics of B. dorsalis in four counties: Yuanjiang, Huaping, Guangnan, and Ludian in Yunnan. The system utilizes sex parapheromone and image recognition technology. The data uploaded by the device are used to analyze the annual population dynamics of B. dorsalis in different regions. The results showed that the populations of adult B. dorsalis in all four counties peaked twice annually, with Yuanjiang experiencing the earliest peak periods, followed by Huaping, Guangnan, and Ludian. Adult B. dorsalis occurred in Yuanjiang throughout the year, and Yuanjiang had the highest number of B. dorsalis monitored. In Huaping, adult B. dorsalis occurred in March–December and was highly active, with a high population density in 2019. Bactrocera dorsalis did not occur in December in Guangnan but only in May–October in Ludian. Bactrocera dorsalis abundance was correlated with temperature in all four areas. The outcomes of this experiment provide a practical foundation for developing control strategies targeting B. dorsalis in various orchards across each county.

Diptera and Lepidoptera species have the highest levels of insecticide resistance, and the mechanism of drug resistance has been studied in detoxification metabolism genes such as P450, GST, EST, and ABC. Since Bactrocera dorsalis are resistant to a variety of chemicals, the pattern and mechanism of resistance in Bactrocera dorsalis have been investigated from a variety of aspects such as detoxification metabolism genes, detoxification enzymes, intestinal symbiotic bacteria, and synergists in the world. In this study, 51 species and 149 detoxification metabolism genes were annotated in the Suppression Subtractive Hybridization (SSH) library, and 12 candidate genes related to beta-cypermethrin resistance were screened and quantitatively expressed in this library. Two genes were found to be upregulated in the egg stage, three genes in the larval stage, one gene in the pupal stage, and five genes in the adult stage, and four genes were found to be upregulated in the midgut and the malacca ducts in the midgut. The expression of cyp6g1, cyp6a22, GST-Epsilon9, and Trypsin-4 genes was upregulated in resistant strains, with the most obvious upregulation occurring in the midgut and the Malpighian tubules. These results provide new insights into the study of pesticide resistance in quarantine insects.

How alien pests invade new areas has always been a hot topic in invasion biology. The spread of the Bactrocera dorsalis from southern to northern China involved changes in food sources. In this paper, in controlled conditions, we take Bactrocera dorsalis as an example to study how plant host transformation affects gut bacteria by feeding it its favorite host oranges in the south, its favorite host peaches and apples in the north, and feeding it cucumbers as a non-favorite host plant, thereby further affecting their fitness during invasion. The result showed that, after three generations of feeding on cucumbers, Bactrocera dorsalis took longer to develop as a larva while its longevity and fecundity decreased and pre-adult mortality increased. Feeding it cucumbers significantly reduced the overall diversity of gut microbiota of Bactrocera dorsalis. The relative abundance of Enterobacter necessary for survival decreased, while the Empedobacter and Enterococcus increased, resulting in decreased carbohydrate transport and metabolism and increased lipid transport and metabolism. Feeding Bactrocera dorsalis Empedobacter brevis and Enterococcus faecalis resulted in a 26% increase in pre-adult mortality and a 2–3 d increase in adult preoviposition period (APOP). Additionally, Enterococcus faecalis decreased the longevity of female and male adults by 17 and 12 d, respectively, and decreased fecundity by 11%. We inferred that the shifted plant hosts played an important role in posing serious harm to Bactrocera dorsalis invading from the south to the north. Therefore, after an invasion of Bactrocera dorsalis into northern China, it is difficult to colonize cucumbers for a long time, but there is still a risk of short-term harm. The findings of this study have established that the interactions between an insect’s food source and gut bacteria may have an important effect on insect invasions.

Fruit flies cause substantial economic damage, and their management relies primarily on chemical insecticides. However, pesticide resistance has been reported in several fruit fly species, the mitigation of which is crucial to enhancing fruit fly control. Here, we assess the toxicity of a novel insecticide (fluralaner) and a common insecticide (dinotefuran) against three fruit fly species, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett), and Bactrocera tau (Walker). Both pesticides exhibit robust lethal and sublethal effects against all three fruit fly species, with fluralaner being more potent. Fluralaner and dinotefuran suppress the reproductive capacities and survival rates of fruit flies. However, at the 50% lethal concentration, fluralaner stimulates the reproductive capacity of B. dorsalis and the survival rate of B. tau. Fluralaner also causes significant transgenerational effects, impacting the offspring hatching rate of B. cucurbitae and B. tau and reducing the proportion of female offspring. Thus, both pesticides exhibit high potential for controlling fruit flies. However, their application should be tailored according to species variations and the diverse effects they may induce. Collectively, the findings of this study outline the sublethal effects of two insecticides against fruit flies, helping to optimize their application to ensure the effective management of insecticide resistance.

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (B. dorsalis) is an important agricultural invasive pest that causes significant economic losses in tropical and subtropical fruit and vegetable crops. In this study, the proteins related to the sense of smell and taste of B. dorsalis, such as OBP, PBP, OR, IR, SNMP and CSP, were screened based on B. dorsalis transcriptome data. By integrating the compounds that were reported to be attractive to B. dorsalis, similar compounds of hydrocarbon compounds were obtained. Molecular docking was used to predict the binding between the similar compounds and the OBP, PBP, OR, IR, SNMP and CSP proteins. Network pharmacology was used to screen the potentially attractive compounds, and ecological experiments with B. dorsalis were finally conducted to verify the effect of these potentially attractive compounds on B. dorsalis. The results showed that the G protein-coupled receptor [BR: KO04030] and ion channel [BR: KO04040] pathways were closely related to the odor tropism of B. dorsalis. A total of 84 compounds, such as mitemcinal, exemestane and midecamycin, have potential binding effects on the B. dorsalis odor receptor proteins. The results of the ecological experiments showed that 1 mg/mL and 0.1 mg/mL 19-norandrostenedione, 1 mg/mL progesterone compounds was significantly attractive to B. dorsalis males, while 0.1 mg/mL exemestane was significantly attractive to B. dorsalis females. In this study, network pharmacology technology was used to discover the potential attractive compounds for B. dorsalis, which is important for the development and subsequent prevention and control of B. dorsalis. It can provide a reference in improving the success rates of clinical trials of new pest control products and in reducing the time and cost of drug development.

Citrobacter sp. produces 3-hexenyl acetate in fruits, which attracts gravid B. dorsalis to lay eggs through ovipositor recognition. This provides a mechanism underlying the effective spread of Citrobacter sp. in the population of B. dorsalis.

The injudicious and excessive use of synthetic pesticides has deleterious effects on humans, ecosystems, and biodiversity. As an alternative to traditional crop-protection methods, botanical pesticides are gaining importance. In this research endeavor, we examined the contact toxicity, knockdown time, lethal time, and toxicity horizontal transmission of three natural pesticides from plants (azadirachtin, celangulin, and veratramine) on red imported fire ants (RIFA; Solenopsis invicta). Our research findings indicated that azadirachtin and celangulin exhibited relatively high toxicity, with median lethal dose (LD50) values of 0.200 and 0.046 ng/ant, respectively, whereas veratramine exhibited an LD50 value of 544.610 ng/ant for large workers of S. invicta at 24 h post-treatment. Upon treatment with 0.125 mg/L, the (median lethal time) LT50 values of azadirachtin and celangulin were determined to be 60.410 and 9.905 h, respectively. For veratramine, an LT50 value of 46.967 h was achieved after being tested with 200 mg/L. Remarkably, azadirachtin and celangulin were found to exhibit high horizontal transfer among RIFA, with high secondary mortality (100%) and tertiary mortalities (>61%) after 48 h of treatment with 250 mg/L, as well as with their dust formulations for 72 h. However, veratramine did not exhibit significant toxicity or horizontal transfer effects on RIFA, even at high concentrations. These findings suggest that azadirachtin and celangulin are likely to have a highly prominent potential in the management of S. invicta.

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel, 1912) (Diptera: Tephritidae), commonly known as the oriental fruit fly, is a highly destructive pest that globally infests fruits and vegetables, resulting in significant annual economic losses. Initially detected in Taiwan Island, it has rapidly expanded its distribution range to various regions in mainland China since the 1980s, with a continuous northward spread. To mitigate the damage caused by this pest, extensive efforts have been undertaken to comprehend its ecological and physiological adaptations and develop management strategies. This review article provides an overview of the invasion history of B. dorsalis in China, its ecological and physiological mechanisms facilitating its invasion, and the progress made in understanding its major biological characteristics. Moreover, the key approaches for managing B. dorsalis that have been or are likely to be implemented in China are presented, including quarantine measures, monitoring procedures, physical controls, biological controls, the sterile insect technique, RNA interference, and CRISPR-Cas-9. Finally, some suggestions for future research directions are provided.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) represent a class of RNA molecules that do not encode proteins. Generally studied for their regulatory potential in model insects, relatively little is known about their immunoregulatory functions in different castes of eusocial insects, including Solenopsis invicta, a notoriously invasive insect pest. In the current study, we used Metarhizium anisopliae, an entomopathogenic fungus, to infect the polymorphic worker castes (Major and Minor Workers) and subjected them to RNA sequencing at different intervals (6, 24, and 48 h post-infection (hpi)). Comprehensive bioinformatic analysis identified 5719 (1869 known and 3850 novel) lncRNAs in all libraries. Genomic characteristics analysis showed that S. invicta lncRNAs exhibited structural similarities with lncRNAs from other eusocial insects, including lower exon numbers, shorter intron and exon lengths, and a lower expression profile. A comparison of lncRNAs in major and minor worker ants revealed that several lncRNAs were exclusively expressed in one worker caste and remained absent in the other. LncRNAs such as MSTRG.12029.1, XR_005575440.1 (6 h), MSTRG.16728.1, XR_005575440.1 (24 h), MSTRG.20263.41, and MSTRG.11994.5 (48 h) were only present in major worker ants, while lncRNAs such as MSTRG.8896.1, XR_005574239.1 (6 h), MSTRG.20289.8, XR_005575051.1 (24 h), MSTRG.20289.8, and MSTRG.6682.1 (48 h) were only detected in minor workers. Additionally, we performed real-time quantitative PCR and experimentally validated these findings. Functional annotation of cis-acting lncRNAs in major worker ants showed that lncRNAs targeted genes such as serine protease, trypsin, melanization protease-1, spaetzle-3, etc. In contrast, apoptosis and autophagy-related genes were identified as targets of lncRNAs in minor ants. Lastly, we identified several lncRNAs as precursors of microRNAs (miRNAs), such as miR-8, miR-14, miR-210, miR-6038, etc., indicating a regulatory relationship between lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs in antifungal immunity. These findings will serve as a genetic resource for lncRNAs in polymorphic eusocial ants and provide a theoretical basis for exploring the function of lncRNAs from a unique and novel perspective.

The red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren, 1972) is a globally significant invasive species, causing extensive agricultural, human health, and biodiversity damage amounting to billions of dollars worldwide. The pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (1883), widely distributed in natural environments, has been used to control S. invicta populations. However, the interaction between M. anisopliae and the immune system of the social insect S. invicta remains poorly understood. In this study, we employed RNA-seq to investigate the effects of M. anisopliae on the immune systems of S. invicta at different time points (0, 6, 24, and 48 h). A total of 1313 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified and classified into 12 expression profiles using short time-series expression miner (STEM) for analysis. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was employed to partition all genes into 21 gene modules. Upon analyzing the statistically significant WGCNA model and conducting Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis on the modules, we identified key immune pathways, including the Toll and Imd signaling pathways, lysosomes, autophagy, and phagosomes, which may collectively contribute to S. invicta defense against M. anisopliae infection. Subsequently, we conducted a comprehensive scan of all differentially expressed genes and identified 33 immune-related genes, encompassing various aspects such as recognition, signal transduction, and effector gene expression. Furthermore, by integrating the significant gene modules derived from the WGCNA analysis, we constructed illustrative pathway diagrams depicting the Toll and Imd signaling pathways. Overall, our research findings demonstrated that M. anisopliae suppressed the immune response of S. invicta during the early stages while stimulating its immune response at later stages, making it a potential biopesticide for controlling S. invicta populations. These discoveries lay the foundation for further understanding the immune mechanisms of S. invicta and the molecular mechanisms underlying its response to M. anisopliae.

Protein feeding is critical for male reproductive success in many insect species. However, how protein affects the reproduction remains largely unknown. Using Bactrocera dorsalis as the study model, we investigated how protein feeding regulated sex pheromone synthesis. We show that protein ingestion is essential for sex pheromone synthesis in male. While protein feeding or deprivation did not affect Bacillus abundance, transcriptome analysis revealed that sarcosine dehydrogenase (Sardh) in protein-fed males regulates the biosynthesis of sex pheromones by increasing glycine and threonine (sex pheromone precursors) contents. RNAi-mediated loss-of-function of Sardh decreases glycine, threonine, and sex pheromone contents and results in decreased mating ability in males. The study links male feeding behavior with discrete patterns of gene expression that plays role in sex pheromone synthesis, which in turn translates to successful copulatory behavior of the males.

Synthetic pesticides are extensively and injudiciously applied to control agriculture and household pests worldwide. Due to their high use, their toxic residues have enormously increased in the agroecosystem in the past several years. They have caused many severe threats to non-target organisms, including humans. Therefore, the complete removal of toxic compounds is gaining wide attention to protect the ecosystem and the diversity of living organisms. Several methods, such as physical, chemical and biological, are applied to degrade compounds, but as compared to other methods, biological methods are considered more efficient, fast, eco-friendly and less expensive. In particular, employing microbial species and their purified enzymes makes the degradation of toxic pollutants more accessible and converts them into non-toxic products by several metabolic pathways. The digestive tract of insects is usually known as a superior organ that provides a nutrient-rich environment to hundreds of microbial species that perform a pivotal role in various physiological and ecological functions. There is a direct relationship between pesticides and insect pests: pesticides reduce the growth of insect species and alter the phyla located in the gut microbiome. In comparison, the insect gut microbiota tries to degrade toxic compounds by changing their toxicity, increasing the production and regulation of a diverse range of enzymes. These enzymes breakdown into their derivatives, and microbial species utilize them as a sole source of carbon, sulfur and energy. The resistance of pesticides (carbamates, pyrethroids, organophosphates, organochlorines, and neonicotinoids) in insect species is developed by metabolic mechanisms, regulation of enzymes and the expression of various microbial detoxifying genes in insect guts. This review summarizes the toxic effects of agrochemicals on humans, animals, birds and beneficial arthropods. It explores the preferential role of insect gut microbial species in the degradation process and the resistance mechanism of several pesticides in insect species. Additionally, various metabolic pathways have been systematically discussed to better understand the degradation of xenobiotics by insect gut microbial species.

Bactrocera tau (Walker) is a fly pest species mainly distributed in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific; it causes substantial ecological and economic issues because of its destructiveness and rapid reproduction. Chemical sterilization technology can reduce the use of insecticides and is widely applied for insect pest control. In this study, the sterilization efficacy of varying concentrations of four chemosterilants, namely, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA), CSII Aqua, 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), and colchicine, on adult pumpkin flies was investigated. The results indicated that a solution of 0.03% HMPA had the highest sterilization efficacy. When the number of sterile males was equal to or exceeded 20 times that of untreated males, the hatching rate of offspring eggs was less than 10%. Chemosterilant treatment significantly altered the levels of acid phosphatase (ACP), alkaline phosphatase (AKP), and B. tau vitellogenin (BtVg); these substances have an important impact on reproductive development. The treatment also decreased the size of the reproductive organs (i.e., testes and ovaries). Our results suggest that 0.03% HMPA has unique sterilization properties and may represent a new chemical agent for the control of B. tau populations in agricultural settings.

Red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, was first found in Taiwan province of China in 2003. To prevent transboundary expansion, the Chinese government has formulated various control strategies in the last 15 years to slow down the spread of S. invicta. Despite all efforts, S. invicta invasion has reached more than 390 counties of 13 provinces and two special administrative regions in China; at present, S. invicta remains at the stage of rapid expansion. The transnational entry of S. invicta is linked to imported logs and wastepaper coming mostly from the United States. In domestic settings, long-distance expansion of S. invicta relied on potted plant and turf transportation. Both monogyne and polygyne social forms of S. invicta were present in China with polygyne colonies as the dominant one. Data on population and breeding dynamics of S. invicta reveal the presence of two peaks annually with nuptial flights occurring throughout the year. Arthropods, plant seeds, and honeydew are important food sources of S. invicta, thereby causing negative impacts on the abundance, diversity, and richness of native arthropod communities. Fire ants are threats not only to agriculture and power facilities, but also to human health, with more than 30% of people having suffered from the sting and 10% having experienced an allergic reaction. To address the expansion of S. invicta, the National Fire Ant Detection and Management Union was established and the formulation and implementation of management policies were drawn. Plant quarantine becomes an essential step in fire ant management, whereas the two-step method of combing toxic baits and contact dust emerges as the forefront method crucial in managing S. invicta. The experience and lessons learned from fire ant management in China could benefit other countries when facing similar challenges.

The massive use of synthetic pesticides to manage agricultural pests results in environmental pollution and health hazards. The secondary plant metabolites, which are majorly dominated by terpenoids, have the potential to be developed into novel alternatives to synthetic chemicals. Therefore, in our current investigation, six majorly dominated essential oil constituents were evaluated for their toxicity against adults and immature stages of oriental fruit flies, Bactrocera dorsalis, a worldwide fruit pest. The results indicated that carvacrol was the most toxic essential oil constituent (EOC) to adult flies, with LC50 of 19.48 mg/mL via fumigant assay, followed by thujone 75% mortality via ingestion toxicity test against adult fruit flies. Similarly, when larvae were dipped in different concentrations of EOCs, carvacrol appeared as the most toxic EOC with the lowest LC50 (29.12 mg/mL), followed by (−)-alpha-pinene (26.54 mg/mL) and (R)-(+)-limonene (29.12 mg/mL). In the oviposition deterrence tests, no egg was observed on oranges seedlings treated with 5% of each EOC (100% repellency). Regarding the repellency assay, a significantly higher number of flies (77%) were repelled from the Y-tube olfactometer arm containing (−)-alpha-pinene, followed by carvacrol (76%). Our results showed that the selected essential oil constituent has the potential to be developed as an alternative to synthetic pesticides against B. dorsalis. However, further research is required to assess the activities of these EOCs under open-field conditions.

The Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), is among the most destructive fruit/vegetable-eating agricultural pests in the word, particularly in Asian countries such as China. Because of its widespread distribution, invasive ability, pest status, and economic losses to fruit and vegetable crops, this insect species is viewed as an organism warranting severe quarantine restrictions by many countries in the world. To understand the characteristics and potential for expansion of this pest, this article assembled current knowledge on the occurrence and comprehensive control of the Oriental fruit fly in China concerning the following key aspects: invasion and expansion process, biological and ecological characteristics, dynamic monitoring, chemical ecology, function of symbionts, mechanism of insecticide resistance, control index, and comprehensive control and countermeasures. Some suggestions for the further control and study of this pest are also proposed.

Bactrocera tau (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is a serious, economically important invasive pest that has spread and been established in many regions worldwide. Temperature is a crucial abiotic factor governing insect activity, fitness, and geographical distribution. Yet, surprisingly, the tolerance of B. tau to extreme cold and heat stress remains unclear. Here, we measured the supercooling point (SCP) of different life stages of B. tau. Further, several life stages of B. tau (egg, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd instar larvae, 1-day-old pupae, and 3-day-old adult) were subjected to six low temperatures (−9, −7, −5, −3, −1, and 0 °C) and six high temperatures (39, 40, 41, 42, 43, and 44 °C) for various durations (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 h), and three-way survival–time–temperature relationships were investigated. We found that the SCPs differed significantly among different life stages of B. tau, being the lowest for SCP of eggs, at −25.82 ± 0.51 °C. There was no significant effect of sex on the mean SCPs of B. tau adults, except for 45- to 50-day-old flies. In addition, an interaction effect was uncovered between tested temperatures and exposure duration upon B. tau mortality at different life stages. Eggs exhibited the strongest cold tolerance, yet the weakest heat tolerance. The 3rd instar larvae were the most heat- and cold tolerant among larval stages, followed by the 2nd and 1st instar larvae. The upper limit of the chill injury zone (ULCIZ) for 3-day-old adult and 1-day-old pupae was −2.51 °C and −2.50 °C, respectively, while their corresponding lower limit of thermal injury zone (LLTIZ) was 39.39 °C and 38.29 °C. This paper presents valuable data to provide an integrated knowledge for understanding the cold and heat tolerance potential of B. tau and ensure the proper implementation of post-harvest phytosanitary protocols for this pest’s disinfestation.

Soil-dwelling animals are at risk of pathogen infection in soils. When choosing nesting sites, animals could reduce this risk by avoiding contact with pathogens, yet there is currently little evidence. We tested this hypothesis using Solenopsis invicta as a model system. Newly mated queens of S. invicta were found to nest preferentially in soil containing more actinobacteria of Streptomyces and Nocardiopsis and to be attracted to two volatiles produced by these bacteria, geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol. Actinobacteria-rich soil was favored by S. invicta and this soil contained fewer putative entomopathogenic fungi than adjacent areas. Queens in such soil benefited from a higher survival rate. In culture, isolated actinobacteria inhibited entomopathogenic fungi, suggested that their presence may reduce the risk of fungal infection. These results indicated a soil-dwelling ant may choose nest sites presenting relatively low pathogen risk by detecting the odors produced by bacteria with anti-fungal properties.

Increase in atmospheric CO2 directly affects the insect physiology and behavior, and indirectly affects the herbivorous insects by affecting their hosts. The increase in atmospheric CO2 is accompanied by an increase in temperature and heat waves. Ophraella communa LeSage is a natural enemy of Ambrosia artemisiifolia (common ragweed). The development and reproduction of this beetle is weakened upon eating common ragweed grown under stress conditions. As female behavior and physiology alter after mating, the reproductive tract of males is likely to modulate reproduction and development in this species. Herein, the transcriptional profiles of testes and accessory glands from male O. communa individuals feeding on common ragweed under conditions of high CO2 concentration and heat waves and that grown under ambient CO2 concentration were compared. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between the same tissues from beetles fed on common ragweed grown under different stress conditions. There were 3, 2, 3, 1and 5 genes related to decomposition and transport of macromolecular substances, host location, stress response, reproduction, and poisonous food-utilization. No expected response was observed in the male reproductive tract, but some of the identified DEGs might control the development of the population. The results presented here should be helpful in guiding future studies on deciphering the indirect response of other organs to high CO2 concentration and heat waves, as well as the functions of seminal fluid proteins in O. communa.

Exotic invasive species can influence the behavior and ecology of native and resident species, but these changes are often overlooked. Here we hypothesize that the ghost ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum, living in areas that have been invaded by the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, displays behavioral differences to interspecific competition that are reflected in both its trophic position and symbiotic microbiota. We demonstrate that T. melanocephalum workers from S. invicta invaded areas are less aggressive towards workers of S. invicta than those inhabiting non-invaded areas. Nitrogen isotope analyses reveal that colonies of T. melanocephalum have protein-rich diets in S. invicta invaded areas compared with the carbohydrate-rich diets of colonies living in non-invaded areas. Analysis of microbiota isolated from gut tissue shows that T. melanocephalum workers from S. invicta invaded areas also have different bacterial communities, including a higher abundance of Wolbachia that may play a role in vitamin B provisioning. In contrast, the microbiota of workers of T. melanocephalum from S. invicta-free areas are dominated by bacteria from the orders Bacillales, Lactobacillales and Enterobacteriales that may be involved in sugar metabolism. We further demonstrate experimentally that the composition and structure of the bacterial symbiont communities as well as the prevalence of vitamin B in T. melanocephalum workers from S. invicta invaded and non-invaded areas can be altered if T. melanocephalum workers are supplied with either protein-rich or carbohydrate-rich food. Our results support the hypothesis that bacterial symbiont communities can help hosts by buffering behavioral changes caused by interspecies competition as a consequence of biological invasions.

Eco-evolutionary dynamics of microbiotas at the macroscale level are largely driven by ecological variables. The diet and living environment of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis, diversify during development, providing a natural system to explore convergence, divergence, and repeatability in patterns of microbiota dynamics as a function of the host diet, phylogeny, and environment. Here, we characterized the microbiotas of 47 B. dorsalis individuals from three distinct populations by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. A significant deviation was found within the larvae, pupae, and adults of each population. Pupae were characterized by an increased bacterial taxonomic and functional diversity. Principal components analysis showed that the microbiotas of larvae, pupae, and adults clearly separated into three clusters. Acetobacteraceae, Lactobacillaceae, and Enterobacteriaceae were the predominant families in larval and adult samples, and PICRUSt analysis indicated that phosphoglycerate mutases and transketolases were significantly enriched in larvae, while phosphoglycerate mutases, transketolases, and proteases were significantly enriched in adults, which may support the digestive function of the microbiotas in larvae and adults. The abundances of Intrasporangiaceae, Dermabacteraceae (mainly Brachybacterium) and Brevibacteriaceae (mainly Brevibacterium) were significantly higher in pupae, and the antibiotic transport system ATP-binding protein and antibiotic transport system permease protein pathways were significantly enriched there as well, indicating the defensive function of microbiotas in pupae. Overall, differences in the microbiotas of the larvae, pupae, and adults are likely to contribute to differences in nutrient assimilation and living environments.

Susceptible individuals who have suffered painful stings caused by red imported fire ants, Solenopsis invicta, usually experience physical health effects such as fever, dizziness, generalized urticaria, or other systemic reactions such as anaphylactic shock. Whether S. invicta stings also have negative effects on mental health is not clear. In the present study, the psychological impact of S. invicta stings was evaluated using a questionnaire that included a previously published posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) checklist, the Patient Health Questionnaire 9-item (PHQ-9), the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item (GAD-7) scale, the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, 5th scale (PSQI(5)). A total of 96 valid questionnaires were obtained; 37 participants were placed in the stung group, and 59 participants were placed in the unstung group. Our results showed that symptoms of anxiety, depression and sleep disturbances were not associated with S. invicta stings (for GAD-7 scale, Pearson Chi-Square test, χ2 = 0.152, df = 1, P = 0.697; for the BAI, χ2 = 2.252, df = 1, P = 0.133; for the PHQ-9, χ2 = 0.098, df = 1, P = 0.754; for the PSQI(5), χ2 = 0.536, df = 1, P = 0.453). In total, 2 of 83 individuals stung by S. invicta met the criteria (>50) for PTSD. However, there was no significant difference on PTSD between those stung by S. invicta in the 30-day group and the over 30-day group (χ2 = 0.318, df = 1, P = 0.573). Overall, our data do not show an effect of S. invicta stings on mental health as measured using a range of indicators.

Synthetic pesticides are extensively and injudiciously applied to control agriculture and household pests worldwide. Due to their high use, their toxic residues have enormously increased in the agroecosystem in the past several years. They have caused many severe threats to non-target organisms, including humans. Therefore, the complete removal of toxic compounds is gaining wide attention to protect the ecosystem and the diversity of living organisms. Several methods, such as physical, chemical and biological, are applied to degrade compounds, but as compared to other methods, biological methods are considered more efficient, fast, eco-friendly and less expensive. In particular, employing microbial species and their purified enzymes makes the degradation of toxic pollutants more accessible and converts them into non-toxic products by several metabolic pathways. The digestive tract of insects is usually known as a superior organ that provides a nutrient-rich environment to hundreds of microbial species that perform a pivotal role in various physiological and ecological functions. There is a direct relationship between pesticides and insect pests: pesticides reduce the growth of insect species and alter the phyla located in the gut microbiome. In comparison, the insect gut microbiota tries to degrade toxic compounds by changing their toxicity, increasing the production and regulation of a diverse range of enzymes. These enzymes breakdown into their derivatives, and microbial species utilize them as a sole source of carbon, sulfur and energy. The resistance of pesticides (carbamates, pyrethroids, organophosphates, organochlorines, and neonicotinoids) in insect species is developed by metabolic mechanisms, regulation of enzymes and the expression of various microbial detoxifying genes in insect guts. This review summarizes the toxic effects of agrochemicals on humans, animals, birds and beneficial arthropods. It explores the preferential role of insect gut microbial species in the degradation process and the resistance mechanism of several pesticides in insect species. Additionally, various metabolic pathways have been systematically discussed to better understand the degradation of xenobiotics by insect gut microbial species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a severe invasive pest, red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta Buren) had important effects on ecosystem of its infected areas. Here, we surveyed impact of S. invicta on populations of two banana insect pests, banana skipper (Erion tatorus Evans) and banana stephanitis (Stephanitis typical Distant). The results showed that influences of S. invicta on population of E. tatorus and S. typical depend on weed coverage degree of banana plantations. Comparing to the areas without S. invicta, banana skipper population was reduced by 39.2%, 41.4% and 23.4% respectively, in high, moderate and low weed coverage of banana plantations with S. invicta invasion. Banana stephanitis population was reduced by 17.8%, 43.0% and 39.2% respectively, in high, moderate and low weed coverage of banana plantations with S. invicta invasion.

This study compared the amount of food resource depletion and interference competition at the individual and colony levels between Solenopsis invicta and Tapinoma melanocephalum laboratory colonies. The consumption of sausage, honey water, and mealworm by S. invicta colonies of equal worker number was higher than that by T. melanocephalum colonies. The consumption of sausage and honey water by S. invicta colonies of equal worker number was significantly higher than that by T. melanocephalum colonies. However, the amounts of sausage, honey water, and mealworm depleted by S. invicta colonies of equal worker biomass were lower than those depleted by T. melanocephalum colonies. The consumption of sausage and mealworm by S. invicta colonies of equal worker biomass were also significantly lower than that by T. melanocephalum colonies. Individual-level interference competition between S. invicta and T. melanocephalum colonies in limited space was intense. Competition intensity and the death rate reached their maximum when the worker numbers of both colonies were equal. In any proportion, the death rate of T. melanocephalum reached over 80%, higher than that of S. invicta. S. invicta colonies of equal worker biomass and equal worker number recruited more workers for colony-level interference competition and used more resources. However, the death rates among S. invicta colonies were higher than those among T. melanocephalum colonies. The active resource plundering of S. invicta reflected their intense competitiveness and limited the range of activity of T. melanocephalum.

The relationship between Solenopsis invicta nest density and the number of fire ant workers in bait traps and percentages of traps capturing ants were investigated in the waste land of Wuchuan, Guangdong, South China. The results showed that fire ant nest density is positively correlated with the number of workers captured in traps, and could be described by N=60.53LnD +348.0D+421.1. The workers exceeded 200 and 300 in bait traps while the density of fire ant nests was over 0.023 and 0.084 ind./m2, respectively. The percentages of traps capturing ants were also positively correlated with fire ant nest density and fit by Pe=1/(1+e0.9694-309.85D). When the nest density was over 0.018 ind./m2, over 99% of traps captured fire ant workers. N=8.8796e0.0346Pe was the fitting line for worker amount and trap percentage. The workers per trap were about 50, 100, and 200 when the trap percentages were 50%, 70% and 90%, respectively.

Although mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing hemipterans has been extensively recognized in ecosystem biology, however few attempts to test the hypothesis that mutualism between two alien species leads to the facilitation of the invasion process. To address this problem, we focus on the conditional mutualism between S. invicta and P. solenopsis by field investigations and indoor experiments. In the laboratory, ant colony growth increased significantly when ants had access to P. solenopsis and animal-based food. Honeydew produced by P. solenopsis also improved the survival of ant workers. In the field, colony density of P. solenopsis was significantly greater on plots with ants than on plots without ants. The number of mealybug mummies on plants without fire ants was almost three times that of plants with fire ants, indicating a strong effect of fire ants on mealybug survival. In addition, the presence of S. invicta successfully contributed to the spread of P. solenopsis. The quantity of honeydew consumption by S. invicta was significantly greater than that of a presumptive native ant, Tapinoma melanocephalum. When compared with the case without ant tending, mealybugs tended by ants matured earlier and their lifespan and reproduction increased. T. melanocephalum workers arrived at honeydew more quickly than S. invicta workers, while the number of foraging S. invicta workers on plants steadily increased, eventually exceeding that number of T. melanocephalum foragers. Overall, these results suggest that the conditional mutualism between S. invicta and P. solenopsis facilitates population growth and fitness of both species. S. invicta tends to acquire much more honeydew and drive away native ants, promoting their predominance. These results suggest that the higher foraging tempo of S. invicta may provide more effective protection of P. solenopsis than native ants. Thus mutualism between these two alien species may facilitate the invasion success of both species.

The importance of mutualism is receiving more attention in community ecology. In this study, the fire ant Solenopsis invicta was found to take advantage of the shelters constructed by the leaf roller Sylepta derogata to protect mealybugs (Phenacoccus solenopsis) against their natural enemies. This protective effect of fire ant tending on the survival of mealybugs in shelters was observed when enemies and leaf rollers were simultaneously present. Specifically, fire ants moved the mealybugs inside the shelters produced by S. derogata on enemy-infested plants. Compared with that in plants without ants, the survival of mealybugs in shelters in the presence of natural enemies in plants with ants markedly improved. Both the protection of ants and the shelters provided by leaf rollers did not affect the survival of mealybugs in the absence of enemies in plants. Ants and leaf rollers significantly improved the survival of mealybugs in predator-infested plants, whereas no such improvement was observed in parasitoid-infested ones.