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Chronic wounds, particularly those associated with diabetes mellitus, represent a growing threat to public health, with additional notable economic impacts. Inflammation associated with these wounds leads to abnormalities in endogenous electrical signals that impede the migration of keratinocytes needed to support the healing process. This observation motivates the treatment of chronic wounds with electrical stimulation therapy, but practical engineering challenges, difficulties in removing stimulation hardware from the wound site, and absence of means to monitor the healing process create barriers to widespread clinical use. Here, we demonstrate a miniaturized wireless, battery-free bioresorbable electrotherapy system that overcomes these challenges. Studies based on a splinted diabetic mouse wound model confirm the efficacy for accelerated wound closure by guiding epithelial migration, modulating inflammation, and promoting vasculogenesis. Changes in the impedance provide means for tracking the healing process. The results demonstrate a simple and effective platform for wound site electrotherapy.

Recently reported winged microelectronic systems offer passive flight mechanisms as a dispersal strategy for purposes in environmental monitoring, population surveillance, pathogen tracking, and other applications. Initial studies indicate potential for technologies of this type, but advances in structural and responsive materials and in aerodynamically optimized geometries are necessary to improve the functionality and expand the modes of operation. Here, we introduce environmentally degradable materials as the basis of 3D fliers that allow remote, colorimetric assessments of multiple environmental parameters—pH, heavy metal concentrations, and ultraviolet exposure, along with humidity levels and temperature. Experimental and theoretical investigations of the aerodynamics of these systems reveal design considerations that include not only the geometries of the structures but also their mass distributions across a range of bioinspired designs. Preliminary field studies that rely on drones for deployment and for remote colorimetric analysis by machine learning interpretation of digital images illustrate scenarios for practical use.

DNA and proteins fold in three dimensions (3D) to enable functions that sustain life. Emulation of such folding schemes for functional materials can unleash enormous potential in advancing a wide range of technologies, especially in robotics, medicine, and telecommunication. Here, we report a microfolding strategy that enables formation of 3D morphable microelectronic systems integrated with various functional materials, including monocrystalline silicon, metallic nanomembranes, and polymers. By predesigning folding hosts and configuring folding pathways, 3D microelectronic systems in freestanding forms can transform across various complex configurations with modulated functionalities. Nearly all transitional states of 3D microelectronic systems achieved via the microfolding assembly can be easily accessed and modulated in situ, offering functional versatility and adaptability. Advanced morphable microelectronic systems including a reconfigurable microantenna for customizable telecommunication, a 3D vibration sensor for hand-tremor monitoring, and a bloomable robot for cardiac mapping demonstrate broad utility of these assembly schemes to realize advanced functionalities.

Background Current near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-based systems for continuous flap monitoring are limited to flaps which carry a cutaneous paddle. As such, this useful and reliable technology has not previously been applicable to muscle-only free flaps where other modalities with substantial limitations continue to be utilized. Methods We present the first NIRS probe which allows continuous monitoring of local tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) directly within the substance of muscle tissue. This probe is flexible, subcentimeter in scale, waterproof, biocompatible, and is fitted with resorbable barbs which facilitate temporary autostabilization followed by easy atraumatic removal. This novel device was compared with a ViOptix T.Ox monitor in a porcine rectus abdominus myocutaneous flap model of arterial and venous occlusions. During these experiments, the T.Ox device was affixed to the skin paddle, while the novel probe was within the muscle component of the same flap. Results The intramuscular NIRS device and skin-mounted ViOptix T.Ox devices produced very similar StO2 tracings throughout the vascular clamping events, with obvious and parallel changes occurring upon vascular clamping and release. The normalized cross-correlation at zero lag describing correspondence between the novel intramuscular NIRS and T.Ox devices was >0.99. Conclusion This novel intramuscular NIRS probe offers continuous monitoring of oxygen saturation within muscle flaps. This experiment demonstrates the potential suitability of this intramuscular NIRS probe for the task of muscle-only free flap monitoring, where NIRS has not previously been applicable. Testing in the clinical environment is necessary to assess durability and reliability.

Flexible electronic/optoelectronic systems that can intimately integrate onto the surfaces of vital organ systems have the potential to offer revolutionary diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities relevant to a wide spectrum of diseases and disorders. The critical interfaces between such technologies and living tissues must provide soft mechanical coupling and efficient optical/electrical/chemical exchange. Here, we introduce a functional adhesive bioelectronic–tissue interface material, in the forms of mechanically compliant, electrically conductive, and optically transparent encapsulating coatings, interfacial layers or supporting matrices. These materials strongly bond both to the surfaces of the devices and to those of different internal organs, with stable adhesion for several days to months, in chemistries that can be tailored to bioresorb at controlled rates. Experimental demonstrations in live animal models include device applications that range from battery-free optoelectronic systems for deep-brain optogenetics and subdermal phototherapy to wireless millimetre-scale pacemakers and flexible multielectrode epicardial arrays. These advances have immediate applicability across nearly all types of bioelectronic/optoelectronic system currently used in animal model studies, and they also have the potential for future treatment of life-threatening diseases and disorders in humans. A functional interfacial material has been developed for soft integration of bioelectronic devices with biological tissues. This has been applied in battery-free optoelectronic systems for deep-brain optogenetics and subdermal phototherapy as well as wireless millimetre-scale pacemakers and flexible multielectrode epicardial arrays.

The rigidity and relatively primitive modes of operation of catheters equipped with sensing or actuation elements impede their conformal contact with soft-tissue surfaces, limit the scope of their uses, lengthen surgical times and increase the need for advanced surgical skills. Here, we report materials, device designs and fabrication approaches for integrating advanced electronic functionality with catheters for minimally invasive forms of cardiac surgery. By using multiphysics modelling, plastic heart models and Langendorff animal and human hearts, we show that soft electronic arrays in multilayer configurations on endocardial balloon catheters can establish conformal contact with curved tissue surfaces, support high-density spatiotemporal mapping of temperature, pressure and electrophysiological parameters and allow for programmable electrical stimulation, radiofrequency ablation and irreversible electroporation. Integrating multimodal and multiplexing capabilities into minimally invasive surgical instruments may improve surgical performance and patient outcomes.

Description, Mechanically guided assembly techniques yield complex 3D microvascular networks with multifunctional characteristics., Microfluidic technologies have wide-ranging applications in chemical analysis systems, drug delivery platforms, and artificial vascular networks. This latter area is particularly relevant to 3D cell cultures, engineered tissues, and artificial organs, where volumetric capabilities in fluid distribution are essential. Existing schemes for fabricating 3D microfluidic structures are constrained in realizing desired layout designs, producing physiologically relevant microvascular structures, and/or integrating active electronic/optoelectronic/microelectromechanical components for sensing and actuation. This paper presents a guided assembly approach that bypasses these limitations to yield complex 3D microvascular structures from 2D precursors that exploit the full sophistication of 2D fabrication methods. The capabilities extend to feature sizes

Continuous, real-time monitoring of perfusion after microsurgical free tissue transfer or solid organ allotransplantation procedures can facilitate early diagnosis of and intervention for anastomotic thrombosis. Current technologies including Doppler systems, cutaneous O2-sensing probes, and fluorine magnetic resonance imaging methods are limited by their intermittent measurements, requirements for skilled personnel, indirect interfaces, and/or their tethered connections. This paper reports a wireless, miniaturized, minimally invasive near-infrared spectroscopic system designed for uninterrupted monitoring of local-tissue oxygenation. A bioresorbable barbed structure anchors the probe stably at implantation sites for a time period matched to the clinical need, with the ability for facile removal afterward. The probe connects to a skin-interfaced electronic module for wireless access to essential physiological parameters, including local tissue oxygenation, pulse oxygenation, and heart rate. In vitro tests and in vivo studies in porcine flap and kidney models demonstrate the ability of the system to continuously measure oxygenation with high accuracy and sensitivity.

Injured peripheral nerves typically exhibit unsatisfactory and incomplete functional outcomes, and there are no clinically approved therapies for improving regeneration. Post-operative electrical stimulation (ES) increases axon regrowth, but practical challenges from the cost of extended operating room time to the risks and pitfalls associated with transcutaneous wire placement have prevented broad clinical adoption. This study presents a possible solution in the form of advanced bioresorbable materials for thin, flexible, wireless implant that provides precisely controlled ES of the injured nerve for a brief time in the immediate post-operative period. Afterward, rapid, complete and safe modes of bioresorption naturally and quickly eliminate all of the constituent materials in their entirety, without the need for surgical extraction. The unusually high rate of bioresorption follows from the use of a unique, bilayer enclosure that combines two distinct formulations of a biocompatible form of polyanhydride as an encapsulating structure, to accelerate the resorption of active components and confine fragments until complete resorption. Results from mouse models of tibial nerve transection with re-anastomosis indicate that this system offers levels of performance and efficacy that match those of conventional wired stimulators, but without the need to extend the operative period or to extract the device hardware.

Tissue-on-chip systems represent promising platforms for monitoring and controlling tissue functions in vitro for various purposes in biomedical research. The two-dimensional (2D) layouts of these constructs constrain the types of interactions that can be studied and limit their relevance to three-dimensional (3D) tissues. The development of 3D electronic scaffolds and microphysiological devices with geometries and functions tailored to realistic 3D tissues has the potential to create important possibilities in advanced sensing and control. This study presents classes of compliant 3D frameworks that incorporate microscale strain sensors for high-sensitivity measurements of contractile forces of engineered optogenetic muscle tissue rings, supported by quantitative simulations. Compared with traditional approaches based on optical microscopy, these 3D mechanical frameworks and sensing systems can measure not only motions but also contractile forces with high accuracy and high temporal resolution. Results of active tension force measurements of engineered muscle rings under different stimulation conditions in long-term monitoring settings for over 5 wk and in response to various chemical and drug doses demonstrate the utility of such platforms in sensing and modulation of muscle and other tissues. Possibilities for applications range from drug screening and disease modeling to biohybrid robotic engineering.

A thin, flexible, wireless oximeter probe monitors venous and cardiac oxygenation levels in a patient-friendly mode., Accurate, real-time monitoring of intravascular oxygen levels is important in tracking the cardiopulmonary health of patients after cardiothoracic surgery. Existing technologies use intravascular placement of glass fiber-optic catheters that pose risks of blood vessel damage, thrombosis, and infection. In addition, physical tethers to power supply systems and data acquisition hardware limit freedom of movement and add clutter to the intensive care unit. This report introduces a wireless, miniaturized, implantable optoelectronic catheter system incorporating optical components on the probe, encapsulated by soft biocompatible materials, as alternative technology that avoids these disadvantages. The absence of physical tethers and the flexible, biocompatible construction of the probe represent key defining features, resulting in a high-performance, patient-friendly implantable oximeter that can monitor localized tissue oxygenation, heart rate, and respiratory activity with wireless, real-time, continuous operation. In vitro and in vivo testing shows that this platform offers measurement accuracy and precision equivalent to those of existing clinical standards.

Background Current near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-based systems for continuous flap monitoring are highly sensitive for detecting malperfusion. However, the clinical utility and user experience are limited by the wired connection between the sensor and bedside console. This wire leads to instability of the flap–sensor interface and may cause false alarms. Methods We present a novel wearable wireless NIRS sensor for continuous fasciocutaneous free flap monitoring. This waterproof silicone-encapsulated Bluetooth-enabled device contains two light-emitting diodes and two photodetectors in addition to a battery sufficient for 5 days of uninterrupted function. This novel device was compared with a ViOptix T.Ox monitor in a porcine rectus abdominus myocutaneous flap model of arterial and venous occlusions. Results Devices were tested in four flaps using three animals. Both devices produced very similar tissue oxygen saturation (StO2) tracings throughout the vascular clamping events, with obvious and parallel changes occurring on arterial clamping, arterial release, venous clamping, and venous release. Small interdevice variations in absolute StO2 value readings and magnitude of change were observed. The normalized cross-correlation at zero lag describing correspondence between the novel NIRS and T.Ox devices was >0.99 in each trial. Conclusion The wireless NIRS flap monitor is capable of detecting StO2 changes resultant from arterial vascular occlusive events. In this porcine flap model, the functionality of this novel sensor closely mirrored that of the T.Ox wired platform. This device is waterproof, highly adhesive, skin conforming, and has sufficient battery life to function for 5 days. Clinical testing is necessary to determine if this wireless functionality translates into fewer false-positive alarms and a better user experience.

Compact electronic systems that perform rapid, precise mechanical characterization of living biological tissues have important potential uses in monitoring and diagnosing various types of human-health disorders. Active devices that perform high-precision, real-time evaluations of deep tissue structures (millimeter-scale) in a precise, digital and non-invasive fashion could complement capabilities of recently-reported approaches for sensing tissue biomechanics at superficial depths (typically micrometer-scale). This paper introduces a miniature electromagnetic platform that combines a vibratory actuator with a soft strain-sensing sheet for determining the Young’s modulus of soft biological tissues, with specific focus on skin. Experimental and computational studies establish the operational principles and performance attributes through evaluations of synthetic and biological materials, including human skin at various body locations across healthy subject volunteers. The results demonstrate dynamic monitoring of elastic modulus at characteristic depths between ~1 and ~8 mm, depending on the sensor designs. Arrays of such devices support capabilities in both depth profiling and spatial mapping. Clinical studies on patients with skin disorders highlight potential for accurate targeting of lesions associated with psoriasis, as examples of practical medical utility.

Measurements of regional internal body temperatures can yield important information in the diagnosis of immune response-related anomalies, for precisely managing the effects of hyperthermia and hypothermia therapies and monitoring other transient body processes such as those associated with wound healing. Current approaches rely on permanent implants that require extraction surgeries after the measurements are no longer needed. Emerging classes of bioresorbable sensors eliminate the requirements for extraction, but their use of percutaneous wires for data acquisition leads to risks for infection at the suture site. As an alternative, a battery-free, wireless implantable device is reported here, which is constructed entirely with bioresorbable materials for monitoring regional internal body temperatures over clinically relevant timeframes. Ultimately, these devices disappear completely in the body through natural processes. In vivo demonstrations indicate stable operation as subcutaneous and intracranial implants in rat models for up to 4 days. Potential applications include monitoring of healing cascades associated with surgical wounds, recovery processes following internal injuries, and the progression of thermal therapies for various conditions.

Piezoelectric microsystems are of use in areas such as mechanical sensing, energy conversion and robotics. The systems typically have a planar structure, but transforming them into complex three-dimensional (3D) frameworks could enhance and extend their various modes of operation. Here, we report a controlled, nonlinear buckling process to convert lithographically defined two-dimensional patterns of electrodes and thin films of piezoelectric polymers into sophisticated 3D piezoelectric microsystems. To illustrate the engineering versatility of the approach, we create more than twenty different 3D geometries. With these structures, we then demonstrate applications in energy harvesting with tailored mechanical properties and root-mean-square voltages ranging from 2 mV to 790 mV, in multifunctional sensors for robotic prosthetic interfaces with improved responsivity (for example, anisotropic responses and sensitivity of 60 mV N−1 for normal force), and in bio-integrated devices with in vivo operational capabilities. The 3D geometries, especially those with ultralow stiffnesses or asymmetric layouts, yield unique mechanical attributes and levels of functionality that would be difficult or impossible to achieve with conventional two-dimensional designs. Nonlinear buckling processes can be used to transform thin films of piezoelectric polymers into sophisticated 3D piezoelectric microsystems with applications in energy harvesting, multifunctional sensing and bio-integrated devices.

Vascular pedicle thrombosis after free flap transfer or solid organ transplantation surgeries can lead to flap necrosis, organ loss requiring re-transplantation, or even death. Although implantable flow sensors can provide early warning of malperfusion and facilitate operative salvage, measurements performed with existing technologies often depend on extrinsic conditions such as mounting methods and environmental fluctuations. Furthermore, the mechanisms for fixing such probes to vascular or skeletal structures may disrupt the normal blood flow or cause unnecessary tissue damage. Requirements for wired connections to benchtop readout systems also increase costs, complicate clinical care and constrain movements of the patient. Here, we report a wireless, miniaturized flow sensing system that exploits sub-millimeter scale, multi-nodal thermal probes, with biodegradable barbs that secure the probes to the surrounding tissues in a manner that facilitates removal after a period of use. These smartphone-readable devices, together with experimentally validated analytical models of the thermal transport physics, enable reliable, accurate flow sensing in ways that are largely immune to variations in temperature and mechanical perturbations. In vivo demonstrations of this technology in porcine myocutaneous flap and kidney malperfusion models highlight the essential capabilities in microsurgical and transplantation-related biomedical application scenarios.

Patchable devices that interface with the skin across a wide range of size scales, from cellular level down to molecular level, become increasingly attractive in biomedical research. These devices hold the potential for diagnostic and therapeutic functions with exceptional spatiotemporal precision, continuity, and convenience. Further, they afford new opportunities to integrate cloud-based technology and artificial intelligence for a smarter healthcare system. This article reviews recent advances in materials design and assembly techniques for fabricating various patchable devices, with focuses on electrical, thermal, mechanical, and chemical biosensors as well as transdermal gene and drug delivery platforms. A concluding discussion provides perspectives for future developments and outlooks in clinical applications.

Advanced technologies for controlled delivery of light to targeted locations in biological tissues are essential to neuroscience research that applies optogenetics in animal models. Fully implantable, miniaturized devices with wireless control and power-harvesting strategies offer an appealing set of attributes in this context, particularly for studies that are incompatible with conventional fiber-optic approaches or battery-powered head stages. Limited programmable control and narrow options in illumination profiles constrain the use of existing devices. The results reported here overcome these drawbacks via two platforms, both with real-time user programmability over multiple independent light sources, in head-mounted and back-mounted designs. Engineering studies of the optoelectronic and thermal properties of these systems define their capabilities and key design considerations. Neuroscience applications demonstrate that induction of interbrain neuronal synchrony in the medial prefrontal cortex shapes social interaction within groups of mice, highlighting the power of real-time subject-specific programmability of the wireless optogenetic platforms introduced here. The authors introduce advanced technology for controlled wireless light delivery in optogenetics applications with real-time user programming capacity. The utility of the platform is highlighted by induction of neural synchrony to modify social behavior in mice.

Bioresorbable optical sensor implants monitor brain pressure and temperature before naturally resorbing into the body., Continuous measurements of pressure and temperature within the intracranial, intraocular, and intravascular spaces provide essential diagnostic information for the treatment of traumatic brain injury, glaucoma, and cardiovascular diseases, respectively. Optical sensors are attractive because of their inherent compatibility with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Existing implantable optical components use permanent, nonresorbable materials that must be surgically extracted after use. Bioresorbable alternatives, introduced here, bypass this requirement, thereby eliminating the costs and risks of surgeries. Here, millimeter-scale bioresorbable Fabry-Perot interferometers and two dimensional photonic crystal structures enable precise, continuous measurements of pressure and temperature. Combined mechanical and optical simulations reveal the fundamental sensing mechanisms. In vitro studies and histopathological evaluations quantify the measurement accuracies, operational lifetimes, and biocompatibility of these systems. In vivo demonstrations establish clinically relevant performance attributes. The materials, device designs, and fabrication approaches outlined here establish broad foundational capabilities for diverse classes of bioresorbable optical sensors.

Recently developed methods for transforming 2D patterns of thin-film materials into 3D mesostructures create many interesting opportunities in microsystems design. A growing area of interest is in multifunctional thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical interfaces to biological tissues, particularly 3D multicellular, millimeter-scale constructs, such as spheroids, assembloids, and organoids. Herein, examples of 3D mechanical interfaces are presented, in which thin ribbons of parylene-C form the basis of transparent, highly compliant frameworks that can be reversibly opened and closed to capture, envelop, and mechanically restrain fragile 3D tissues in a gentle, nondestructive manner, for precise measurements of viscoelastic properties using techniques in nanoindentation. Finite element analysis serves as a design tool to guide selection of geometries and material parameters for shape-matching 3D architectures tailored to organoids of interest. These computational approaches also quantitate all aspects of deformations during the processes of opening and closing the structures and of forces imparted by them onto the surfaces of enclosed soft tissues. Studies of cerebral organoids by nanoindentation show effective Young's moduli in the range from 1.5 to 2.5 kPa depending on the age of the organoid. This collection of results suggests broad utility of compliant 3D mesostructures in noninvasive mechanical measurements of millimeter-scale, soft biological tissues.

The room-temperature solvent vapor annealing of polystyrene-b-polydimethylsiloxane (PS-b-PDMS) block copolymer films was studied in situ by grazing incidence small-angle X-ray scattering. Films of cylinder-forming PS-b-PDMS with molecular weight 16 kg/mol and 12.2 kg/mol, annealed under vapors of toluene:heptane with varying composition, exhibited swelling-ratio-dependent evolution of microdomain spacing and orientation. In a vapor made from a toluene:heptane 5:1 volumetric ratio liquid mixture, or from pure toluene, cylindrical microdomains reoriented from majority out-of-plane to in-plane during annealing, while drying led to shrinkage along the film normal and a large distortion of the hexagonal lattice of in-plane cylinders. Annealing under vapor from a toluene:heptane 1:5 volumetric ratio liquid produced a non-bulk lamellar structure in the 16 kg/mol PS-b-PDMS.

Wireless, battery-free optoelectronic systems enable localized tissue oximetry in tether-free, awake animal models., Monitoring regional tissue oxygenation in animal models and potentially in human subjects can yield insights into the underlying mechanisms of local O2-mediated physiological processes and provide diagnostic and therapeutic guidance for relevant disease states. Existing technologies for tissue oxygenation assessments involve some combination of disadvantages in requirements for physical tethers, anesthetics, and special apparatus, often with confounding effects on the natural behaviors of test subjects. This work introduces an entirely wireless and fully implantable platform incorporating (i) microscale optoelectronics for continuous sensing of local hemoglobin dynamics and (ii) advanced designs in continuous, wireless power delivery and data output for tether-free operation. These features support in vivo, highly localized tissue oximetry at sites of interest, including deep brain regions of mice, on untethered, awake animal models. The results create many opportunities for studying various O2-mediated processes in naturally behaving subjects, with implications in biomedical research and clinical practice.

Perpendicular orientation of lamellar microdomains in a high interaction parameter block copolymer was obtained within high aspect ratio gratings functionalized with a preferential sidewall brush. The experiments used polystyrene-block-polydimethylsiloxane (PS-b-PDMS) with molecular weight 43 kg/mol within trenches made using interference lithography. The perpendicular alignment was obtained for both thermal and solvent annealing, using three different solvent vapors, for a range of film thicknesses and trench widths. A platinum (Pt) layer at the base of the trenches avoided the formation of a wetting layer, giving perpendicular orientation at the substrate surface. The results are interpreted using self-consistent field theory simulation and a Ginzburg-Landau analytic model to map the energies of lamellae of different orientations as a function of the grating aspect ratio and the surface energies of the sidewalls and top and bottom surfaces. The model results agree with the experiment and provide a set of guidelines for obtaining perpendicular microdomains within topographic features.

Three-dimensional (3D) structures capable of reversible transformations in their geometrical layouts have important applications across a broad range of areas. Most morphable 3D systems rely on concepts inspired by origami/kirigami or techniques of 3D printing with responsive materials. The development of schemes that can simultaneously apply across a wide range of size scales and with classes of advanced materials found in state-of-the-art microsystem technologies remains challenging. Here, we introduce a set of concepts for morphable 3D mesostructures in diverse materials and fully formed planar devices spanning length scales from micrometers to millimeters. The approaches rely on elastomer platforms deformed in different time sequences to elastically alter the 3D geometries of supported mesostructures via non-linear mechanical buckling. Over 20 examples have been experimentally and theoretically investigated, including mesostructures that can be reshaped between different geometries as well as those that can morph into three or more distinct states. An adaptive radio frequency circuit and a concealable electromagnetic device provide examples of functionally reconfigurable microelectronic devices.

Capabilities for controlled formation of sophisticated 3D micro/nanostructures in advanced materials have foundational implications across a broad range of fields. Recently developed methods use stress release in prestrained elastomeric substrates as a driving force for assembling 3D structures and functional microdevices from 2D precursors. A limitation of this approach is that releasing these structures from their substrate returns them to their original 2D layouts due to the elastic recovery of the constituent materials. Here, a concept in which shape memory polymers serve as a means to achieve freestanding 3D architectures from the same basic approach is introduced, with demonstrated ability to realize lateral dimensions, characteristic feature sizes, and thicknesses as small as ≈500, 10, and 5 µm simultaneously, and the potential to scale to much larger or smaller dimensions. Wireless electronic devices illustrate the capacity to integrate other materials and functional components into these 3D frameworks. Quantitative mechanics modeling and experimental measurements illustrate not only shape fixation but also capabilities that allow for structure recovery and shape programmability, as a form of 4D structural control. These ideas provide opportunities in fields ranging from micro-electromechanical systems and microrobotics, to smart intravascular stents, tissue scaffolds, and many others.

Optical technologies offer important capabilities in both biological research and clinical care. Recent interest is in implantable devices that provide intimate optical coupling to biological tissues for a finite time period and then undergo full bioresorption into benign products, thereby serving as temporary implants for diagnosis and/or therapy. The results presented here establish a silicon-based, bioresorbable photonic platform that relies on thin filaments of monocrystalline silicon encapsulated by polymers as flexible, transient optical waveguides for accurate light delivery and sensing at targeted sites in biological systems. Comprehensive studies of the mechanical and optical properties associated with bending and unfurling the waveguides from wafer-scale sources of materials establish general guidelines in fabrication and design. Monitoring biochemical species such as glucose and tracking physiological parameters such as oxygen saturation using near-infrared spectroscopic methods demonstrate modes of utility in biomedicine. These concepts provide versatile capabilities in biomedical diagnosis, therapy, deep-tissue imaging, and surgery, and suggest a broad range of opportunities for silicon photonics in bioresorbable technologies.

We report the effect of electric field on the morphological transitions and ordering behavior of polyferrocenylethylmethylsilane block (PFEMS)-containing copolymers. By analyzing structures in solventannealed films of metalorganic sphere- and cylinder-forming diblock copolymers, as well as of 3-miktoarmpolyisoprene-arm-polystyrene-arm-PFEMS (3m-ISF) terpolymers, we decouple two types of responses to the electric field: morphological transformations as a result of an increase in the volume fraction of the PFEMS block by oxidation of the ferrocenyl groups, and the orientation of the dielectric interfaces of microdomains parallel to the electric field vector. In the case of 3m-ISF, the former effect dominates at high electric field strengths which results in an unexpected cylinder-to-sphere transition, leading to a well-ordered hexagonaldot pattern. Our results demonstrate multiple tunability of ordered microdomain morphologies, suggesting future applications in nanofabrication and surface patterning.

Recent progress in modelling the solvent vapor annealing of thin film block copolymers is examined in the context of a self-consistent field theory framework. Key control variables in determining the final microdomain morphologies include swelling ratio or swollen film solvent volume fraction, swollen film thickness, substrate and vapor atmosphere surface energies, effective volume fraction, and effective Flory–Huggins interaction parameter. The regime of solvent vapor annealing studied is where the block copolymer has a high enough Flory–Huggins parameter that ordered structures form during swelling and are then trapped in the system through quenching. Both implicit and explicit consideration of the solvent vapor is considered to distinguish the cases in which solvent vapor leads to a non-bulk morphology. Block-selective solvents are considered based on the experimental systems of polystyrene-b-polydimethylsiloxane annealed with toluene and heptane. The results of these simulations are compared with these experiments., National Science Foundation (U.S.) (Award CMMI 1246740), Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Tokyo Electron Limited, Semiconductor Research Corporation

International audience; Thin film morphologies of a 75.5 kg/mol polystyrene-block-polydimethylsiloxane (PS-PDMS) diblock copolymer (SD75) subject to solvent vapor annealing are described. The PS-b-PDMS has a double-gyroid morphology in bulk, but as a thin film the morphology consists of spheres, cylinders, perforated lamellae or gyroids, depending on the film thickness, its commensurability with the microdomain period, and the ratio of toluene:heptane vapors used for the solvent annealing process. The morphologies are described by self-consistent field theory simulations. Thin film structures with excellent long-range order were produced, which are promising for nano patterning applications.

The response of polystyrene-block-poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PS-b-PDMS) thin films to UV exposure during solvent vapor annealing is described, in order to improve their applicability in nanolithography and nanofabrication. Two BCPs were examined, one with the PS block as majority (f PS = 68%, M n = 53 kg mol-1), the other with PDMS block as majority (f PDMS = 67%, M n = 44 kg mol-1). A 5 min UV irradiation was applied during solvent vapor annealing which led to both partial crosslinking of the polymer and a small increase in the temperature of the annealing chamber. This approach was effective for improving the correlation length of the self-assembled microdomain arrays and in limiting subsequent flow of the PDMS in the PDMS-majority BCP to preserve the post-anneal morphology. Ordering and orientation of microdomains were controlled by directed self-assembly of the BCPs in trench substrates. Highly-ordered perpendicular nanochannel arrays were obtained in the PDMS-majority BCP.