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Студија Морфолошке одлике глаголских облика говора Тутина, Новог Пазара и Сјенице представља измењен и допуњен текст докторске дисертације под насловом Глаголски систем говора Тутина, Новог Пазара и Сјенице – облици и употреба, израђене под менторством проф. др Радивоја Младеновића. Докторски рад одбрањен је 5. новембра 2016. године на Филолошко-уметничком факултету Универзитета у Крагујевцу, а комисију су сачињавали: проф. др Софија Милорадовић, проф. др Милош Ковачевић и проф. др Жарко Бошњаковић. Захвалност упућујем ментору, проф. др Радивоју Младеновићу, јер су његова научна компетентност из области дијалектологије, подршка и професионални савети допринели осветљивању и дефинисању мог научног пута. Члановима комисије захваљујем се на пажљивом читању текста дисертације, корисним и конструктивним саветима, чији је значај за настанак ове књиге драгоцен. Захвалност упућујем и академику Слободану Реметићу на значајним и подстицајним коментарима и детаљном читању овога рукописа. The goal of the study is to determine the inventory of morphological categories and means which are included in building verb forms in the speech of Tutin-Novi Pazar-Sjenica. The dialect in question belongs to the northwest region of the Zeta-Sjenica dialect. It is located in Serbia and covers three municipalities – Tutin, Novi Pazar and Sjenica. In the introduction of the paper we shall define the geographic position of the researched area, single out historiographic and ethnographic remarks, that is, facts about the population (origin, confessional belonging and ethnical structure), migration, traditional spirit and material culture. A review of dialect characteristics of the aforementioned speech is given along with the most relevant aspects of each level of the language structure, which enables us to typologically determine the analyzed speech, define its relation towards adjacent idioms, thus determining the micrlayering within the idiom that is the focus of this research. With the aim of determining the degree to which this topic has been researched we present an overview of previous studies in the field of dialectology that have included the speech of Tutin-Novi Pazar-Sjenica and neighboring territories of this part of the Serbian ethnolinguistic space. Introductory remarks about the methodological aspects will include defining the ways of gathering and forming the corpus for the study and the criteria according to which it is analyzed and presented in the paper itself. The central part of the paper consists of a morphological analysis of verbal units. By presenting an overview of the verbal categories we may determine the relation between bases and monitor how they are mixed, that is, the transition of a verb from one category to another, leading to varieties and parallel usages of two or more morphological functions. Following this, verbal forms are analyzed individually. Special attention shall be placed on verbal suffixes, whose distribution is significant for following the evolution and synchronic status of each of the units. Analogical equation within the paradigm, elimination of morphological means driven by the principle of linguistic economy, intersecting suffixes of two or more forms – these are all phenomena which may be detected in the collected material. Throughout the entire analysis the fixed state of the researched environment is compared to the characteristics of other Shtokavian idioms so as to enable areal tracking of the noticed phenomena. In the concluding remarks we extract the most signifi cant conclusions and provide a general picture of the tense system, based on which the speech of the researched region is precisely positioned within a wider dialectal area. The most dominant developmental tendencies are also stated, that is, the path for the possible future evolutionary course from the synchronic perspective. The texts presented at the end of the paper include examples of connected speech, noted in conversation with informers.

O objetivo desta dissertação é aprofundar os nossos conhecimentos sobre a forma como se desenvolveu o pretérito perfeito passivo na transição do latim para o português. Na primeira parte, apresentamos os fundamentos teóricos e metodológicos do projeto de investigação, salientando alguns dados sobre o funcionamento do verbo em latim, nos sistemas do infectum e do perfectum, e caraterizando as formas e os valores que estão associados ao paradigma acima identificado. Na segunda parte, apresentamos o corpus epigráfico e procedemos à análise dos dados linguísticos, sob os pontos de vista scriptográfico, sintático e semântico, formulando uma hipótese que tenta explicar a coexistência de duas formas para uma só categoria verbal: (1) PPV + AUX est (= perífrases-E); (2) PPV + AUX fuit (= perífrases-F). Na terceira parte, discutimos as conclusões extraídas da análise dos dados integrados no corpus para efeitos de caraterização do funcionamento da língua, no contexto histórico que precede o aparecimento do português como língua escrita. Entre outras conclusões relevantes, o estudo do problema linguístico permitiu constatar que: 1) Em latim, havia duas construções verbais com a mesma função gramatical. Esta coexistência resultou de ambiguidades de interpretação relacionadas com os valores de tempo e aspeto; 2) As construções (1) e (2) entraram em competição para efeitos de marcação da categoria verbal. Nesta competição, uma das formas (1) desapareceu e outra (2) manteve a sua função original; 3) A hipótese que explica este processo relaciona-se com a noção de inferência semântica. Nesta hipótese, o critério da transparência linguística depende de uma relação de convergência entre estrutura verbal e significado verbal; 4) O corpus epigráfico ajuda a esclarecer estes fenómenos e alarga os dados cuja análise permite explicar este problema linguístico. The scope of this dissertation is to deepen our knowledge on the development of the passive perfect in the transition from Latin to Portuguese. In the first part, we present the theoretical and methodological backgrounds of the research project, highlighting some data on the functioning of the Latin verb, in the infectum and perfectum systems, and characterizing the forms and values related to the above mentioned paradigm. In the second part, we present the epigraphic corpus and proceed with the analysis of the linguistic data, from a scriptographic, syntactic and semantic point of view, testing the hypothesis that tries to explain the coexistence of two forms for one verbal category: (1) PPV + AUX est (= E-periphrases); (2) PPV + AUX fuit (= F-periphrases). In the third part, we discuss the conclusions drawn from the analysis of the data incorporated in the corpus, in order to characterize the functioning of the language in the historical context that precedes the emergence of Portuguese as a written language. Among other relevant conclusions, the consideration of the linguistic problem showed that: 1) In Latin, there were two verbal constructions with the same grammatical function. This coexistence resulted from ambiguities of interpretation related to tense and aspect values; 2) Both constructions entered into competition for marking the verbal category. In this competition, one form (1) disappeared and the other (2) kept its original function; 3) The hypothesis that explains this process relates to the notion of semantic inference. In this hypothesis, the criterion of linguistic transparency depends on the convergence between verbal structure and verbal meaning; 4) The epigraphic corpus helps to clarify these phenomena and expands the data that explain this linguistic problem.

This paper provides a dynamic (i.e. cognitive, typological and grammaticalization driven) analysis of short yiqtol in Biblical Hebrew. The author argues that short yiqtol can be understood as a coherent construction if it is modeled as a wave – a synchronic two-dimensional map whose components are related cognitively (as visualized by the x axis) and specified for their degree of prototypicality (as visualized by the y axis). The evidence demonstrates that short yiqtol should be classified as a gram that travels a modal-contamination path. Its contamination originated in a deontic context of speaker modality (both affirmative and negative), subsequently extended to subordinate uses (goal) and future values (first in apodoses and next in other syntactic environments). In Biblical Hebrew, the zone of prototypicality includes deontic senses. The value of goal constitutes the secondary peak of prototypicality. The sense of futurity is non-prototypical.En el presente artículo, el autor ofrece un análisis dinámico (cognitivo, tipológico y de gramaticalización) del yiqtol corto en hebreo bíblico. El gram, con toda su variedad de valores, se puede presentar como un fenómeno coherente por medio de una onda (un mapa sincrónico bidimensional cuyos valores están relacionados cognitivamente) con zonas de mayor o menor prototipicalidad y, por eso, semantización. El yiqtol corto se define como un gram de camino modal por contaminación, contaminado en el contexto deóntico de hablante (afirmativo y negativo), extendido después a usos subordinados de finalidad y, a continuación, empleado como futuro (primero apodótico y luego independiente). La zona de prototipicalidad corresponde a usos deónticos. El valor de finalidad constituye el pico de prototipicalidad secundario, mientras que el significado de futuro es minoritario.

Conditionality and concessivity are two linguistic categories that are closely related. So far, they have hardly been studied in Judeo-Spanish. This article helps closing this research gap. As its main objective, the paper offers a synthesis of the linguistic mechanisms of conditional and concessive expression in Sephardic texts from 1880 to 1930. The considered linguistic mechanisms do not only include syntactic aspects but also semantic, pragmatic and contextual ones. Next to the prototypical conditional and concessive clauses, two further, peripheral categories will be presented: the pseudo-conditionals and the concessive conditionals. For the history of Judeo-Spanish, the mentioned decades are characterized by processes of expanding and modernizing the language. This development is primarily influenced by the contact with French and Italian and can not only be observed in the lexicon but also in syntactic structures such as the conditional and concessive clauses.La condicionalidad y la concesividad constituyen dos categorías lingüísticas estrechamente relacionadas, que hasta el momento apenas se han estudiado en judeoespañol. A esta laguna desea contribuir el presente trabajo, cuyo objetivo principal es ofrecer una síntesis acerca de los mecanismos de expresión condicional y concesiva en textos sefardíes de los años 1880 a 1930. El estudio toma en consideración tanto aspectos sintáctico-formales como semántico-pragmáticos y contextuales. Aparte de las oraciones condicionales y concesivas prototípicas, asimismo se presentan dos categorías periféricas: las oraciones pseudocondicionales y las condicionales concesivas. Para la historia del judeoespañol, las décadas señaladas se caracterizan por profundos procesos de elaboración lingüística con el fin de ampliar y modernizar la lengua. Dicha elaboración ante todo se nutrió de los contactos con el francés y el italiano y, aunque donde más se hace notar es en el léxico, también halla su reflejo en la sintaxis, así por ejemplo, en las construcciones condicionales y concesivas.

Овај рад представља измењени текст докторске дисертације под на- словом Глаголски систем говорa Тутина, Новог Пазара и Сјенице – облици и употреба, израђене под менторством проф. др Радивоја Младеновића, а одбрањене 5. новембра 2016. године на Филолошко-уметничком факултету Универзитета у Крагујевцу, пред комисијом коју су сачињавали професори: проф. др Софија Милорадовић, проф. др Милош Ковачевић, проф. др Жар ко Бошњаковић. Члановима комисије се овом приликом захваљујем на пажљивом читању рукописа и корисним сугестијама, а ментору на саветима, драгоценим смерницама и вишегодишњој несебичној подршци у целокупном научном раду. Захваљујем и рецензентима академику Слободану Ре метићу и проф. Радивоју Младеновићу, чији су савети и коментари допринели да овај рукопис буде бољи. In this work we analyze the verbal system of the speech of Tutin, Novi Pazar and Sjenica from the syntactic perspective. The detailed and complete description of the verbal forms which function in this idiom in the Serbian dialectology has not been given yet. Except for the study of Danilo Barjaktarević Sjenica-Novi Pazar speeches (Barjaktarević 1966), in which, besides the descriptions of the other linguistic levels, the main notes on the forms and principles of their usage are mentioned, there has not been a more important and ampler research done on the dialectal material of this speech. Our goal is, therefore, to depict the syntacticsemantic conditions of the usage of every individual unit, especially in their primary and secondary functions, and to thus analyze the eff ects which are caused on the narrative level when they appear together, while entering the network of complex relations. The material for this work consists of the dialectal matter from the territory of Tutin, Novi Pazar and Sjenica, gathered during an interview conducted on the informers who are autochthonous dialectal speakers. The topics for conversation were various, mostly quite familiar to the interlocutors: the conversation about what life used to be in comparison to what it is like now, about customs, beliefs, the holidays of the annual and life cycle, about the work on the fi eld, and in the house, about the crafts and so on. All of that made it possible for the texts to be various as far as the structural aspects are concerned (narrative discourse, procedural texts, dialogues and so on), and in that way to satisfy the need for the even presence of all the forms and their functions, so as to select the suffi cient number of confi rmations which support the theoretical background.

For Old Russian past tense forms (aorist, perfect, pluperfect, imperfect, periphrastic form with načati and periphrastic tense formed with present participle) which occur in the Old Russian translation of the Life of St Andrew the Fool their equivalents with the tenses in the Greek original are analyzed, the numbers of these types of equivalents are counted.

First we present the theorical frames of our research and how we have modified the system created by Reichebach (1947). Then we specify the model we propose to describe the tenses of the indicative French verbal system. At the end we discuss four issues that can be found in our model: the nature of the R parameter, the aspect of past participle, the relationship between simple tenses, compound tenses and periphrastic forms and the transition from the meaning in language to the various usages in speech., Après avoir présenté les cadres de notre recherche et le retravail que nous faisons de la modélisation de Reichenbach (1947), nous décrivons le système des temps de l’indicatif que nous proposons. Nous revenons pour finir sur quatre éléments de notre description : la nature du paramètre R, l’aspect du participe passé, le rapport formes synthétiques / formes analytiques et périphrastiques, le passage de la valeur en langue aux effets de sens en discours.

The augment in Homeric past tenses is an optional feature. In this thesis, I study the coexistence of augmented and unaugmented verbs in Homer, offering an overview and a discussion of the literature on the topic, and suggest a new approach to the phenomenon from a syntactic and textual perspective. The aim of this work is to describe, on a synchronic level, some of the distributional tendencies of the augment and to explore if these tendencies are related to its diachronic reconstruction as a temporal marker. Having first considered the phenomenon within a Comparative Philology framework, I then highlight the distribution of augmented and unaugmented verbs in Homer through a detailed investigation of scholarship on this matter. I then give an account of the different opinions on the reconstruction of the original function and morphology of the augment, also underlining how Homeric data can contribute to this general debate. The comparison and discussion of the various proposals suggest that the more reliable theory is the reconstruction of the augment as a temporal marker. In the second part of the thesis, I present a personal analysis of a corpus of four books from the Iliad. The textual analysis of the data shows that the presence or absence of the augment is often related to narrative effects or strategies. Syntactic analysis, carried out within a Generative Grammar framework, then explores whether augmented and unaugmented verbs have different syntactic behaviour. Results from this investigation illustrate that the syntactic distribution of augmented and unaugmented verbs constistently match with certain narrative effects. In the conclusion, having presented the time related information given by tenses as a complex structure, I try to discuss how the augment in Homer can be considered a temporal marker and I explore whether tendencies which have emerged from my analysis can be related to this interpretation.

For the Arab grammarians, the form VII infa‘ala, allways intransitive, normallycorrelates (muṭāwi‘) with the transitive Form I fa‘ala-hu and exceptionally with thetransitive form IV ’af‘ala-hu (e.g. inġalaqa to be bolted, from ’aġlaqa to bolt). Thisphenomenon, which I call “semantic surderivation” is neither exceptional nor limitedto the form VII. It can result from a paradigmatic gap or be “forced” by the syntax.Historically, “semantic surderivation” can be the trace of an evolution of the verbalsystem. But sociolinguistically, it can also result from the contact between Classicaland non-Classical varieties of Arabic., Pour les grammairiens arabes, la forme VII infa‘ala intransitive est normalement lecorrélat résultatif (muṭāwi‘) de la forme I transitive et exceptionnellement de la forme IV’af‘ala (e.g. ’aġlaqa «fermer» / inġalaqa «se fermer, être fermé»). Ce phénomène,que nous appelons «surdérivation sémantique», n’est ni exceptionnel, ni limité à laforme VII. Il peut résulter d’une lacune paradigmatique ou être «forcé» par la syntaxe.Historiquement, la «surdérivation sémantique» peut être la trace en synchronie d’uneévolution du système verbal en diachronie. Mais, sociolinguistiquement, elle peut aussirésulter de la situation de contact entre variétés classique et non-classiques de l’arabe.

U radu se sa morfološkog i sintaksičkog stanovišta analizira glagolski sistem govora Tutina, Novog Pazara i Sjenice. Detaljan i potpun opis glagolskih oblika koji funkcionišu u ovome idiomu u srpskoj dijalektologiji do sada nije dat. Osim studije Danila Barjaktarevića Novopazarsko-sjenički govori (Barjaktarević 1966), u kojoj se, pored opisa ostalih jezičkih nivoa, navode i osnovne napomene o oblicima i principima njihove upotrebe, značajnijih i obimnijih istraživanja vršenih na dijalekatskom materijalu ovoga govora nije bilo. Naš cilj je, stoga, da damo potpuni opis glagolskog sistema, sa izdvajanjem glagolskih vrsta, utvrđivanjem odnosa osnova glagola, inventara nastavaka u pojedinim oblicima, potom da opišemo sintaksičko-semantičke uslove upotrebe svake jedinice pojedinačno, i to u njihovim osnovnim i sekundarnim službama, te analiziramo efekte koji se na narativnom planu proizvode onda kada se one javljaju združeno, ulazeći u mrežu složenih relacija. Materijal za rad čini dijalekatska građa sa terena Tutina, Novog Pazara i Sjenice, prikupljena putem intervjua sa informatorima koji su autohtoni dijalekatski govornici. Teme za razgovor bile su različite, uglavnom bliske sagovornicima: razgovori o životu nekada u poređenju sa onime kako je sada, običajima, verovanjima, praznicima godišnjeg i životnog ciklusa, o radovima na polju, u kući, o zanatima i sl. Sve to omogućilo je da tekstovi sa strukturne strane budu raznoliki (narativni diskurs, proceduralni tekstovi, dijalozi i sl.), te tako zadovolje potrebu za ravnomernom zastupljenošću svih oblika i njihovih funkcija, kako bi se selektovao dovoljan broj potvrda kojima se potkrepljuju teorijska stanovišta. Cilj morfološke analize jeste ispitivanje stanja prisutnog u kategoriji glagolskih osnova i vrsta, pri čemu se utvrđuju složeni odnosi koji se prevashodno tiču pojave ukrštanja oblika u ovom domenu. U svakoj od vrsta izdvajaju se glagoli koji čuvaju nasleđeno stanje, imaju jedan niz oblika i ne pokazuju tendenciju ka približavanju nekom drugom konjugacijskom tipu. S druge strane, pokazalo se da nemali broj glagola jedne svoje oblike stvara po jednoj a neke po drugoj glagolskoj vrsti, a kod pojedinih takva ukrštanja mogu biti i višestruka, te često na upotrebnom planu figuriraju paralelni nizovi glagolskih oblika. Utvrđeno je da prisustvo varijantnosti može biti uzrokovano faktorima fonetske, morfološke ili semantičke prirode, a u podlozi svake od promena stoji težnja narodnog govora ka neprestanom menjanju, koja je suštinska odlika idioma koji poseduju prirodnu samoregulativu. Prelazak glagola iz jedne u drugu glagolsku vrstu ukazuje na tendenciju koja vodi ka izjednačavanju razlika među pojedinim članovima sistema, a dalje i ka smanjenju deklinacionih obrazaca, što je posledica jezičke ekonomije. Pojava varijantnosti beležena je u svim vrstama, a najzastupljenije je ukrštanje sa glagolima III vrste, što ukazuje na ekspanzivnost ovog konjugacionog obrasca. Uvid u inventar morfoloških kategorija (glagolski oblici) i sredstava koja u njihovom građenju učestvuju (glagolski nastavci) omogućava sagledanje stanja koje se tiče (ne)stabilnosti pozicije svakog od njih. Posebna pažnja posvećuje se oblicima koji u pojedinim srpskim govorima izostaju: aorist, imperfekat, pluskvamperfekat, infinitiv. Definisanjem inventara nastavaka određuje se status glagolskog oblika u sistemu, posebno ako se ima u vidu da znatnija varijantnost u izboru nastavaka može značiti njegovu nestabilnu poziciju u datom govoru. Pokazalo se da se kod pojedinih oblika uočava preoblikovanje nasleđenog stanja koje se ogleda u eliminaciji jezičkih sredstava sa službom iskazivanja iste gramatičke informacije – postojanje dvaju nastavaka u istom gramatičkom licu ukida se najčešće svođenjem na jedan, i to obično onaj koji ima najveći broj glagola. Pojava prodora nastavaka rezervisanih za građenje jednog oblika u paradigmu drugog u našem materijalu nije često beležena, što upućuje na zaključak da svaka od fiksiranih jedinica ima stabilno mesto u sistemu i jasno utvrđene granice prema drugim oblicima. Slučajevi koji postojanje takvog procesa ipak potvrđuju jasno ukazuju na to da uzroke treba tražiti prevashodno na semantičkom, a potom i na morfološkom i fonetsko-fonološkom planu. Od značaja za praćenje stanja u sistemu jeste uticaj značenjskih faktora, imajući u vidu da je tada posredi semantičko približavanje dvaju oblika, i to najčešće onih koji imaju funkciju kazivanja sličnih sadržaja. To je, na primer, slučaj sa aoristom i imperfektom, gde je prodor nastavaka jednog oblika u paradigmu drugog indikator slabljenja značenjske razlike među njima, a to znači i narušene sistemske pozicije, te eventualnog začetka procesa eliminacije jedne od formi iz sistema. Cilj analize sa stanovišta sintakse jeste da se da što potpuniji opis upotrebne vrednosti svakog od pojedinačnih glagolskih oblika. Glagolski oblici analiziraju se kao samostalne jedinice, pri čemu se utvrđuje inventar sintaksičko-semantičkih odlika, a potom se, imajući u vidu da se u komunikativnom činu uvek javljaju udruženi, sagledaju i u složenoj mreži međusobnih odnosa. Uvid u materijal pokazao je da odabir oblika, ali i to koji će se segment semantičkog potencijala pokazati kao relevantan u konkretnom govornom aktu u prvom redu zavisi od tipa teksta. Tako se sintaksičko-semantička svojstva oblika definišu s obzirom na njihovu upotrebu u svakodnevnoj komunikaciji, ali i onda kada nastupaju u službi oblikovanja širih narativnih struktura. U ovom drugom slučaju pokazalo se da različiti tipovi tekstova zahtevaju i različitu organizaciju jezičkih sredstava, te se tako inventar i sintaksičko-semantičke osobine oblika razlikuju u saopštenjima koja se odlikuju neutralnim, emotivno neangažovanim tonom pripovedanja od onih sa naglašenom evokativnošću, emotivno intoniranima. Takođe, inventar glagolskih formi koje su na raspolaganju onda kada je posredi pripovedanje o dejstvima koja spadaju u domen ličnog iskustva informatora razlikuje se od onoga gde se saopštavaju nedoživljene radnje i sl. Među najznačajnije karakteristike ispitivanog areala svakako ubrajamo složeni sistem preteritalnih vremena. U glagolske oblike kojima se u ovim govorima saopštavaju prošle radnje, osim jedinica kojima je osnovna služba temporalna (perfekat, imperfekat, aorist, pluskvamperfekat), uvršćuju se i vremenski transponovani oblici (prezent, potencijal, imperativ), te glagolske konstrukcije sa specijalizovanom funkcijom (šćaše + infinitiv, bilo + infinitiv, bi + imperativ). Svi navedeni oblici s jedne strane poseduju sopstvene sintaksičko-semantičke karakteristike, ali se, s druge strane, u nekim segmentima polje njihove upotrebe poklapa sa nekom od službi ostalih oblika, te je izbor jednog od njih uslovljen različitim faktorima. U većem delu srpske jezičke teritorije četvoročlani sistem preterita uprošćava se svođenjem uglavnom na jedno, univerzalno vreme za kazivanje prošlih radnji – perfekat. Pokazalo se da govor Tutina, Novog Pazara i Sjenice spada u red idioma u kojima ova tendencija nije u većoj meri uznapredovala. Dobro čuvanje imperfekta i aorista predstavlja bitnu strukturnu karakteristiku pomenute zone. Njihovo mesto u četvoročlanom sistemu prošlih vremena stabilno je, a na planu upotrebe oba vremena odlikuju se širokim dijapazonom funkcija. U odnosu na druga vremena kojima se mogu kazivati prošle radnje, aorist i imperfekat (kao oblici sa jasno izraženom semantičkom komponentom doživljenosti) imaju potpunu prednost u pripovedanju prošlih dejstava iz domena doživljaja govornog lica. Analiza glagolskih oblika utemeljena je najvećim delom na teoriji V. Rajhenbaha, koja u obzir uzima kriterijume indikativ : relativ i referencijalnost : nereferencijalnost. U radu se ispituje i pojava mikroraslojenosti. Prisustvo jezičkih osobina koje upućuju na unutrašnju diferenciranost potvrđeno je, a uslovljeno je u najvećoj meri teritorijalnim položajem analiziranog govora. Tokom čitave analize vršeno je i poređenje stanja zatečenog u ispitivanom idiomu sa situacijom koja karakteriše okolne govore. Doprinos srpskoj dijalektologiji ogleda se u tome što se ovim istraživanjem daje potpuni opis glagolskog sistema ispitivanog područja sa savremenog stanovišta, te uočavaju dominantne razvojne tendencije, odnosno putevi eventualnog budućeg evolutivnog toka sa stanovišta sinhrone perspektive. U analizi se koriste teorijska polazišta modernih teorija, koje uglavnom nisu nalazile širu primenu u analizi dijalekatske građe. In this work we analyze the verbal system of the speech of Tutin, Novi Pazar and Sjenica from the morphological and syntactic perspective. The detailed and complete description of the verbal forms which function in this idiom in the Serbian dialectology has not been given yet. Except for the study of Danilo Barjaktarević Sjenica-Novi Pazar speeches (Barjaktarević 1966), in which, besides the descriptions of the other linguistic levels, the main notes on the forms and principles of their usage are mentioned, there has not been a more important and ampler research done on the dialectal material of this speech. Our goal is, therefore, to offer a complete description of the verbal system, along with extracting the verbal types, determining the relation between the stem of verbs, identifying the inventory of the endings in some particular forms, to depict then the syntactic-semantic conditions of the usage of every individual unit, especially in their primary and secondary functions, and to thus analyze the effects which are caused on the narrative level when they appear together, while entering the network of complex relations. The material for this work consists of the dialectal matter from the territory of Tutin, Novi Pazar and Sjenica, gathered during an interview conducted on the informers who are autochthonous dialectal speakers. The topics for conversation were various, mostly quite familiar to the interlocutors: the conversation about what life used to be in comparison to what it is like now, about customs, beliefs, the holidays of the annual and life cycle, about the work on the field, and in the house, about the crafts and so on. All of that made it possible for the texts to be various as far as the structural aspects are concerned (narrative discourse, procedural texts, dialogues and so on), and in that way to satisfy the need for the even presence of all the forms and their functions, so as to select the sufficient number of confirmations which support the theoretical background. The goal of the morphological analysis is to examine the state present in the category of verbal stems and types, during which we determine the complex relations which primarily deal with the appearance of intertwining of the forms from this domain. In every type, there are verbs which preserve the state they have inherited, have one series of forms and do not show tendency to approach any other conjugational type. On the other hand, it appears that a number of verbs generate one type of their forms according to one verbal type and the others according to another one, whereas in the case of some verbs those instances of intertwining can be multiple and that is why the parallel series of verbal forms often act on the usage level. It has been determined that the presence of varieties can be caused by the factors of phonetic, morphemic and semantic nature, and at the heart of every change there is a striving of the popular speech towards constant change, which is the core feature of the idiom that possesses its own natural regulation. The transition of a verb from one verbal type to another points out the tendency which leads to the equating of the differences between some of the members of the system as well as towards the reduction of the declinational patterns, which is the consequence of linguistic economy. The appearance of varieties has been noted in all types, and the intertwining with the verbs of the third type has been most common, which shows the expansiveness of this conjugational pattern. The insight into the inventory of the morphological categories (verbal forms) and of the devices which participate in its creation (verbal endings) enables the acknowledgement of the state which deals with the (in)stability of the position of all of them. Special attention is dedicated to the forms which are missing in some of the Serbian speeches: „aoristˮ (aorist), „imperfekatˮ, „pluskvamperfekatˮ, the infinitive. By defining the inventory of the endings the status of the verbal form is determined in the system, especially if we bear in mind that the greater variety in the selection of the endings can imply its unstable position in the given speech. It has been shown that a reshaping of the inherited state is detected in the case of some forms, which is reflected in the elimination of the linguistic devices which perform the function of expressing the same grammatical information – in that way the existence of two endings in the same grammatical person is typically canceled by deriving it into one, and it is usually into the one which the majority of verbs have. The appearance of the breakthrough of the endings reserved for the creation of one form into the paradigm of another one in our material has not been noted often, which points out the conclusion that each of the fixed units has a stable position in the system and the clearly determined limits to the other forms. The cases which, nonetheless, confirm the existence of such a process clearly point out that the reasons are first to be searched for on the semantic level and then on the morphological and phonetic-phonological ones as well. What is of importance to the supervision of the state in the system is the influence of the meaning factors, bearing in mind that it is then a matter of the semantic approaching of two forms, and that is usually of the ones which perform the function of expressing similar contents. That is, for instance, the case with „aoristˮ and „imperfekatˮ, where the breakthrough of the endings of one form into the paradigm of another one indicates the weakening of the meaning difference between them, which also means the impairment of the position in the system, and, as a result, the possible beginning of the elimination process of one of the forms from the system. The goal of the analysis from the syntactic perspective is to give the most complete description possible regarding the usage value of every individual verbal form. The verbal forms are analyzed as independent units, during which the inventory of the syntactic-semantic qualities is determined, and then, bearing in mind that they always appear united in the communicative act, they are examined in the complex network of mutual relations. The insight into the material has shown that the choice of the forms as well as the question of which segment of the semantic potential will show itself as relevant in the actual speech act firstly depend on the type of the text. That is how the syntactic-semantic qualities of the forms are defined with regard to their usage in everyday communication, but also when they perform the function of shaping wider narrative structures. In the latter case, it has been shown that different types of texts also demand different organization of linguistic devices, and that is why the inventory and the syntactic-semantic qualities of the forms differ in the reports characterized by a neutral, emotionally unemployed narrative tone from those with the stressed evocativeness, emotionally intonated. Also, the inventory of the verbal forms which are at disposal when focusing on the narration about the effects which fall under the domain of the personal experience of the informer differ from the one in which the inexperienced actions are reported on and so on. Among the most significant characteristics of the researched spread we naturally include the complex system of the past tenses. The verbal forms which in these speeches report on the past actions, besides the units whose main function is temporal („perfekatˮ, „imperfekatˮ, „aoristˮ, „pluskvamperfekatˮ), also include the temporally transposable forms („prezentˮ, „potencijalˮ, „imperativˮ (the imperative)), and thus the verbal constructions with specialized function (шћаше + infinitive, било +infinitive, би + imperative). On the one hand, all the mentioned forms possess their own syntactic-semantic characteristics, but, on the other hand, the field of their usage in some segments coincides with some of the functions of the other forms, so the selection of one of them is determined by different factors. On the biggest part of the Serbian linguistic territory, the four-member system of the past tenses is usually simplified by the reduction to one, universal tense for the narration of the past events – „perfekatˮ. It has been shown that the speech of Tutin, Novi Pazar, and Sjenica falls under the category of the idioms in which this tendency has not particularly advanced. The good preservation of „perfekatˮ and „aoristˮ represents an important structural characteristic of the mentioned zone. Their place in the four-member system of the past tenses is stable, and on the usage level both tenses of these are characterized by a wide range of functions. As opposed to the other tenses which can recount the past actions, „aoristˮ and „imperfekatˮ (as forms with a clearly expressed semantic component of experience) are in total advance of them regarding the narration of the past effects from the domain of the speakerʼs experience. The analysis of the verbal forms is primarily grounded on the theory of V. Reichenbach which takes into account the criteria indicative : relative and referentiality : non-referentiality. This work also studies the occurrence of disintegration at the micro level. The presence of the linguistic features which indicate the inner differentiation has been confirmed, and it has been conditioned primarily by the territorial position of the analyzed speech. During the whole analysis we have also compared the state we found in the researched idiom to the situation which characterizes the nearby speeches. The contribution to the Serbian dialectology is reflected in the fact that this research gives a complete description of the verbal system of the researched area from a contemporary perspective, detecting thus the dominant developmental tendencies, that is, the paths of the possible evolutional stream in the future from a synchronous point of view. In the analysis we use the theoretical starting points of modern theories, which chiefly have not been widely applied in the analysis of dialectal matter.

The present paper provides a detailed description of the semantic potential offered by the si-construction in Basse Mandinka (a regional variety of the Gambian Mandinka language), by enumerating all temporal, aspectual, taxis and modal values which this verbal form may convey. The study demonstrates that the si-construction offers a wide range of senses. Most commonly, the construction introduces the idea of futurity, regularly accompanied by modal tones of necessity and obligation. More specifically, in the first person, it expresses desires and promises, obligation and necessity, as well as, permission and deliberation; in the second person, it functions as an imperative; and in the third person, it approximates the category of a jussive. The si-construction also introduces modal ideas of obligation and necessity situated in a past time frame, being additionally able to function as a future in the past category. The si-construction can likewise convey the sense of epistemic possibility with no evident future undertones. Finally, it can denote present habitual and customary activities. A profoundly modal nature of the si-construction additionally justifies its common use with the verb noo "be able, can". In such cases, it introduces various modal nuances, typically bereaved of any future sense.Keywords: African linguistics; Mande family; Mandinka; verbal system; lexical semantics

The occurrence of the verb faced, which is now attested on a Faliscan krater, has major implications for the analysis of the forms built on the root *dheH1-k- in the Italic languages. Present tense forms of that root are characterized by a zero root grade and a suffix *-yo-, while the perfect is a formation with zero root grade and reduplication (*fe-fak-). Faliscan faced and its correspondants in Sabellic languages can be best explained as “dereduplicated” perfects, as opposed to the “aoristic” Latin perfect feci. The fact that faced is the perfect of the verb “make” in Faliscan also shows that Faliscan fifiked and fifiqod cannot belong to that root. This is an additional piece of evidence against the existence of a perfect with reduplication and a long root vowel (the *fe-fēk-) in the Italic languages., La aparición de la forma faced en una cratera falisca tiene importantes implicaciones para el análisis de las formaciones de la raíz *dheH1-k- en las lenguas itálicas. Las formas de presente pueden explicarse a partir de un tema con grado radical cero y sufijo *-yo-, mientras que para el perfecto se utilizan formaciones con reduplicación y grado cero (*fe-fak-). Falisco faced, al igual que sus correspondientes en lenguas sabélicas, puede explicarse como un perfecto con pérdida de la reduplicación, mientras que latín feci sería el único testimonio de un perfecto “aorístico”. La constatación de que faced es un perfecto del verbo “hacer” en falisco obliga, además, a descartar la derivación a partir de esa misma raíz de las formas fifiked y fifiqod, lo que supone un argumento más en contra de la existencia de un perfecto reduplicado con vocal radical larga para esta raíz (tipo *fe-fēk-) en las lenguas itálicas.

The we-qatal syntagm has been regarded as one of the salient syntactical features that distinguish Biblical Hebrew from the rest of the North-West Semitic dialects. There seems to be few parallel constructions in other ancient Semitic languages. The common denominator of the studies so far is that we-qatal is a verbal grammatical morpheme of its own, a verbal conjugation that is to be distinguished from the Vsuff gram. Publisher: Hartmut SpennerAntiquariat & VerlagHerbert-Wehner-Str. 259174 KamenTel. 02307-261 1973Fax 02307-261 1974hartmutspenner@t-online.dewww.hartmutspenner.de Clause combining and the Biblical Hebrew verbal system: A monograph project (Swedish Research Council 2016, dnr 2015-01168)

Existen en Panamá dos grupos culturales distintos que hablan "bocotá": uno considerado propiamente bocotá, con asentamientos en Bocas del Toro y norte de Veraguas y cuya habla es denomida "buguta", y otro cuyos asentamientos se encuentran en el sur de Veraguas y en Chiriquí (Margery, 1988:1)y y cuya habla es denominada "buglere". Este segundo grupo ha estado sometido a la influencia de los indios guymíes también en Panamá y a él pertenece nuestro informante señor Francisco Rodríguez Atencio, nacido en la provincia de CHhriquí, y residente en Coto Brus, Costa Rica, desde 1978. Existen en Panamá dos grupos culturales distintos que hablan "bocotá": uno considerado propiamente bocotá, con asentamientos en Bocas del Toro y norte de Veraguas y cuya habla es denomida "buguta", y otro cuyos asentamientos se encuentran en el sur de Veraguas y en Chiriquí (Margery, 1988:1)y y cuya habla es denominada "buglere". Este segundo grupo ha estado sometido a la influencia de los indios guymíes también en Panamá y a él pertenece nuestro informante señor Francisco Rodríguez Atencio, nacido en la provincia de CHhriquí, y residente en Coto Brus, Costa Rica, desde 1978.

La tesi intende indagare l'impiego del verbo in alcuni trattati matematici scritti nei primi secoli dell'Ellenismo ed evidenziare l'evoluzione del sistema verbale in un genere letterario

Having closely examined the history of Malay and Sanskrit, we have not only shed new light on Malay’s drawing on Sanskrit but we have also observed that words borrowed from Sanskrit have been phonologically modified. Furthermore Malay still uses Sanskrit prefixes to generate new words. We propose that Malay be attached to the ‘Indo-Malaysian’ language branch. We have analyzed canonical sentence structures and have also compared the verbal system of French and Malay. Malay is a highly agglutinative language whilst for French verbs this phenomenon is very rare. We have observed for example that the indirect object is introduced by a preposition in French whilst prepositions are absent in Malay; that the Malay verb “ada” can represent certain meanings of ‘be and have’ in French (être and avoir); that transitive and aspectual structures are not the same in the two languages, etc. We have developed a formal representation which enables comparing the French and Malay languages systems, this being inspired by S. Cardey’s micro-systemic approach which has also enabled creating other verbal microsystems. In doing so, we have clarified the similarities and differences concerning French and Malay structures and verbal systems., En parcourant l’histoire des deux langues malaise et sanscrite, nous avons non seulement mis encore plus en lumière que le malais puise dans la langue sanscrite mais également remarqué que les mots sanscrits empruntés ont subi des modifications au niveau phonologique. Par ailleurs, le préfixe sanscrit est toujours utilisé pour créer de nouveaux mots. Nous avons proposé que le malais soit alors rattaché à la branche « Indo-malaisienne ». Nous mettons en évidence dans ce travail des structures phrastiques canoniques d’une part du malais et d’autre part nous comparons les systèmes verbaux du français et du malais. Le malais présente un degré d’agglutination élevé alors que pour le français le phénomène est très rare. Nous voyons par exemple aussi qu’en français le complément indirect est introduit par une préposition alors que le malais omet la préposition, que le verbe « ada » en malais exprime certains sens des verbes « être et avoir », que les structures de transitivité du verbe et les structures aspectuelles ne sont pas identiques dans les deux langues, etc. Nous avons mis en place un formalisme qui permet de comparer les deux systèmes en nous inspirant des microsystèmes établis par S. Cardey et pour créer d’autres microsystèmes verbaux. Nous voyons ainsi mieux les convergences et divergences au niveau des structures et des systèmes verbaux du français et du malais.

El propósito del presente artículo consiste en determinar las formas, los modos y los tiempos verbales que constituyen el cuento "¡Diles que no me maten!", a fin de identificar el sistema verbal al que recurre Rulfo en esta obra. A lo largo de este cuento, observamos las tres formas no finitas (infinitivos, participios y gerundios), los tiempos verbales del modo indicativo (presente, pretérito, copretérito, futuro y pospretérito), dos de los tres tiempos del modo subjuntivo (presente y pretérito) así como el modo imperativo. De las formas verbales antes aludidas, Rulfo utiliza mayormente los infinitivos que, aunados con complementos típicos del verbo, conforman sintagmas que se encargan de desempeñar diferentes funciones sintácticas a lo largo del texto. Entre otras formas verbales recurrentes en la obra, encontramos las formas de pretérito y copretérito de indicativo, así como participios que forman la diversidad de tiempos compuestos. The purpose of this article is to discover the forms, moods and tenses used to construct the short story "¡Diles que no me maten!" in order to identify the verb system used by Rulfo in this text. Throughout the short story, the three non-finite forms (infinitive, participle and gerund), indicative tenses (present, perfective past, imperfective past, conditional and future), two subjunctive tenses (present and past), and finally the imperative tense are distinguished. Among the above mentioned verb forms, Rulfo uses mostly the infinitive with typical verbal complements in order to constitute syntagms displaying different syntactic functions throughout the text. Among other recurring verb forms in the story, both the past tense of the indicative mood and the past participle forming different compound tenses are found.

The difficulty of the French subjunctive mood’s learning and use for Arabic adult learners led us in our research to offer a new learning methodology based on GOSSELIN’s theory of Tense and Aspect.This theory explains the temporal relationship between the reference interval of the verb used in subjunctive and the enunciation interval in a independent clause, and the temporal relationship between the reference interval of the subordinate clause’s verb used in subjunctive and the reference interval of the verb used in the main clause in a compound sentence. This way to explain the temporal relationship makes the understanding of the subjunctive use in an independent or subordinate clause easier. This method also explains the mood’s choice in a subordinate clause as well as the mood’s alternation in the same structure.This new methodology is based on a comparative study between the French verbal systems and the Arabic one. It is also based one a comparative study between the French subjunctive mood and the Arabic one. These studies have allowed us to formulate two hypotheses reasons of the difficulties that Arabic adult’s learners face while learning the subjunctive mood: the generalization of rules and the mother tongue’s interference (Arabic). In order to confirm our hypotheses we proposed two questionnaires. The first one addressed to an Arabic (Syrian) audience with an advanced French level. The second one addressed to an Arabic (Syrian) audience with an intermediate French level. The results confirmed positively our hypotheses. We also led a critical study about the subjunctive mood from some FLE manuals and a grammatical FLE method taught at Damascus University in Syria. The conclusion of this study allowed us to identify in this methods the two problems stated earlier.Indeed, this research also includes a new methodology for explaining Arabic grammar for French learners. The application of GOSSELIN’s theory of Tense and Aspect allowed us to explain the use of the subjunctive in Arabic. As well as to observe the time relationship within a complex Arabic sentence including a verb used to the subjunctive. This shows the originality of this theory., Vu la difficulté de l’apprentissage du mode subjonctif et de son emploi pour les apprenants adultes arabophones, Nous proposons, dans le cadre de notre recherche, une nouvelle méthodologie de l’enseignement du mode subjonctif du français basée sur la théorie du temps et de l’aspect de GOSSELIN. Cette théorie explique la relation temporelle entre l’intervalle de référence du verbe employé au subjonctif et l’intervalle d’énonciation dans une proposition indépendante et la relation temporelle entre l’intervalle de référence du verbe de la subordonnée employé au subjonctif et l’intervalle de référence du verbe de la principale dans une phrase complexe. Cette manière d’expliquer la relation temporelle facilite la compréhension de l’emploi du subjonctif dans une proposition indépendante ainsi que dans une proposition subordonnée. Elle explique également le choix du mode dans une proposition subordonnée ainsi que l’alternance des modes dans la même structure.Cette nouvelle méthodologie est fondée sur une étude comparative du système verbal du français et de celui de l’arabe et sur une étude comparative du subjonctif du français et de celui de l’arabe. Ces études nous ont permis de formuler nos hypothèses concernant les difficultés de l’apprentissage du mode subjonctif pour les apprenants adultes arabophones dus à deux phénomènes : la généralisation des règles et l’interférence de la langue maternelle (l’arabe). Ainsi nous avons proposé deux questionnaires destinés l’un à un public arabophone (syrien) ayant un niveau avancé en français et l’autre à un public arabophone (syrien) ayant un niveau moyen en français. Les résultats obtenus ont justifié nos hypothèses. Nous avons également fait une étude critique, concernant le mode subjonctif, de certains manuels de FLE et d’une méthode de grammaire FLE enseignés à l’université de Damas en Syrie. Cette étude nous a permis d’identifier les deux problèmes susmentionnés dans ces manuels. En effet, cette recherche comporte également une nouvelle méthodologie de l’explication de la grammaire arabe adressée à un public francophone. L’application de la théorie du temps et de l’aspect de GOSSELIN nous a permis d’expliquer l’emploi du subjonctif en arabe et d’observer la relation temporelle au sein d’une phrase complexe arabe comportant un verbe employé au subjonctif, d’où l’originalité de cette théorie.

This work is devoted to the morphological and syntactic changes in the Persian verbal system between the 10th and 16th centuries. Ten representative prose texts (from various regions and dialects, including Early Judaeo-Persian) have shown the following evolutions. The new analytical passive uses various auxiliaries before one of them, šudan, "to become", overcomes (12th century). The infinitive and the past participle change jointly: the infinitive in an disappears in favour of the short infinitive (kard) when the old past participle kard is replaced by the karda participle (13th-14th centuries). The Middle-Persian adverb hamē is grammaticalized in prefix mē and its principal value of concomitance has gradually weakened. The suffix ē, marker of the past habitual and the counterfactual, declined in favour of mē (15th century). Gradually the perfect has also been used to express the evidential. The periphrastic future, formed with xvāstan, "to want", at first marks an intention-based future, then also expresses a prediction-based future (14th century). Although the system is unravelling at the 15th century, the prefix bi¬ is a marker of rhematicity throughout the period and the opposition indicative/subjunctive is not yet recreated. buvad, "is", is replaced by bāšad; at the times when they coexist (10th-11th centuries), buvad marks the inherent and bāšad, the transient. As for the construction of modal verbs, it went from a governed infinitive to a governed finite verb, whose morphology is richer (14th-16th centuries). As a result, without crystallizing all the changes, the 15th century is a milestone in the evolution of Persian verbal system., Ce travail établit les changements morphologiques et syntaxiques du système verbal persan entre les Xe et XVIe siècles. Dix textes en prose représentatifs (régions et dialectes, judéo-persan compris) ont pu faire apparaître les évolutions suivantes. Le nouveau passif analytique recourt à différents auxiliaires avant qu'un seul ne s'impose, šudan, " devenir " (XIIe). L'infinitif et le participe passé évoluent conjointement : les formes d'infinitif plein, en -an, disparaissent au profit de l'infinitif apocopé (kard), quand l'ancien participe passé kard est remplacé par le participe en karda (XIIIe-XIVe). L'adverbe moyen-perse hamē s'est grammaticalisé en préfixe mē et sa valeur principale de concomitance s'est progressivement affaiblie. Le suffixe ē, marqueur d'habitude dans le passé et d'irréel, a décliné au bénéfice de mē (XVe). Peu à peu, le parfait a aussi été utilisé pour l'expression du médiatif. Le futur périphrastique, formé avec xvāstan, " vouloir ", marque à l'origine un futur d'intention, puis exprime également un futur de prédiction (XIVe). Même si le système se délite à partir du XVe siècle, le préfixe bi est un indice de rhématicité tout au long de la période et l'opposition indicatif/subjonctif n'est pas encore recréée. buvad, " est ", a cédé la place à bāšad ; aux époques où ils coexistent (Xe-XIe), buvad marque l'inhérent et bāšad, le transitoire. Quant à la construction des modaux, elle est passée de la rection d'un infinitif à celle d'un verbe conjugué, à la morphologie plus riche (XIVe-XVIe). Il en résulte que, sans en cristalliser tous les changements, le XVe siècle constitue une date charnière dans l'évolution du système verbal persan.

The present paper aims at presenting all major morphosyntactic means of expressing future meaning in Vilamovicean, the smallest Germanic language spoken in the town of Wilamowice in Southern Poland. As will be demonstrated – and contrary to the opinion found in the literature published so far – the concept of futurity is not limited to the wada future but, rather, can be conveyed by a number of constructions. These forms may be divided into two main groups: the first one includes formations that are employed with no restriction by all speakers (among others these are constructions like the present tense, the periphrases wada + infinitive, wjyd + past participle or adverbials, wada hon/zajn + past participle, and zuła + infinitive, as well as various modally based future expressions) while the second class consists of two novel and "rare" locutions which are accepted uniquely by a limited number of speakers (this group includes locutions such as wada + past participle and wada + present). Furthermore, two other Vilamovicean periphrases will be discussed, namely wie + past participle and wie + present, which, even though restricted to the conditional value, display a similar morphosyntactic shape as the "rare futures".Keywords: Germanic Family, Vilamovicean Language, Verbal System, Future

Thulung Rai, an endangered Tibeto-Burman language of Eastern Nepal, has complex verbal morphology, with verb endings encoding agent and patient person and number in transitive scenarios. In addition to this, a large number of verbs alternate between several stems, and the stem selection criteria are initially elusive. Inspired by work by Boyd Michailovsky, who proposes morphophonological accounts for the verb stem alternation in related Dumi Rai, I propose an analysis of the Thulung verbal system and its verb stem alternation., Le thulung rai, langue tibéto-birmane parlée au Népal oriental, présente un système verbal complexe, avec des marques d'accord indiquant la personne et le nombre de l'agent ainsi que du patient pour les scénarios transitifs. La langue présente également des verbes avec alternance de thèmes, les conditions régissant cette alternance demeurant à première vue opaques. Me basant sur le travail de Boyd Michailovsky, qui a proposé des explications morphophonologiques aux alternances de thèmes verbaux en dumi rai, langue apparentée au thulung, je propose ici une analyse du système verbal du thulung et de ses alternances de thèmes., Lahaussois Aimée. The Thulung Rai verbal system : An account of verb stem alternation [Le système verbal du thulung rai : analyse de l'alternance de thèmes verbaux]. In: Cahiers de linguistique - Asie orientale, vol. 40 2, 2011. pp. 189-224.

International audience; Thulung Rai, an endangered Tibeto-Burman language of Eastern Nepal, has complex verbal morphology, with verb endings encoding agent and patient person and number in transitive scenarios. In addition to this, a large number of verbs alternate between several stems, and the stem selection criteria are initially elusive. Inspired by work by Boyd Michailovsky, who proposes morphophonological accounts for the verb stem alternation in related Dumi Rai, I propose an analysis of the Thulung verbal system and its verb stem alternation.

The Early New Persian grammatical morphemes hamē, -ē and bi- are traditionally analysed as follows: hamē as a durative or repetitive verbal particle; -ē as a suffix (or enclitic) for habit and hypothesis; bi- as a prefix, marker of perfective aspect, or at least of emphasis. However a close analysis of the Tārīkh-i Sīstān proves that there are other uses, which can even contradict these habitual theories. Thus hamē also expresses, it could even be said mostly expresses, concomitance. For -ē, the meaning of habit can also be used to name and to define properties of places or people. And bi- is a marker of rhematicity, and not of a semelfactive and punctual action. Keywords: Early New Persian; hamē; -ē; bi-; verbal system; aspect., Les morphèmes grammaticaux hamē, -ē et bi- du persan archaïque sont traditionnellement analysés comme suit. hamē : particule marquant la durée et la répétition. -ē : suffixe (ou enclitique) indiquant l'habitude et l'hypothèse. bi- : préfixe porteur de perfectivité, ou du moins d'emphase. Or une lecture attentive du Tārīx-i Sīstān laisse apparaître que d'autres emplois sont possibles, et même qu'ils peuvent contredire ces théories habituelles. Ainsi hamē souligne aussi - et même surtout - la concomitance. La valeur d'habitude de -ē peut se spécialiser pour nommer et donner les caractéristiques d'un lieu ou d'une personne. Et bi- est un marqueur de rhématicité, et non d'une action semelfactive et ponctuelle.

Prior research of language acquisition in Croatian (Kovačević at al. 2006) has shown specific developmental trajectories in the acquisition of Croatian noun and verb forms. In Croatian, after the initial phase in language acquisition in which early vocabulary consists of approximately same number of nouns and verbs, expansion of verbs follows (this phase was labeled as verb spurt). In that phase the number of verbs increases much faster then the number of nouns. Verb spurt is explained typologically, identifying traits that could be found in other languages, as well. These features are identified as morphological richness, verbal independency and relatively free word order. It is claimed that these features not only explain verb spurt in Croatian, but also in other languages such as Yucatec Maya, a language that is typologically distant, but still sharing the relevant traits: morphological richness, verbal independency and free word order. The aim of the present work was to examine the explanatory power of the identified typological traits regarding the verb spurt in Croatian. This has been achieved by relating the increased number of tokens of certain verbs to a. increased number of morphological categories of the verb b. increased number of syntactic reductions in utterances c. increased number of syntactic forms with free word order We used Croatian Corpus of Child Language (Kovačević 2002), as a part of the word bank of child language CHILDES (MacWhinney 2000). We also used Frequency dictionary based on the Corpus. Ten most frequent verbs common to all children from the Corpus were extracted (auxiliary and modal verbs were excluded). Every appearance of these verbs in Corpus was indexed in order to establish morphological features and syntactic environment. By analyzing the data from the Corpus, we have shown the developmental trajectories of the morphological features for every verb and all syntactic forms in which the verb has appeared.

Verbal compounds abound in Hausa (a Chadic language). A very broad definition of Hausa verbal compounds (henceforth: VC) is “a compound with a verb”. Four types of verbal compound are analysed: V[erb]+X compounds, PAC+V compounds (a PAC is a pronoun complex indicating TAM), VCs with a ma prefix (both singular and, unusually, plural) as well as VCs with a nominalised verb (VNCs). In chapters 2 and 3 phonological and morphological features of Hausa VCs are discussed. Two such features affect the tone of the verb (Hausa is a tone language), one affects the final vowel of the noun direct object in V+X compounds (under conditions described). Some V+X compounds, all PAC+V compounds as well as VNCs are unmarked. In chapter 4 the functions of phonological and morphological features are critically analysed. The discussion in chapter 5 centres on a particular kind of verb (the ‘grade 2’ verb) and an explanation is offered for the idiosyncracies of grade 2 verbs in V+X compounds. Chapter 6 focusses on the literal and lexical meanings of Hausa VCs, i.e. on the generally opaque lexical meanings. The various kinds of relationship between the two meanings are systematically described in terms of metonymy, metaphor and other rhetorical devices.

[ES] La aparición de la forma faced en una cratera falisca tiene importantes implicaciones para el análisis de las formaciones de la raíz *dheH1-k- en las lenguas itálicas. Las formas de presente pueden explicarse a partir de un tema con grado radical cero y sufijo *-yo-, mientras que para el perfecto se utilizan formaciones con reduplicación y grado cero (*fe-fak-). Falisco faced, al igual que sus correspondientes en lenguas sabélicas, puede explicarse como un perfecto con pérdida de la reduplicación, mientras que latín feci sería el único testimonio de un perfecto “aorístico”. La constatación de que faced es un perfecto del verbo “hacer” en falisco obliga, además, a descartar la derivación a partir de esa misma raíz de las formas fifiked y fifiqod, lo que supone un argumento más en contra de la existencia de un perfecto reduplicado con vocal radical larga para esta raíz (tipo *fe-fÉk-) en las lenguas itálicas., [EN] The occurrence of the verb faced, which is now attested on a Faliscan krater, has major implications for the analysis of the forms built on the root *dheH1-k- in the Italic languages. Present tense forms of that root are characterized by a zero root grade and a suffix *-yo-, while the perfect is a formation with zero root grade and reduplication (*fe-fak-). Faliscan faced and its correspondants in Sabellic languages can be best explained as “dereduplicated” perfects, as opposed to the “aoristic” Latin perfect feci. The fact that faced is the perfect of the verb “make” in Faliscan also shows that Faliscan fifiked and fifiqod cannot belong to that root. This is an additional piece of evidence against the existence of a perfect with reduplication and a long root vowel (the *fe-fÉk- type) in the Italic languages.

International audience; Les marques de personne sont en relation avec la classe des verbes (ils constituent alors les “indices personnels”, qui remplissent la fonction sujet), mais ils le sont aussi avec la classe des nominaux (ils forment en leur sein un ensemble particulier de substituts, les “pronoms personnels” — qui comprend lui-même plusieurs sous-ensembles). Plutôt que de séparer l'étude de ces deux sortes de marques personnelles, j'ai souhaité dans l'article mettre en parallèle les différentes marques relevées pour une même personne dans chaque parler, à commencer par le zénaga de Mauritanie, puis d'un parler berbère à l'autre. Les données concernant les deux premières personne sont analysées, mais une attention particulière est portée ici aux marques de 1ère personne qui, dans le cas du zénaga, présentent une configuration particulière. Pour expliquer cette spécificité, différentes hypothèses sont passées en revue et l'auteure privilégie la thèse de phénomènes conservatoires, sur la base des convergences observées dans d'autres langues du phylum chamito-sémitique.