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Background: Invasive treatments like radiofrequency stereotactic lesioning or deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus internus can resolve drug‐resistant status dystonicus (SD). However, these open procedures are not always feasible in patients with SD. Objective: The aim was to report the safety and efficacy of simultaneous asleep bilateral transcranial magnetic resonance–guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) pallidotomy for life‐threatening SD. Methods: We performed bilateral simultaneous MRgFUS pallidotomy under general anesthesia in 2 young patients with pantothenate kinase–associated neurodegeneration and GNAO1 encephalopathy. Both patients had medically refractory SD and severe comorbidities contraindicating open surgery. Results: SD resolved at 4 and 12 days after MRgFUS, respectively. Adverse events (intraoperative hypothermia and postoperative facial paralysis) were mild and transient. Conclusion: Bilateral simultaneous MRgFUS pallidotomy under general anesthesia is safe and may be a valid alternative therapeutic option for fragile patients. Further studies are needed to assess long‐term efficacy of the procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The evidence in the effectiveness of deep brain stimulation in children with medication‐refractory non‐degenerative monogenic dystonia is heterogeneous and long‐term results are sparse. Objectives: The objective is to describe long‐term outcomes in a single‐center cohort and compare our results with a meta‐analysis cohort form literature. Methods: We performed a retrospective single‐center cohort study including consecutive pediatric patients with non‐degenerative genetic or idiopathic dystonia treated with globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation at our center and a systematic review and individual‐patient data meta‐analysis with the same inclusion criteria. The primary outcome was the change from baseline in the Burke‐Fahn‐Marsden Dystonia Rating Scale‐movement (BFMDRS‐M) score. Results: The clinical cohort included 25 patients with a mean study follow‐up of 11.4 years. The meta‐analysis cohort included 224 patients with a mean follow‐up of 3 years. Overall, the BFMDRS‐M mean improvements at 1 year and at last follow‐up were 41% and 33% in the clinical cohort and 58.9% and 57.2% in the meta‐analysis cohort, respectively. TOR1A‐dystonia showed the greatest and most stable BFMDRS‐M improvement in both cohorts at 1 year and at last follow‐up (76.3% and 74.3% in the clinical cohort; 69.6% and 67.3% in the meta‐analysis cohort), followed by SGCE‐dystonia (63% and 63.9% in the meta‐analysis cohort). THAP1‐dystonia (70.1% and 29.8% in the clinical cohort; 52.3% and 42.0% in the meta‐analysis cohort) and KMT2B‐dystonia (33.3% and 41.3% in the clinical cohort; 38.0% and 26.7% in the meta‐analysis cohort) showed a less pronounced or sustained response. Conclusion: Globus pallidus deep brain stimulation long‐term treatment seems effective with a possible gene‐specific differential effect. © 2024 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Thalamic alterations have been reported as a major feature in presymptomatic and symptomatic patients carrying the C9orf72 mutation across the frontotemporal dementia–amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) spectrum. Specifically, the pulvinar, a high‐order thalamic nucleus and timekeeper for large‐scale cortical networks, has been hypothesized to be involved in C9orf72‐related neurodegenerative diseases. We investigated whether pulvinar volume can be useful for differential diagnosis in ALS C9orf72 mutation carriers and noncarriers and how underlying functional connectivity changes affect this region. Methods: We studied 19 ALS C9orf72 mutation carriers (ALSC9+) accurately matched with wild‐type ALS (ALSC9−) and ALS mimic (ALSmimic) patients using structural and resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging data. Pulvinar volume was computed using automatic segmentation. Seed‐to‐voxel functional connectivity analyses were performed using seeds from a pulvinar functional parcellation. Results: Pulvinar structural integrity had high discriminative values for ALSC9+ patients compared to ALSmimic (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.86) and ALSC9− (AUC = 0.77) patients, yielding a volume cutpoint of approximately 0.23%. Compared to ALSmimic, ALSC9− showed increased anterior, inferior, and lateral pulvinar connections with bilateral occipital–temporal–parietal regions, whereas ALSC9+ showed no differences. ALSC9+ patients when compared to ALSC9− patients showed reduced pulvinar–occipital connectivity for anterior and inferior pulvinar seeds. Conclusions: Pulvinar volume could be a differential biomarker closely related to the C9orf72 mutation. A pulvinar–cortical circuit dysfunction might play a critical role in disease progression and development, in both the genetic phenotype and ALS wild‐type patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The resting‐state functional connectome has not been extensively investigated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) spectrum disease, in particular in relationship with patients' genetic status. Methods: Here we studied the network‐to‐network connectivity of 19 ALS patients carrying the C9orf72 hexanucleotide repeat expansion (C9orf72+), 19 ALS patients not affected by C9orf72 mutation (C9orf72−), and 19 ALS‐mimic patients (ALSm) well‐matched for demographic and clinical variables. Results: When compared with ALSm, we observed greater connectivity of the default mode and frontoparietal networks with the visual network for C9orf72+ patients (P = 0.001). Moreover, the whole‐connectome showed greater node degree (P < 0.001), while sensorimotor cortices resulted isolated in C9orf72+. Interpretation: Our results suggest a crucial involvement of extra‐motor functions in ALS spectrum disease. In particular, alterations of the visual cortex may have a pathogenic role in C9orf72‐related ALS. The prominent feature of these patients would be increased visual system connectivity with the networks responsible of the functional balance between internal and external attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Magnetic resonance‐guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) thalamotomy is increasingly used to treat drug‐resistant essential tremor (ET). Data on MRgFUS thalamotomy in dystonic tremor (DT) are anecdotal. Objectives: To investigate efficacy, safety, and differences in target coordinates of MRgFUS thalamotomy in DT versus ET. Methods: Ten patients with DT and 35 with ET who consecutively underwent MRgFUS thalamotomy were followed for 12 months. Although in both groups the initial surgical planning coordinates corresponded to the ventralis intermediate (Vim), the final target could be modified intraoperatively based on clinical response. Results: Tremor significantly improved in both groups. The thalamic lesion was significantly more anterior in DT than ET. Considering both ET and DT groups, the more anterior the lesion, the lower the odds ratio for adverse events. Conclusions: MRgFUS thalamotomy is safe and effective in DT and ET. Compared to classical Vim coordinates used for ET, more anterior targeting should be considered for DT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Iatrogenic cerebral amyloid angiopathy (iCAA) is a specific type of cerebral amyloid angiopathy which is becoming increasingly diagnosed. It has been hypothesized that iCAA might arise as a late consequence of past neurosurgical interventions involving dural patch grafts. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans with amyloid tracers and the assay of beta‐amyloid levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are auxiliary criteria, however, definite diagnosis remains histopathologically determined. Methods: Case report. Results: We present a 48‐year‐old patient who suffered multiple lobar cerebral haemorrhages from the age of 47. The patient had undergone surgery for remolval of hemangioblastoma with lyophilized dural graft at the age of 11, in 1987. Brain MRI, amiloid PET and CSF analysis led to a diagnosis of probable iCAA. Conclusion: It is necessary to increase the awareness of iCAA, in order to avoid overlooking the potential causal involvement of surgical procedures which took place far back in time. Moreover, the diagnostic relevance of amyloid PET and beta‐amyloid levels in CSF must be emphasised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The literature has long established the association between aging and frailty, with emerging evidence pointing to a relationship between frailty and SARS-CoV-2 contagion. The possible neurological consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection, associated with physical and cognitive frailty, could lead to a worsening of Parkinson's disease (PD) in infected patients or—more rarely—to an increase in the Parkinsonian symptomatology. A possible link between those clinical pictures could be identified in vitamin D deficiency, while the whole process would appear to be associated with alterations in the microbiota–intestine–brain axis that fall within the α-Synuclein Origin site and Connectome (SOC) model, and allow for the identification of a body-first PD and a brain-first PD. The model of care for this condition must consider intrinsic and extrinsic variables so that care by a multidisciplinary team can be successfully predicted. A multidimensional screening protocol specifically designed to identify people at risk or in the early stages of the disease should begin with the investigation of indices of frailty and microbiota–intestine–brain axis alterations, with a new focus on cases of hypovitaminosis D. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: When studying brain networks in patients with Disorders of Consciousness (DoC), it is important to evaluate the structural integrity of networks in addition to their functional activity. Here, we investigated whether structural MRI, together with clinical variables, can be useful for diagnostic purposes and whether a quantitative analysis is feasible in a group of chronic DoC patients. Methods: We studied 109 chronic patients with DoC and emerged from DoC with structural MRI: 65 in vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness state (VS/UWS), 34 in minimally conscious state (MCS), and 10 with severe disability. MRI data were analyzed through qualitative and quantitative approaches. Results: The qualitative MRI analysis outperformed the quantitative one, which resulted to be hardly feasible in chronic DoC patients. The results of the qualitative approach showed that the structural integrity of HighOrder networks, altogether, had better diagnostic accuracy than LowOrder networks, particularly when the model included clinical variables (AUC = 0.83). Diagnostic differences between VS/UWS and MCS were stronger in anoxic etiology than vascular and traumatic etiology. MRI data of all LowOrder and HighOrder networks correlated with the clinical score. The integrity of the left hemisphere was associated with a better clinical status. Conclusions: Structural integrity of brain networks is sensitive to clinical severity. When patients are chronic, the qualitative analysis of MRI data is indicated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Von Economo neurons (VENs) are rod, stick, or corkscrew cells mostly located in layer V of the frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortices. VENs are projection neurons related to human-like social cognitive abilities. Post-mortem histological studies found VEN alterations in several neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia (SZ). This pilot study aimed to evaluate the role of VEN-containing areas in shaping patterns of resting-state brain activation in patients with SZ (n = 20) compared to healthy controls (HCs; n = 20). We performed a functional connectivity analysis seeded in the cortical areas with the highest density of VENs followed by fuzzy clustering. The alterations found in the SZ group were correlated with psychopathological, cognitive, and functioning variables. We found a frontotemporal network that was shared by four clusters overlapping with the salience, superior-frontal, orbitofrontal, and central executive networks. Differences between the HC and SZ groups emerged only in the salience network. The functional connectivity of the right anterior insula and ventral tegmental area within this network were negatively correlated with experiential negative symptoms and positively correlated with functioning. This study provides some evidence to show that in vivo, VEN-enriched cortical areas are associated with an altered resting-state brain activity in people with SZ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Spinal cord degeneration is a hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The assessment of gray matter and white matter cervical spinal cord atrophy across clinical stages defined using the King's staging system could advance the understanding of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis progression. Methods: We assessed the in vivo spatial pattern of gray and white matter atrophy along cervical spinal cord (C2 to C6 segments) using 2D phase‐sensitive inversion recovery imaging in a cohort of 44 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients, evaluating its change across the King's stages and the correlation with disability scored by the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis functional rating scale revised (ALSFRS‐R) and disease duration. A mathematical model inferring the potential onset of cervical gray matter atrophy was developed. Results: In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients at King's stage 1, significant cervical spinal cord alterations were mainly identified in gray matter, whereas they involved both gray and white matter in patients at King's stage ≥ 2. Gray and white matter areas correlated with clinical disability at all cervical segments. C3–C4 level was the segment showing early gray matter atrophy starting about 7 to 20 months before symptom onset according to our model. Interpretation: Our findings suggest that cervical spinal cord atrophy spreads from gray to white matter across King's stages in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, making spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging an in vivo assessment tool to measure the progression of the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Magnetic resonance–guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) thalamotomy is a safe and effective procedure for drug‐resistant tremor in Parkinson's disease (PD). Objective: The aim of this study was to demonstrate that MRgFUS ventralis intermedius thalamotomy in early‐stage tremor‐dominant PD may prevent an increase in dopaminergic medication 6 months after treatment compared with matched PD control subjects on standard medical therapy. Methods: We prospectively enrolled patients with early‐stage PD who underwent MRgFUS ventralis intermedius thalamotomy (PD‐FUS) and patients treated with oral dopaminergic therapy (PD‐ODT) with a 1:2 ratio. We collected demographic and clinical data at baseline and 6 and 12 months after thalamotomy. Results: We included 10 patients in the PD‐FUS group and 20 patients in the PD‐ODT group. We found a significant increase in total levodopa equivalent daily dose and levodopa plus monoamine oxidase B inhibitors dose in the PD‐ODT group 6 months after thalamotomy. Conclusions: In early‐stage tremor‐dominant PD, MRgFUS thalamotomy may be useful to reduce tremor and avoid the need to increase dopaminergic medications. © 2022 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Purpose: Intradural disc herniation (IDH) can manifest with radicular or medullary syndrome. In about 15% of cases, IDH may be responsible, through a dural laceration, for a CSF leak, determining spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH) and CNS superficial siderosis (CNSss). This paper attempts to present an overview on IDH as the cause for both CSF leak, and subsequent SIH, and CNSss, and to describe a peculiar clinical and neuroradiological scenario related to this condition.Methods: A search on the PUBMED database was performed. Although the investigation did not rigorously follow the criteria for a systematic review (we consider only articles about thoracic IDH), nonetheless, the best quality evidence was pursued. Furthermore, an illustrative case was presented.Results: A 69-year-old woman was referred to our hospital for slowly progressive gait disturbances and hearing impairment. Brain imaging revealed diffuse bilateral supratentorial and infratentorial superficial siderosis, mostly of the cerebellum, the eighth cranial nerves, and the brainstem. Spinal imaging disclosed a posterior disc herniation determining a dural tear at D6-D7. Lumbar puncture revealed low opening pressure and hemorrhagic CSF with siderophages. A posterior transdural herniectomy and dural sealing determined a stabilization of hearing and a significant improvement in both gait and balance.Conclusions: The diagnostic workup of CNSss with suspected CNS leak demands whole neuraxis imaging, especially in cases presenting SIH or myelopathic symptoms. This may avoid delays in detection of IDH and spinal dural leaks. The different forms of treatment available depend on the type and severity of the clinical picture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) is a widely used technique to investigate the residual brain functions of patients with Disorders of Consciousness (DoC). Nonetheless, it is unclear how the networks that are more associated with primary functions, such as the sensory–motor, medial/lateral visual and auditory networks, contribute to clinical assessment. In this study, we examined the rs-fMRI lower-order networks alongside their structural MRI data to clarify the corresponding association with clinical assessment. We studied 109 chronic patients with DoC and emerged from DoC with structural MRI and rs-fMRI: 65 in vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness state (VS/UWS), 34 in minimally conscious state (MCS) and 10 with severe disability. rs-fMRI data were analyzed with independent component analyses and seed-based analyses, in relation to structural MRI and clinical data. The results showed that VS/UWS had fewer networks than MCS patients and the rs-fMRI activity in each network was decreased. Visual networks were correlated to the clinical status, and in cases where no clinical response occurred, rs-fMRI indicated distinctive networks conveying information in a similar way to other techniques. The information provided by single networks was limited, whereas the four networks together yielded better classification results, particularly when the model included rs-fMRI and structural MRI data (AUC = 0.80). Both quantitative and qualitative rs-fMRI analyses yielded converging results; vascular etiology might confound the results, and disease duration generally reduced the number of networks observed. The lower-order rs-fMRI networks could be used clinically to support and corroborate visual function assessments in DoC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Magnetic Resonance-guided high-intensity Focused Ultrasound (MRgFUS) of the thalamic ventral intermediate nucleus (Vim) for tremor has increasingly gained interest as a new non-invasive alternative to standard neurosurgery. Resting state functional connectivity (rs-FC) correlates of MRgFUS have not been extensively investigated yet. A region of interest (ROI)-to-ROI rs-FC MRI "connectomic" analysis focusing on brain regions relevant for tremor was conducted on 15 tremor-dominant patients with Parkinson's disease who underwent MRgFUS. We tested whether rs-FC between tremor-related areas was modulated by MRgFUS at 1 and 3 months post-operatively, and whether such changes correlated with individual clinical outcomes assessed by the MDS-UPDRS-III sub items for tremor. Significant increase in FC was detected within bilateral primary motor (M1) cortices, as well as between bilateral M1 and crossed primary somatosensory cortices, and also between pallidum and the dentate nucleus of the untreated hemisphere. Correlation between disease duration and FC increase at 3 months was found between the putamen of both cerebral hemispheres and the Lobe VI of both cerebellar hemispheres, as well as between the Lobe VI of untreated cerebellar hemisphere with bilateral supplementary motor area (SMA). Drop-points value of MDS-UPDRS at 3 months correlated with post-treatment decrease in FC, between the anterior cingulate cortex and bilateral SMA, as well as between the Lobe VI of treated cerebellar hemisphere and the interpositus nucleus of untreated cerebellum. Tremor improvement at 3 months, expressed as percentage of intra-subject MDS-UPDRS changes, correlated with FC decrease between bilateral occipital fusiform gyrus and crossed Lobe VI and Vermis VI. Good responders (≥50% of baseline tremor improvement) showed reduced FC between bilateral SMA, between the interpositus nucleus of untreated cerebellum and the Lobe VI of treated cerebellum, as well as between the untreated SMA and the contralateral putamen. Good responders were characterized at baseline by crossed hypoconnectivity between bilateral putamen and M1, as well as between the putamen of the treated hemisphere and the contralateral SMA. We conclude that MRgFUS can effectively modulate brain FC within the tremor network. Such changes are associated with clinical outcome. The shifting mode of integration among the constituents of this network is, therefore, susceptible to external redirection despite the chronic nature of PD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frailty is a dynamic clinical condition characterized by the reduction of interconnections among different psychobiological domains, which leads to a homeostatic vulnerability. The association between physical frailty and cognitive dysfunctions is a possible predictor of poor prognosis in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. However, this construct has not been fully analyzed by a multidimensional neuropsychogeriatric assessment matched with multimodal neuroimaging methods in patients with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD). We have investigated cognitive dysfunctions and frailty status, assessed by both a neuropsychological evaluation and the Multidimensional Prognostic Index (MPI), in a sample of 18 bvFTD patients and compared to matched healthy controls. Gray matter (GM) volume (as assessed by voxel-based morphometry) and metabolism (on 18fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography) were first separately compared between groups, then voxelwise compared and correlated to each other within patients. Linear regression of the MPI was performed on those voxels presenting a significant correlation between altered GM volume and metabolism. The neuropsychological assessment reflected the diagnoses and the functional–anatomical alterations documented by neuroimaging analyses. In particular, the majority of patients presented significant executive dysfunction and mood changes in terms of apathy, depression, and anxiety. In the overall MPI score, the patients fell in the lower range (indicating an early frailty status). On imaging, they exhibited a bilateral decrease of GM density and hypometabolism involving the frontal pole, the anterior opercular region, and the anterior cingulate cortex. Greater atrophy than hypometabolism was observed in the bilateral orbitofrontal cortex, the triangular part of the inferior frontal gyrus, and the ventral striatum, whereas the contrary was detected in the bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and pre-supplementary motor area. MPI scores significantly correlated only with the co-occurrence of a decrease of GM density and hypometabolism in the right anterior insular cortex, but not with the separate pathological phenomena. Our results show a correlation between a specific pattern of co-occurring GM atrophy and hypometabolism with early frailty in bvFTD patients. These aspects, combined with executive dysfunction and mood changes, may lead to an increased risk of poor prognosis, highlighting a potentially critical and precocious role of the insula in the pathogenesis of frailty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reduced self-awareness is a well-known phenomenon investigated in patients with vascular disease; however, its impact on neuropsychological functions remains to be clarified. Importantly, selective vascular lesions provide an opportunity to investigate the key neuropsychological features of reduced self-awareness in neurocognitive disorders. Because of its rarity, we present an unusual case of a woman affected by a combined polar and paramedian bilateral thalamic infarction. The patient underwent an extensive neuropsychological evaluation to assess cognitive, behavioral, and functional domains, with a focus on executive functions. She was assessed clinically in the acute phase and after 6 months from the stroke, both clinically and by magnetic resonance imaging. The patient developed a cognitive impairment, characterised by prevalent executive dysfunction associated with reduced self-awareness and mood changes, in terms of apathy and depression. Such condition persisted after 6 months. In May 2020, the patient underwent the serology test in chemiluminescence to detect IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. The result of the quantitative test highlighted a high probability of previous contact with the virus. We suggest that reduced self-awareness related to executive dysfunction and behavioral changes may be due to combined polar and paramedian bilateral thalamic lesion. Metacognitive–executive dysfunction affecting the instrumental abilities of everyday life might make people less able to take appropriate precautions, facilitating the risk of SARS-CoV-2 contagion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The detection of dyskinesias-reduced-self-awareness (DRSA), in Parkinson's disease (PD), was previously associated to executive and metacognitive deficits mainly due to dopaminergic overstimulation of mesocorticolimbic circuits. Response-inhibition dysfunction is often observed in PD. Apart from being engaged in response-inhibition tasks, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), is part of a functional system based on self-awareness and engaged across cognitive, affective and behavioural contexts. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between response-inhibition disabilities and DRSA using whole-brain event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), over the course of a specific executive task. Methods: Twenty-seven cognitively preserved idiopathic PD patients – presenting motor fluctuations and dyskinesias – were studied. They underwent a neurological and neuropsychological evaluation. The presence of DRSA was assessed using the Dyskinesias Subtracted-Index (DS-I). Cingulate functionality was evaluated with fMRI, while patients performed an ACC-sensitive GO-NoGO task. Association between blood oxygenation level dependent response over the whole-brain during the response-inhibition task and DS-I scores was investigated by regression analysis. Results: The presence of DRSA was associated with reduced functional recruitment in the bilateral ACC, bilateral anterior insular cortex and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (pFWE <0.05). Moreover, DS-I scores significantly correlated with percent errors on the NoGO condition (r = 0.491, pFWE = 0.009). Discussion: These preliminary findings add evidence to the relevant role of executive dysfunctions in DRSA pathogenesis beyond the effects of chronic dopaminergic treatment, with a key leading role played by ACC as part of a functionally impaired response-inhibition network. Imaging biomarkers for DRSA are important to be studied, especially when the neuropsychological assessment seems to be normal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This report illustrates a Parkinson’s disease (PD) patient with impulse-control disorder (ICD) and selective impairment in response-inhibition abilities as revealed by the performance in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) anterior cingulate cortex - sensitive go-nogo task. In line with hypothesis on the role of response-inhibition disabilities in the arising of impulsivity in PD, the patient completely failed the go-nogo task. Moreover, fMRI acquisition revealed absent task-sensitive activity in the anterior cingulate cortex, medial prefrontal, and orbitofrontal cortices for the contrast nogo versus go , which signifying that a hypo-function of this network could be associated with ICD. A fronto-striatal and cingulo-frontal dysfunction may reflect impairment in metacognitive-executive abilities (such as response-inhibition, action monitoring, and error awareness) and promote compulsive repetition of behavior. Response-inhibition tasks may be useful in PD post-diagnostic phase, to better identify individuals at risk of developing ICD with dopaminergic medication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]