63 results
Search Results
2. Portraits of Labor Market Exclusion 2.0 : Country Policy Paper for Croatia
- Author
-
Ovadiya, Mirey and Vandeninden, Frieda
- Subjects
LABOR MARKET ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,GENDER GAP ,SOCIAL INCLUSION ,CHILDCARE ,LABOR FORCE SURVEY ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,LABOR LAW ,ELDERCARE ,LABOR MOBILITY ,WOMEN IN LABOR FORCE ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,EMPLOYMENT ,LABOR POLICY - Abstract
This report is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers. Covering 12 countries, the study builds on the previous joint EC and World Bank study to map the diversity of profiles of individuals who are out of work in six countries (Sundaram et al., 2014) and other analyses that characterize individuals with labor market difficulties (European Commission, 2012; Ferré et al., 2013; Immervoll, 2013). The study expands the previous analysis by looking at a broader group of labor market vulnerable beyond the out of work individuals to include: those in unstable employment, those with restricted hours, and those with near-zero incomes (i.e. individuals who are marginally employed). It also refines the analytical methodology by applying an employment barriers framework to facilitate policy making and country-specific application, and to provide a reference point for future methodological extensions.
- Published
- 2017
3. Portraits of Labor Market Exclusion 2.0 : Country Policy Paper for Romania
- Author
-
Isik-Dikmelik, Aylin, Millan, Natalia, and Ovadiya, Mirey
- Subjects
LABOR MARKET ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,GENDER GAP ,YOUTH EMPLOYMENT ,CHILDCARE ,LABOR FORCE SURVEY ,ELDERCARE ,WOMEN IN LABOR FORCE ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,LABOR LAW ,EMPLOYMENT ,LABOR POLICY - Abstract
This is a joint study between the European Commission (EC), the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which aims to inform employment support, activation, and social inclusion policy making, through an improved understanding of labor-market barriers.
- Published
- 2017
4. Tajikistan Country Gender Assessment
- Author
-
World Bank
- Subjects
GENDER RELATIONS ,MIGRANT ,EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES ,RURAL DEVELOPMENT ,ELDERLY MEN ,EARLY MARRIAGE ,FEMALE EDUCATION ,EQUAL ACCESS ,EMPLOYMENT ,EARLY MARRIAGES ,EQUALITY OF MEN ,FUTURE GENERATIONS ,GENDER STUDIES ,NATIONAL LEVEL ,INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS ,ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITIES ,INFORMAL SECTOR ,ECONOMIC RESOURCES ,SKILL DEVELOPMENT ,INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ,MOTHER ,FEMALE STUDENTS ,CULTURAL RIGHTS ,BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT ,FERTILITY RATES ,EARNINGS ,INFORMAL SECTOR EMPLOYMENT ,HIV INFECTIONS ,SOCIAL UNREST ,GENDER POLICIES ,PENSIONS ,SHADOW REPORT ,LOW-INCOME COUNTRIES ,INTERNATIONAL FINANCE ,ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES ,FERTILITY ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,IMPORTANT POLICY ,ECONOMIC SITUATION ,ELDERLY ,HEALTH RISKS ,ID ,GENDER AWARENESS ,SOCIAL NORMS ,DELIVERY CARE ,POLICY IMPLICATIONS ,RIGHTS OF WOMEN ,MATERNAL MORTALITY ,WOMEN'S AGENCY ,FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ,ELDERLY WOMEN ,LITERACY RATES ,FINANCIAL LITERACY ,FEMALE EMPLOYMENT ,JOINT LIABILITY ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,EMPLOYEE ,EMPLOYMENT STATUS ,EDUCATIONAL CHOICES ,INTRAVENOUS DRUG USE ,MALE INVOLVEMENT ,STATE SUPPORT ,YOUNG WOMEN ,LIFE EXPECTANCY ,HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ,NEW BUSINESSES ,ACCESS TO INFORMATION ,PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY ,DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN ,ENDOWMENTS ,EQUAL PAY ,SEXUAL INTERCOURSE ,PREGNANCY ,EDUCATION SYSTEM ,HEALTH SYSTEMS ,HOUSEHOLDS ,RESPECT ,CHILDBIRTH ,GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE ,SECONDARY SCHOOL ,BUSINESS WORKSHOPS ,SOCIAL ASSISTANCE ,UNION ,HOUSEHOLD POVERTY ,MIGRANT HOUSEHOLDS ,FINANCIAL RESOURCES ,UNDP ,POLITICAL RIGHTS OF WOMEN ,PUBLIC LIFE ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,ENROLLMENT ,INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION ,TRADITIONAL GENDER ROLES ,VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ,GENDER EQUALITY ,AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ,CORRUPTION ,HIV ,INCLUSION OF WOMEN ,COVID-19 ,FEMALE WORKERS ,MASS MEDIA ,POLITICAL PARTIES ,SECONDARY ENROLMENT ,COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT ,GENDER ROLES ,MARKET ECONOMY ,RURAL WOMEN ,GENDER ,HUSBANDS ,EDUCATED WOMEN ,GENDER GAP ,UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT FUND FOR WOMEN ,STATE POLICY ,NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ,LEVELS OF EDUCATION ,WOMEN'S VOICE ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,EMPLOYERS ,GENDER ANALYSES ,CORONAVIRUS ,CHILD HEALTH ,UNICEF ,FAMILIES ,LABOR MIGRATION ,HEALTH SYSTEM ,ROLE OF WOMEN ,UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ,RURAL HOUSEHOLDS ,GENDER DISPARITIES ,POPULATION GROWTH ,PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY ,WORKING CONDITIONS ,MIGRANTS ,SEXUAL VIOLENCE ,PANDEMIC IMPACT ,PRODUCTIVITY ,WORLD POPULATION ,CIVIL WAR ,ECONOMIC CRISIS ,LABOUR MARKET ,ENROLMENT RATES ,EQUALITY IN EDUCATION ,DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ,CIVIL SOCIETY ACTORS ,DISEASES ,MICRO-FINANCE ,GENDER DISCRIMINATION ,VICIOUS CYCLE ,PRIMARY EDUCATION ,LIVING STANDARDS ,REPRODUCTIVE ROLES ,ADOLESCENT GIRLS ,GENDER GAPS ,LEGAL ADVICE ,POPULATION STUDY ,SUPPORT FOR WOMEN ,LIVE BIRTHS ,POLITICAL PARTY ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURSHIP ,PROGRESS ,LACK OF ACCESS ,SAFETY NET ,LABOR MARKET ,LEGAL RIGHTS ,MORTALITY ,EQUAL RIGHTS ,LACK OF FINANCE ,MATERNAL HEALTH ,GENDER WAGE GAP ,GENDER ASSESSMENT ,NUMBER OF WOMEN ,TERTIARY EDUCATION ,HUMAN RIGHTS ,HEALTH SECTOR ,SOCIAL SECURITY ,INFANT ,HUSBAND ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS ,ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS ,LABOR MIGRANTS ,DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILES ,UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME ,FEMALE STAFF ,ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ,NATIONAL STRATEGY ,OLD-AGE ,FEMALE POPULATION ,GENDER STEREOTYPES ,WOMAN ,EQUAL WORK ,GENDER SEGREGATION ,REMITTANCES ,LACK OF COLLATERALS ,UNESCO ,HUMAN CAPITAL ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ,SEX ,UNITED NATIONS ,POLITICAL DECISION ,AGRICULTURAL SECTOR ,REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN ,MIGRATION ,SOCIAL EXCLUSION ,FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION ,POLICY RESEARCH ,CHILDBEARING ,LIMITED ACCESS ,GENDER ISSUES ,HOUSEHOLD LEVEL ,TERTIARY LEVEL ,JOURNALISTS ,GENDER MAINSTREAMING ,SCHOLARSHIPS ,POLITICAL RIGHTS ,ELIMINATION OF DISCRIMINATION ,INDIVIDUAL ENTREPRENEURS ,LABOR FORCE ,HEALTH SERVICES ,HIV INFECTION ,DISCRIMINATION ,OUTREACH ,DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES ,RELIGIOUS PRACTICES ,FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS ,EXPENDITURE - Abstract
The aim of this report is to provide a broad overview of the current state of gender equality in Tajikistan. While the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region traditionally surpassed many other regions in terms of gender equality, this advantage has been eroding in recent decades. Particularly in Tajikistan, concerns have been raised that men and women have unequally born the consequences of economic, political, and social transitions after independence in 1991. The report examines several dimensions of gender equality both quantitatively and qualitatively. Tajikistan has set up a legal framework that enshrines principles of equality and non-discrimination, but better implementation results require continued efforts. Prevailing social norms and patriarchal systems of decision-making limit women s ability to make effective choices be it at home or at work. The paper is structured along the following lines. The first section introduces the idea of agency that will remain an important issue throughout the report. This is followed by an analysis of disparities in human capital endowment, including health and education. Gender gaps in the Tajik labor market and entrepreneurial activities of men and women are discussed in the fourth and fifth section. The final section concludes with some policy recommendations that might be beneficial for discussions among policy-makers, civil society actors, and development partners.
- Published
- 2021
5. Sifting through the Data : Labor Markets in Haiti through a Turbulent Decade (2001-2012)
- Author
-
Scot, Thiago and Rodella, Aude-Sophie
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,INFORMATION ,PRELIMINARY EVIDENCE ,LEVELS OF EDUCATION ,RURAL DEVELOPMENT ,UNPAID WORKERS ,JOB ,QUALITY OF EDUCATION ,YOUNG PEOPLE ,LABOR CODE ,DRIVERS ,EMPLOYMENT ,WAGE DIFFERENTIALS ,POLICY MAKERS ,POPULATION ,AVERAGE WAGES ,NATIONAL LEVEL ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,INCOME ,OUTCOMES ,PRODUCTIVITY ,GENDER INEQUITIES ,WOMEN ,WORKERS ,URBANIZATION ,PRIVATE TRANSFERS ,JOBS ,INFORMAL SECTOR ,POLICY DECISIONS ,LABOR MARKET OUTCOMES ,SERVICE SECTOR ,MALE LABOR FORCE ,ORGANIZATIONS ,PRIMARY EDUCATION ,POLICY DISCUSSIONS ,TOTAL EMPLOYMENT ,AGE GROUP ,WORKER ,MARKETS ,LABOR RELATIONS ,PROFIT ,UNEMPLOYED ,FINANCE ,INFORMAL ECONOMY ,PRICES ,WAGES ,EMPLOYMENT USES ,TRANSFERS ,ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES ,RURAL AREAS ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,RETIREMENT ,YOUNG MEN ,AGE GROUPS ,HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS ,PROGRESS ,PRODUCTION ,LABOR MARKET ,MALE COUNTERPARTS ,MORTALITY ,LABOR MARKET CONDITIONS ,WAGE STRUCTURE ,UNEMPLOYED PEOPLE ,SMALL BUSINESS ,DEVELOPMENT POLICY ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,LABOR DEMAND ,SUPPLY ,PROBIT REGRESSION ,LEVEL OF EDUCATION ,LIVING CONDITIONS ,MINIMUM WAGE ,HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS ,FIRM PERFORMANCE ,OLDER MEN ,FEMALE EMPLOYMENT ,RURAL EMPLOYMENT ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ,NATIONAL UNEMPLOYMENT ,LABOR SURVEYS ,EMPLOYEE ,WAGE DISTRIBUTION ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE ,LABOUR ,EMPLOYMENT INCREASE ,CITIZENS ,EARTHQUAKE ,ACCOUNTING ,NATIONAL UNEMPLOYMENT RATES ,AVERAGE WAGE ,INCOME DISTRIBUTION ,YOUTH EMPLOYMENT ,VALUE ,CHILD LABOR ,LABOR RELATION ,POLICIES ,INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT ,UNEMPLOYMENT RATE ,EMPLOYMENT RATE ,GENDER DIFFERENCES ,POLICY ,UNPAID FAMILY WORKERS ,AIDS ,URBAN DWELLERS ,HUMAN CAPITAL ,EFFECTS ,RETAIL TRADE ,SCHOOL QUALITY ,INSURANCE ,JOB OFFER ,EMPLOYEES ,PRIVATE SECTOR ,SERVICE SECTORS ,EQUITY ,MIGRATION ,HUMAN RESOURCES ,POLICY RESEARCH ,DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ,HOUSEHOLD SIZE ,UNEMPLOYMENT RATES ,EMPLOYMENT RATES ,FEMALE LABOR ,EFFECTS OF GENDER ,INEQUITIES ,PAYING JOBS ,PRIMARY SCHOOL ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,LABOR ,LABOR MARKETS ,WORKFORCE ,HOUSEHOLD LEVEL ,LABOR MARKET DEVELOPMENT ,STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISE ,LABOR MARKET VARIABLES ,ECONOMICS ,WAGE INCREASES ,JOB CREATION ,PRIME AGE ,WAGE INCREASE ,LABOR FORCE ,AGGLOMERATION EFFECT ,DISCRIMINATION ,ACTIVE EMPLOYMENT ,WAGE GAP ,INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION ,URBAN AREAS ,WORKING-AGE POPULATION ,PUBLICATIONS ,LAW - Abstract
In Latin America, labor markets have been the main channel through which growth has reduced poverty, with higher labor income accounting for 49 percent of the reduction in poverty in 2008–13. Understanding labor markets is critical to designing policies and programs aimed at reducing poverty. With close to 70 percent of the population under age 30 years, labor markets are bound to be central to defining Haiti's future. Yet, labor analysis in Haiti has been constrained by the dearth of data and the focus on measuring the impact of the 2010 earthquake. This present paper contributes to filling this gap by providing an overview of Haiti's labor markets and the determinants of labor income over a decade, focusing on growing urban areas. The paper also contributes to the research on Haiti in general, as well as labor markets in fragile countries such as Haiti, in particular through an unprecedented effort to harmonize three household surveys conducted between 2001 and 2012. Building on this exercise, the study provides new insights into the development of labor markets in a particularly turbulent decade for Haiti, one that was marked by the political crisis of 2004 and the earthquake of 2010. In spite of the earthquake, the analysis shows that Haiti’s labor markets are characterized by continuity over the period. Somewhat surprisingly, the defining features remain overall unchanged in spite of the shock, pointing to heavy forces shaping economic and labor dynamics.
- Published
- 2016
6. Women’s Police Stations and Domestic Violence : Evidence from Brazil
- Author
-
Perova, Elizaveta and Reynolds, Sarah
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION ,CHILDREN ,HEALTH SYSTEM ,POLICY MAKERS ,CRIMES ,POPULATION ,SEXUAL VIOLENCE ,IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION ,WOMEN ,HOUSES ,URBAN WOMEN ,POLICE OFFICERS ,CRIME ,FEMALE ,MOTHER ,DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ,SERVICE PROVIDERS ,DISEASES ,SOCIAL SERVICES ,POPULATIONS ,FORMS OF VIOLENCE ,HEALTH ,WAR ,TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ,VIOLENCE ,PARTNERS ,DEATHS ,ADOPTION ,POLICE FORCE ,AGE AT MARRIAGE ,SHADOW REPORT ,POLICY DISCUSSIONS ,NATIONAL PRIORITY ,INHERITANCE ,SCHOOLS ,SEXUAL ABUSE ,AGE ,DOMESTIC PARTNER ,INTIMATE PARTNER ,RAPE ,QUALITY CONTROL ,ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITIES ,RURAL AREAS ,YOUNGER WOMEN ,NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS ,PROGRESS ,HOUSE ,IMPORTANT POLICY ,BATTERED WOMEN ,MARRIAGES ,MORTALITY ,SOCIAL NORMS ,POLICY GOALS ,PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT ,SERVICES ,HEALTH PROFESSIONALS ,DEVELOPMENT POLICY ,VICTIM ,YOUNG AGE ,ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ,VICTIMS ,HUMAN RIGHTS ,HEALTH SECTOR ,OLDER WOMEN ,POLICY CONCERN ,SOCIAL IMPACT ,HUSBAND ,EQUALITY ,FEMALES ,FAMILY MEMBERS ,FAMILY HOME ,COURT ,CIVIL CONFLICT ,WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION ,PARTNER RELATIONSHIPS ,INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ,ACCIDENTS ,YOUNG WOMEN ,RESIDENCE ,INTIMATE PARTNERS ,MARRIAGE ,FATHER ,WILL ,FEMALE VICTIM ,WOMAN ,JUDGE ,DEATH ,ACCESS TO JUSTICE ,NATIONAL PLAN ,POLICIES ,DOMESTIC ABUSE ,POLICY ,FAMILY PLANNING ,FAMILY ,JUSTICE ,ELIMINATION OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ,SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ,SEX ,PUBLIC HEALTH ,RESPECT ,COURTS ,NATIONAL POLICY ,PUBLIC POLICY ,FEWER CHILDREN ,POLICY RESEARCH ,LEGISLATION ,DRUGS ,KNOWLEDGE ,VICTIMS OF VIOLENCE ,HOME ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,ABUSE ,YOUNG AGE AT MARRIAGE ,WIFE ,DIVORCE ,ABUSIVE RELATIONSHIPS ,VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN ,MALE ,GENDER EQUALITY ,PARTNER ,EXPERIENCE OF ABUSE ,ACTS OF VIOLENCE ,LABOR FORCE ,LAWS ,POPULATION DENSITY ,AUTONOMY OF WOMEN ,GENDER ,HUSBANDS ,HOSPITAL ,LAW - Abstract
Although women’s police centers have been gaining popularity as a measure to address domestic violence, to date no quantitative evaluations of their impacts on the incidence of domestic violence or any other manifestations of gender equality have been done. This paper estimates the effects of women’s police stations in Brazil on female homicides, as a measure of the most severe form of domestic violence. Given that a high fraction of female deaths among women ages 15 to 49 years can be attributed to aggression by an intimate partner, female homicides appear the best available proxy for severe domestic violence considering the scarcity of data on domestic violence. The paper uses a panel of 2,074 municipalities and takes advantage of the gradual rollout of women’s police stations from 2004 to 2009, to estimate the effect of establishing a women’s police station on the municipal female homicide rate. Although the analysis does not find an association on average, women’s police stations appear to be highly effective among some groups of women: women living in metropolitan areas and younger women. Establishing a women’s police station in a metropolitan municipality is associated with a reduction in the homicide rate by 1.23 deaths per 100,000 women (which roughly amounts to a 17 percent reduction in the average homicide rate in metropolitan municipalities). The reduction in the homicide rate of women ages 15 to 24 is even higher: 5.57 deaths per 100,000 women. Qualitative work suggests that better economic opportunities and less traditional social norms in metropolitan areas may explain the heterogeneous impacts of women’s police stations in metropolitan areas and outside them.
- Published
- 2015
7. Gender Gap in Pay in the Russian Federation : Twenty Years Later, Still a Concern
- Author
-
Atencio, Andrea and Posadas, Josefina
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,INFORMATION ,INVESTMENT ,RIGHTS ,LABOR MARKET INSTITUTIONS ,JOB ,WAGE DISPERSION ,WHO ,AGRICULTURAL ,FIRM SIZE ,EMPLOYMENT ,WAGE DISCRIMINATION ,WAGE DIFFERENTIALS ,MONITORING ,POPULATION ,POPULATION CENTER ,INCOME ,SELECTION OF WOMEN ,PRODUCTIVITY ,PLACE OF RESIDENCE ,WOMEN WITH CHILDREN ,EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK ,WOMEN ,WORKERS ,EDUCATION ,JOBS ,ECONOMIC TRANSITION ,INCENTIVES ,OCCUPATIONS ,UNIVERSITY EDUCATION ,TECHNOLOGIES ,OCCUPATION ,HEALTH ,GENDER DISCRIMINATION ,ORGANIZATIONS ,PRIVATE FIRM ,POLICY DISCUSSIONS ,CAPITAL INVESTMENT ,STUDENTS ,CAREER DEVELOPMENT ,GENDER GAPS ,MARKETS ,ECONOMIC INEQUALITY ,PROFESSIONAL WOMEN ,PRICES ,PROPORTION OF FEMALES ,WAGES ,FERTILITY ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,RETIREMENT ,PROPERTY RIGHTS ,MARRIED WOMEN ,PREVIOUS STUDIES ,YOUNG MEN ,PROGRESS ,LABOR MARKET ,JOB SEARCH ,WAGE STRUCTURE ,THEORY ,DEVELOPMENT POLICY ,FIELDS ,SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS ,GENDER ASSESSMENT ,ATTRITION ,CLERKS ,INEQUALITY ,WAGE DETERMINATION ,LABOR MARKET EXPERIENCE ,WAGE DIFFERENTIAL ,AGRICULTURE ,NATIONAL POPULATION ,FEMALE EMPLOYMENT ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,RESEARCH ,INFORMATION CAMPAIGNS ,TOTAL WAGE ,PRIVATE FIRMS ,EMPLOYEE ,WAGE DISTRIBUTION ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE ,LABOUR ,HISTORY ,WAGE INEQUALITY ,POLITICAL ECONOMY ,INCOME DISTRIBUTION ,VALUE ,EQUAL WORK ,GENDER SEGREGATION ,POLICIES ,GENDER DIFFERENCES ,POLICY ,EQUAL PAY ,FAMILY ,LABOR ECONOMICS ,HUMAN CAPITAL ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,SKILLS ,EFFECTS ,EMPLOYEES ,PRIVATE SECTOR ,PUBLIC HEALTH ,RESPECT ,LAND ,TRAINING ,HUMAN RESOURCES ,HOUSEHOLD INCOME ,WORKING WOMEN ,LEGISLATORS ,LABOR MARKET CHARACTERISTICS ,POLICY RESEARCH ,FEMALE LABOR ,PREVIOUS WORK ,TECHNICAL EDUCATION ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,LABOR ,ACCESS TO JOBS ,LABOR MARKETS ,VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ,HOUSING ,ECONOMICS ,MARITAL STATUS ,GENDER EQUALITY ,WAGE INCREASES ,IMPACT OF EDUCATION ,FEMALE WORKERS ,SKILLS—EDUCATION ,WAGE INCREASE ,LABOR FORCE ,MICROECONOMICS ,DISCRIMINATION ,GENDER WAGE GAPS ,WAGE GAP ,WORKING-AGE POPULATION ,EARNINGS INEQUALITY ,MARKET ECONOMY ,GENDER ,COUNTRY GENDER ASSESSMENT ,LAW - Abstract
This paper decomposes the gender gap in pay in the Russian Federation along the earnings distribution for the period 1996–2011. The analysis uses a reweighted, recentered influence function decomposition that allows estimating the contribution of each covariate on the wage structure and composition effects along the earnings distribution. The paper finds that women are in flat career paths compared with men; the importance of observable characteristics that proxy human capital in the gender pay gap decrease along the earnings distribution; and if women’s pay took into account their educational degrees as much as men’s, the gender pay gap would disappear or even reverse at the top of the earnings distribution. The results suggest that women at the bottom of the earnings distribution should be helped to increase their labor market skills, and women at the top of the distribution should be helped to break the glass ceiling and be remunerated for their skills to the same extent as men.
- Published
- 2015
8. How Costly are Labor Gender Gaps? : Estimates for the Balkans and Turkey
- Author
-
Cuberes, David and Teignier, Marc
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,INFORMATION ,SOCIAL POLICY ,WOMEN IN LABOR ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,EMPLOYMENT TRENDS ,LABOR ORGANIZATION ,GENERAL EQUILIBRIUM ,HOUSEHOLD SURVEY ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,AGGREGATE PRODUCTIVITY ,WHO ,FEMALE EMPLOYERS ,EMPLOYMENT ,WAGE DISCRIMINATION ,POPULATION ,INCOME ,PRODUCTIVITY ,WOMAN ,EFFORT ,WOMEN ,WORKERS ,DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN ,POLICY ,ABILITY ,OCCUPATIONS ,GENDER INEQUALITY ,BLACK WOMEN ,GROUPS ,SKILLS ,EFFECTS ,OCCUPATION ,RESPECT ,STATE PLANNING ,GENDER DISCRIMINATION ,ORGANIZATIONS ,POLICY DISCUSSIONS ,AGE GROUP ,GENDER GAPS ,WORKER ,WAGE RATE ,POLICY RESEARCH ,AGE ,WAGES ,MANAGEMENT ,INTUITION ,FERTILITY ,KNOWLEDGE ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,AGE GROUPS ,LABOR ,PROGRESS ,PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN ,PRODUCTION ,LABOR MARKET ,ECONOMICS ,GENDER EQUALITY ,STUDY ,POLICY RESEARCH REPORT ON GENDER ,DEVELOPMENT POLICY ,LABOR FORCE ,ENTREPRENEURSHIP ,DISCRIMINATION ,GENDER WAGE GAPS ,INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION ,WAGE GAP ,GENDER ,HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS ,INEQUALITY - Abstract
In this paper, survey data are used to document the presence of gender gaps in self-employment, employership, and labor force participation in seven Balkan countries and Turkey. The paper examines the quantitative effects of the gender gaps on aggregate productivity and income per capita in these countries. In the model used to carry out this calculation, agents choose between being workers, self-employed, or employers, and women face several restrictions in the labor market. The data display very large gaps in labor force participation and in the percentage of employers and self-employed in the labor force. In almost all cases, these gaps reveal a clear underrepresentation of women. The calculations show that, on average, the loss associated with these gaps is about 17 percent of income per capita. One-third of this loss is due to distortions in the choice of occupations between men and women. The remaining two-thirds corresponds to the costs associated with gaps in labor force participation. The dimensions of these gender gaps and their associated costs vary considerably across age groups, with the age bracket 36–50 years being responsible for most of the losses.
- Published
- 2015
9. Women Managers and the Gender-Based Gap in Access to Education : Evidence from Firm-Level Data in Developing Countries
- Author
-
Amin, Mohammad and Islam, Asif
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,SOCIAL SCIENCE ,GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION ,INVESTMENT ,LEVELS OF EDUCATION ,CHILDREN ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,EDUCATION LEVELS ,IDS ,TRAINING PROGRAMS ,JOB OPPORTUNITIES ,LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT ,GENDER DISPARITIES ,WAGE DIFFERENTIALS ,POLICY MAKERS ,EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN ,POPULATION ,FEMINIST ,POLICY DEVELOPMENT ,FEDERAL RESERVE ,VALUES ,IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION ,FORMAL TRAINING ,RULE OF LAW ,WOMEN ,EDUCATION ,ENROLLMENT RATES ,SCIENCE ,WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS ,ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT ,BANK ,GIRLS ,POPULATIONS ,EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY ,FERTILITY RATES ,BULLETIN ,GENDER DISCRIMINATION ,LABOR SUPPLY ,PRIMARY EDUCATION ,POLICY DISCUSSIONS ,ECONOMIC ATTITUDE ,INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION ,ADULT LITERACY RATE ,PUBLIC SERVICES ,FINANCE ,SCHOOLS ,FEDERAL RESERVE BANK ,LABOUR SUPPLY ,SMALL BUSINESSES ,FERTILITY ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,REGULATORY AGENCIES ,MARRIED WOMEN ,YOUNG MEN ,PROGRESS ,LACK OF ACCESS ,IMPORTANT POLICY ,LABOR MARKET ,LEGAL RIGHTS ,GENDER DISPARITY ,ADULT LITERACY ,RATIO OF WOMEN ,LITERACY ,INDUSTRIALIZATION ,HOUSEHOLD ,ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN ,SMALL BUSINESS ,LARGE CITIES ,DEVELOPMENT POLICY ,POLICY IMPLICATIONS ,TERTIARY EDUCATION ,LEVEL OF EDUCATION ,WOMAN OWNERS ,FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ,INEQUALITY ,LITERACY RATES ,EQUALITY ,PROFITABILITY ,ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ,ACCESS TO FINANCE ,LOWER FERTILITY ,WOMEN OWNERS ,EMPOWERMENT ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,ENTREPRENEURS ,SOCIAL PROBLEMS ,MASCULINITY ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE ,CAPITAL ,LABOUR FORCE ,GREATER ACCESS ,MARRIAGE ,TERTIARY LEVELS ,PARLIAMENTARY UNION ,ROLE MODELS ,FEMALE CHILDREN ,WOMEN IN PARLIAMENT ,ACCESS TO EDUCATION ,WOMAN ,BUSINESS OWNERSHIP ,ENTERPRISE ,ATTITUDE TOWARDS WOMEN ,POLICIES ,GENDER DIFFERENCES ,POLICY ,FAMILY ,PARTICIPATION RATES ,GENDER INEQUALITY ,SCHOOLING QUALITY ,BIAS ,GENDER BIAS ,EMPLOYEES ,EDUCATION VARIABLES ,ENROLLMENT RATE ,OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN ,TRAINING ,UNION ,PARTICIPATION ,WOMEN LEADERS ,RICHER COUNTRIES ,PUBLIC POLICY ,POLICY RESEARCH ,DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ,INTERNATIONAL BANK ,PEOPLE ,SEXUALITY ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,LABOR MARKETS ,ENROLLMENT ,HIGHER ENROLLMENT ,JOB OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN ,GENDER EQUALITY ,ECONOMIC SYSTEMS ,HOUSEHOLD DUTIES ,ENROLLMENTS ,WORK EXPERIENCE ,LABOR FORCE ,BUSINESS MANAGEMENT ,FINANCIAL CAPITAL ,WOMAN OWNER ,DISCRIMINATION ,EDUCATION ACCESS ,LEADERSHIP ,GENDER ,SCHOOLING ,LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION - Abstract
Several studies explore the differences in men’s and women’s labor market participation rates and wages. Some of these differences have been linked to gender disparities in education attainment and access. The present paper contributes to this literature by analyzing the relationship between the proclivity of a firm to have a female top manager and access to education among women relative to men in the country. The paper combines the literature on women’s careers in management, which has mostly focused on developed countries, with the development literature that has emphasized the importance of access to education. Using firm-level data for 73 developing countries, the analysis finds strong evidence that countries with a higher proportion of female top managers also have higher enrollment rates for women relative to men in primary, secondary, and tertiary education.
- Published
- 2015
10. When Measure Matters : Coresidency, Truncation Bias, and Intergenerational Mobility in Developing Countries
- Author
-
Emran, M. Shahe, Greene, William, and Shilpi, Forhad
- Subjects
MEASURES ,GENDER GAP ,INDICATORS ,SAMPLES ,RESEARCH ,CHILDREN ,INCLUSION ,JOB ,SURVEY DATA ,ESTIMATES ,VALUES ,EFFORT ,WOMEN ,EDUCATION ,VARIABILITY ,BIAS ,GROUPS ,ACTIVITIES ,CORRELATIONS ,DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH ,GIRLS ,RESEARCHERS ,AGE RANGES ,ACCESS ,STANDARDS ,STUDENTS ,RURAL CHILDREN ,ESTIMATING ,EXPLORATION ,AGE ,RURAL AREAS ,INTUITION ,EXPERIMENTATION ,KNOWLEDGE ,UNDERSTANDING ,BARRIERS ,STUDY ,SAMPLING ,ATTENTION ,BIASES ,THEORY ,PRIMARY SCHOOLING ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,SIZE ,SCHOOL ,OBSERVATION ,RESEARCH WORKING PAPERS ,GENDER ,SCHOOLING ,DATA COLLECTION ,EQUALITY ,SURVEYS - Abstract
Biases from truncation caused by coresidency restriction have been a challenge for research on intergenerational mobility. Estimates of intergenerational schooling persistence from two data sets show that the intergenerational regression coefficient, the most widely used measure, is severely biased downward in coresident samples. But the bias in intergenerational correlation is much smaller, and is less sensitive to the coresidency rate. The paper provides explanations for these results. Comparison of intergenerational mobility based on the intergenerational regression coefficient across countries, gender, and over time can be misleading. Much progress on intergenerational mobility in developing countries can be made with the available data by focusing on intergenerational correlation.
- Published
- 2016
11. Adults’ Cognitive and Socioemotional Skills and their Labor Market Outcomes in Colombia
- Author
-
Acosta, Pablo, Muller, Noel, and Sarzosa, Miguel
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,CHILDHOOD ,EXAMS ,CHILDREN ,TRAINING PROGRAMS ,CLASSROOM ,AGING ,QUALITY OF EDUCATION ,SECONDARY STUDENTS ,TESTING ,YOUNG PEOPLE ,ADOLESCENTS ,TEST SCORES ,ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE ,PERSONALITY ,ROLES ,VALUES ,CURRICULA ,WOMEN ,EDUCATION ,SCIENCE ,ABILITY ,STATISTICS ,REASONING ,GROUPS ,ADOLESCENCE ,ACTIVITIES ,TESTS ,GIRLS ,AGGRESSION ,INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ,KINDERGARTEN ,READING ,EDUCATIONAL TESTING ,STUDIES ,BASIC SKILLS ,STRATEGIES ,STUDENT PERFORMANCE ,TEACHERS ,PRIMARY EDUCATION ,education ,INDEXES ,COMPETENCIES ,CRITICAL THINKING ,STUDENTS ,ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION ,SCHOOLS ,AGE ,TEACHER ,COGNITIVE SKILLS ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,NUMERACY ,AGE GROUPS ,PRIMARY STUDENT ,SCHOOL READINESS ,DECISION MAKING ,SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ,TEACHER INCENTIVES ,ACHIEVEMENT TESTS ,SCHOOL FACTORS ,ATTRIBUTION ,LITERACY ,PROFICIENCY ,PERFORMANCE ,EARLY CHILDHOOD ,THINKING ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,MATHEMATICAL ABILITY ,EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ,TERTIARY EDUCATION ,ASSESSMENTS ,COGNITIVE ACHIEVEMENT ,EXPERIENCE ,STUDENT ASSESSMENT ,HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS ,DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY ,PERSONALITY TRAITS ,APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY ,LANGUAGE ,EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES ,INTELLIGENCE ,INTERACTIONS ,COMPUTER LITERACY ,GOALS ,COGNITIVE ABILITY ,RELATIONSHIPS ,BELIEFS ,LIFE SKILLS ,PAPERS ,EFFORT ,DIPLOMAS ,STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ,ACADEMIC KNOWLEDGE ,PROBLEM SOLVING ,GENDER DIFFERENCES ,BIAS ,YOUTH ,ACHIEVEMENTS ,SKILLS ,ACTIVITY ,TRAINING ,COMPLETION ,PARTICIPATION ,STANDARDIZED TESTS ,INFORMATION PROCESSING ,LEARNING ,PSYCHOLOGY ,APTITUDES ,ACHIEVEMENT ,KNOWLEDGE ,VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ,CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES ,UNDERSTANDING ,ACQUISITION OF SKILLS ,SOCIAL BEHAVIOR ,EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES ,STUDY ,ATTENTION ,MOTIVATION ,ENTREPRENEURSHIP ,THOUGHTS ,SCHOOL DROPOUTS ,VOCATIONAL TRAINING ,COGNITION ,LEADERSHIP ,GENDER ,WRITING ,SCHOOLING ,EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT ,COLLEGE STUDENTS ,ETS - Abstract
Previous research has shown that people with higher cognitive skills (mental abilities) and socioemotional skills (behaviors and personality) get better labor market outcomes. It is unclear, however, if this conclusion applies to low- and middle-income countries, given that existing literature builds on studies that are dominantly about highincome countries. In this paper, we explore how cognitive and socioemotional skills of adults, ages 15–64, relate to their labor market outcomes in the context of Colombia. Controlling for a range of confounding factors in a crosssectional survey, we do find that adults with higher skills also have better outcomes, while cognitive and socioemotional skills correlate with different ones and seemingly through different channels. Adults with higher cognitive skills have better jobs (with higher earnings, more formal, and highskilled) and are more likely to complete tertiary education. Socioemotional skills correlate more modestly with having a better job but more strongly with labor market participation and tertiary-education completion. Results suggest that adults with both cognitive and socioemotional skills tend to do better in the labor market and that policies boosting the development of both types may be beneficial in Colombia.
- Published
- 2015
12. Labor Migration and Welfare in the Kyrgyz Republic (2008-2013)
- Author
-
World Bank Group
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,MIGRANT ,LEVELS OF EDUCATION ,SOCIAL PROBLEM ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,SEGMENTS OF SOCIETY ,GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT ,MIGRANT FAMILIES ,IMMIGRANTS ,LABOR MIGRATION ,WHO ,PULL FACTORS ,YOUNG PEOPLE ,NUMBER OF MIGRANTS ,TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ,POLICY MAKERS ,POPULATION ,NATIONAL LEVEL ,SAFETY NETS ,MIGRANTS ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,EDUCATION OF CHILDREN ,COUNTRIES OF DESTINATION ,AGE DISTRIBUTION ,GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS ,INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ,MIGRATION POLICIES ,POPULATIONS ,INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT ,LABOR SUPPLY ,PENSIONS ,INTERNAL MIGRANTS ,LIVING STANDARDS ,MIGRANT WORKERS ,STUDENTS ,HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ,REMITTANCE ,NATIVE POPULATION ,NUMBER OF WORKERS ,NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS ,RURAL POVERTY ,RURAL AREAS ,FLOW OF MIGRANTS ,PURCHASING POWER ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,PROGRESS ,IMPORTANT POLICY ,VULNERABILITY ,LABOR MARKET ,SAFETY NET ,ELDERLY ,DOMESTIC POVERTY ,SOCIAL STATUS ,DEPENDENCY RATIOS ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,DOMESTIC WORKERS ,TERTIARY EDUCATION ,MIGRATION POLICY ,WORK FORCE ,HOUSEHOLD SURVEYS ,INEQUALITY ,SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ,FOREIGN REMITTANCES ,POLITICAL INSTABILITY ,FAMILY MEMBERS ,LABOR MIGRANTS ,IMMIGRANT ,COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ,GOVERNMENT SUPPORT ,URBAN POVERTY ,HOST COUNTRIES ,EDUCATIONAL CHOICES ,MIGRATION STATUS ,SPOUSE ,CITIZENS ,SECONDARY DEGREE ,INTERNAL MIGRATION ,ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS ,LABORERS ,ACCESS TO EDUCATION ,MIGRANT POPULATIONS ,REMITTANCES ,PURCHASING POWER PARITY ,POLICIES ,POLICY ,HOST COUNTRY ,HUMAN CAPITAL ,CITIZEN ,SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ,BENEFITS OF MIGRATION ,INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW ,TRAINING ,MIGRATION ,SOCIAL ASSISTANCE ,LABOUR MIGRATION ,HOUSEHOLD INCOME ,WORKING POPULATION ,PULL FACTOR ,HOUSEHOLD POVERTY ,RETURN MIGRATION ,DEPENDENCY RATIO ,POLICY RESEARCH ,DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ,HOUSEHOLD SIZE ,MIGRANT HOUSEHOLDS ,INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION ,FEMALE LABOR ,UNSKILLED WORKERS ,KNOWLEDGE ,POLICY RESEARCH WORKING PAPER ,WORKFORCE ,INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION ,HOUSEHOLD LEVEL ,DIVORCE ,INDIVIDUAL WELFARE ,POLICY BRIEF ,MARITAL STATUS ,HOUSEHOLD BUDGET ,INTERNATIONAL MIGRANTS ,LABOR FORCE ,WAGE GAP ,URBAN AREAS ,GENDER - Abstract
This paper examines the impact of labor migration from a welfare and social development perspective. Rather than focusing on regulatory and legal aspects determining migration, this note centers on the impacts of migration on the domestic welfare of households in the Kyrgyz Republic. The profiling of labor migration and identification of knowledge gaps are used to inform the development of strategies for more effective and sustainable welfare impacts from labor migration and remittances.
- Published
- 2015
13. The Heterogeneous Effect of Information on Student Performance : Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial in Mexico
- Author
-
Avitabile, Ciro and de Hoyos, Rafael
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,SCHOOL DROP ,LEARNING OUTCOMES ,INVESTMENT ,MATH TEST ,CHILDREN ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,GRADE REPETITION ,EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES ,CLASSROOM ,MATHEMATICS ,CHEMISTRY ,EMPLOYMENT ,TEST SCORES ,EXAM ,WORK STATUS ,POSITIVE IMPACT ,STUDENT AWARENESS ,VALUES ,MARRIAGE MARKET ,SUBJECTS ,WOMEN ,HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS ,WORKERS ,EDUCATION ,ENROLLMENT RATES ,DEGREE PROGRAMS ,CURRICULUM ,FEMALE STUDENTS ,GROUPS ,STUDENT SCORES ,GIRLS ,HIGH SCHOOL GRADUATES ,COLLEGE ,INTERVENTIONS ,SECONDARY SCHOOLS ,READING ,CURRICULUM REFORM ,STUDENT PERFORMANCE ,TEACHERS ,education ,ADOLESCENT GIRLS ,STUDENTS ,GRADE EXAM ,UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION ,SUBJECT AREAS ,CAREERS ,ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION ,SCHOOLS ,SOCIAL SCIENCES ,PUBLIC EDUCATION ,LOWER SECONDARY ,TEACHER ,COGNITIVE SKILLS ,RURAL AREAS ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,SCHOOL SUPPLY ,SECONDARY EDUCATION SYSTEM ,HIGHER EDUCATION ,SCHOOL COMPLETION ,LABOR MARKET ,GRADUATE ,HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS ,COMPUTER SOFTWARE ,COLLEGE COSTS ,SOCIAL NORMS ,CLASSROOMS ,SCHOOL CURRICULUM ,BETTER SCHOOLS ,MATH TEACHERS ,TERTIARY EDUCATION ,SCHOOL PERFORMANCE ,STUDENT ASSESSMENT ,FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS ,LITERATURE ,ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ,AVERAGE TEST SCORE ,STUDENT REPORTS ,SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ,COMPLETION RATES ,RESEARCH ,EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES ,LOWER SECONDARY EDUCATION ,HIGH SCHOOL ,UNIVERSITY DEGREE ,UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOLS ,EDUCATIONAL CHOICES ,LOWER SECONDARY SCHOOL ,EDUCATION OUTCOMES ,LIFE EXPECTANCY ,OPEN ACCESS ,PAPERS ,GRADUATES ,ECONOMIC OUTCOMES ,STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ,SCHOOL STUDENTS ,STUDENT ,GRADUATION RATES ,YOUTH ,EDUCATION SYSTEM ,HUMAN CAPITAL ,UPPER SECONDARY ,SKILLS ,UNIVERSAL ENROLLMENT ,TECHNICAL SCHOOLS ,SECONDARY SCHOOL ,GRANTS ,HUMAN RESOURCES ,RETURNS TO EDUCATION ,HOUSEHOLD INCOME ,BIOLOGY ,ADMINISTRATIVE DATA ,LEARNING ,GENDER COMPOSITION ,PHYSICS ,DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ,ACHIEVEMENT ,HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM ,KNOWLEDGE ,ENROLLMENT ,VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ,SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAM ,BETTER LEARNING ,GRADE TEST ,HUMAN CAPITAL INVESTMENT ,STUDENT OUTCOMES ,DROPOUT RATES ,AVERAGE SCORE ,EARLY GRADES ,SCHOOL ATTENDANCE ,SCHOOL ,UNIVERSITY ,SCHOOLING ,MATH SCORES ,MATH TEACHER - Abstract
A randomized control trial was conducted to study whether providing 10th grade students with information about the returns to upper secondary and tertiary education, and a source of financial aid for tertiary education, can contribute to improve student performance. The study finds that the intervention had no effects on the probability of taking a 12th grade national standardized exam three years after, a proxy for on-time high school completion, but a positive and significant impact on learning outcomes and self-reported measures of effort. The effects are larger for girls and students from households with a relatively high income. These findings are consistent with a simple model where time discount determines the increase in effort and only students with adequate initial conditions are able to translate increased effort into better outcomes.
- Published
- 2015
14. Women Empowerment for Poverty and Inequality Reduction in Sudan
- Author
-
Osman, Eiman, Etang, Alvin, and Kirkwood, Daniel
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,GENDER EQUITY ,GENDER ,WELFARE ,CAPITAL ACCUMULATION ,POVERTY ,ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - Abstract
This paper examines how gender equality has evolved in Sudan during the last decade. The analysis comprises various dimensions including the accumulation of endowment in all its forms (human capital and physical capital), access to economic opportunities, access to services (water, sanitation, and electricity), and voice/representation to make decision at all levels. Key findings of the paper are the following. Sudanese women live in poorer than Sudanese men during key productive and reproductive years and appear to suffer greater poverty-related impacts of childcare and divorce. In education, gender gaps are shrinking as the proportion of girls attending primary school and the proportion of boys attending secondary school both continue to increase. Sudan’s maternal mortality ratio declined between 2004 and 2014, supported by an improvement in access to reproductive care services. Time spent in collecting water is a burden to both genders, with no significant difference between females and males. A higher proportion of female-headed households are in the lowest asset index quintile compared to male-headed households, while a lower share of female-headed households are in the highest asset index quintile than male-headed households. Male-headed households have better access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services and electricity. Sudan has a large gender gap in labor force participation that contrasts starkly to the average for the Sub-Saharan African region. Female household heads are more likely to be food insecure and experience higher exposure to shocks, compared to male heads. The paper includes a discussion on the potential impact of COVID-19 on gender inequality, as well as possible policy options to reduce gender inequality in Sudan.
- Published
- 2022
15. What Explains Boys’ Educational Underachievement in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia?
- Author
-
Elsayed, Mahmoud A.A., Clerkin, Aidan, Pitsia, Vasiliki, Aljabri, Nayyaf, and Al-Harbi, Khaleel
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,ABSENTEEISM ,education ,STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT ,EDUCATION ,BOYS' UNDERPERFORMANCE ,UNDERACHIEVEMENT - Abstract
This paper examines the factors that are associated with boys’ underachievement in mathematics and science in Saudi Arabia, where students attend gender-segregated schools from grade 1 onward, as well as student achievement in these two subjects in grades 4 and 8 more generally. The paper employs data from two recent large-scale assessments of education: Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study 2019 and Saudi Arabia’s National Assessment of Learning Outcomes 2018. The results suggest that in grade 4, school climate was more strongly associated with boys' compared with girls' achievement in both mathematics and science, with boys attending schools of poorer school climate having a considerably lower performance compared with girls attending such schools. The findings also indicate that although greater literacy and numeracy readiness was linked with higher science achievement among boys and girls, grade 4 boys tended to benefit more from this readiness than girls. In addition, the results show that student absenteeism in grade 4 is particularly strongly associated with decreases in mathematics achievement among boys. In grade 8, interactions between student gender and students’ confidence in science, the degree of schools’ emphasis on academic success, and teachers’ age are observed. The paper concludes by discussing some of the implications of these findings for educators and policy makers in Saudi Arabia.
- Published
- 2022
16. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Women-Led Businesses
- Author
-
Torres, Jesica, Maduko, Franklin, Gaddis, Isis, Iacovone, Leonardo, and Beegle, Kathleen
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,PANDEMIC IMPACT ,SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISES ,COVID-19 ,MICROENTERPRISES ,CORONAVIRUS ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS ,FIRM PERFORMANCE ,ENTREPRENEURSHIP - Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has struck businesses across the globe with unprecedented impacts. The world economy has been hit hard and firms have experienced a myriad of challenges, but these challenges have been heterogeneous across firms. This paper examines one important dimension of this heterogeneity: the differential effect of the pandemic on women-led and men-led businesses. The paper exploits a unique sample of close to 40,000 mainly formal businesses from 49 countries covering the months between April and September 2020. The findings show that women-led micro-businesses, women-led businesses in the hospitality industry, and women-led businesses in countries more severely affected by the COVID-19 shock were disproportionately hit compared with businesses led by men. At the same time, women-led micro-firms were markedly more likely to report increasing the use of digital platforms, but less likely to invest in software, equipment, or digital solutions. Finally, the findings also show that women-led businesses were less likely to have received some form of public support although they have been hit harder in some domains. In a crisis of the magnitude of the COVID-19 pandemic, evidence tracing the impact of the shock in a timely fashion is desperately needed to help inform the design of policy interventions. This real-time glimpse into women-led businesses fills this need for robust and policy-relevant evidence, and due to the large country coverage of the data, it is possible to identify patterns that extend beyond any one country, region, or sector, but at the cost of some granularity for testing more complex economic theories.
- Published
- 2021
17. Iraq Economic Monitor, Spring 2021 : Seizing the Opportunity for Reforms and Managing Volatility
- Author
-
World Bank
- Subjects
LABOR MARKET ,GENDER GAP ,PANDEMIC IMPACT ,ECONOMIC OUTLOOK ,MONETARY POLICY ,SOCIAL NORMS ,COVID-19 ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,CORONAVIRUS ,OIL AND GASS ,PUBLIC FINANCE ,RISKS ,EXTERNAL SECTOR ,MASHREQ GENDER FACILITY ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,EMPLOYMENT ,FISCAL TRENDS - Abstract
Recognizing the severity of the crisis, the GoI devised a national reform plan (the white paper) that sets out a old blueprint of structural reforms to achieve sustainable medium-term growth through economic diversification and boosting private sector growth and private sector job creation. The GoI has also devised an implementation and governance framework for the white paper in which it proposed a detailed reform matrix and launched a High Reform Council headed by the Prime Minister to accompany the implementation. Actions have already been realized starting with the reforms adopted in the 2021 budget law and other areas including in the business environment and the financial sector. The ultimate success of the reforms though depends on the political will and public support to implement the proposed measures and lead the country out of a long-standing fragility trap. Iraq's economic outlook hinges on global oil markets prospects, the implementation of the white paper reforms, and on the evolution of COVID-19 (coronavirus). The economy is forecast to gradually recover on the back of rising oil prices and rising OPEC+ production quotas. GDP is projected to grow by 1.9 percent in 2021 and 6.3 percent on average over the subsequent two years (Table 1). Non-oil GDP is forecast to recover in 2021, growing by 5.5 percent before converging to historically low potential growth trend in 2022–23. The currency devaluation is estimated to push inflation to 8.5 percent in 2021 due to limited capacity for import substitution. This will present an additional pressure on Iraqi households' wellbeing. The fiscal stance remains expansionary with only limited reform measures being included in the 2021 budget law after an extended deliberation in the Parliament. Higher oil revenues in tandem with the devaluation effect on those receipts are projected to narrow the fiscal deficit to 5.4 percent of GDP in 2021. Financing needs are forecast to remain elevated compared to pre-COVID-19 levels, averaging at 13.7 billion Dollars per year (7.5 percent of GDP) in the outlook period (2021–2023). The 2021 approved budget includes limited reforms such as new consumption taxes and better targeting of PDS transfers which are in line with the GoI white paper. If implemented they could help moderate the fiscal deficit and exchange rate pressures. However, more structural issues such as public wages and pension rigidities remain unaddressed.
- Published
- 2021
18. A Structural Model of the Labor Market to Understand Gender Gaps among Marginalized Roma Communities
- Author
-
Salazar-Saenz, Mauricio and Robayo-Abril, Monica
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,LABOR MARKET ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,WESTERN BALKANS ,ROMA ,HIRING BIAS ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,MARGINALIZED ROMA ,LAYOFFS - Abstract
This paper constructs and estimates a household-level search model to analyze Roma spouses' utility maximization for leisure, home production, and work. The paper aims to explain labor market gender gaps in a marginalized Roma population with low labor market participation rates (males 53 percent and females 17 percent). The analysis uses data from the 2017 Regional Roma Survey for six Western Balkan countries. The simulation results show that the main source for gender differentials in the labor market is the unequal opportunities in favor of males -- not gender preferences or differences in home production productivity. Therefore, most of the gender differences in the labor market can be closed by providing wives the same labor market conditions as husbands. Counterfactual policy experiments show that policies that increase the frequency of receiving a job offer, decrease the frequency of laying off workers, and reduce search increase Roma husbands' labor participation. Policies that equalize wages induces more wives to join the labor market and husbands to withdraw from it. This outcome signals that the wage gap is the dimension that deters the greatest number of Roma wives from joining the labor market.
- Published
- 2020
19. The Impact of Employer Discrimination on Female Labor Market Outcomes: Experimental Evidence from Tunisia
- Author
-
Mohammed Audah, Jumana Jamal Subhi Alaref, Gustavo Nicolás Páez, and Samira Nikaein Towfighian
- Subjects
Economic sector ,media_common.quotation_subject ,Unemployment ,Callback ,Percentage point ,Demographic economics ,Gender gap ,Human physical appearance ,Discount points ,Psychology ,media_common - Abstract
The role of employer discrimination in widening labor market differences between men and women has been hypothesized and investigated in different settings. Using a field experiment, this paper examines the presence and magnitude of gender-based discrimination by employers at the point of screening in Tunisia. The study sent out 1,571 fictitious and substantially identical pairs of male and female resumes in response to online job advertisements. On average, women were 2.4 percentage points more likely than men to receive a callback from an employer. However, this average effect hides substantial heterogeneity across economic sectors. In the information technology sector, women were 15 percentage points less likely to receive a callback than men. No discrimination against or in favor of women is found in engineering, whereas in marketing and finance, women were 19 and 4 percentage points more likely to receive a callback, respectively. The paper also finds that, unlike men, women may suffer from discrimination based on their physical appearance. Veiled women were 8.5 percentage points less likely to receive a callback than non-veiled women. Overall, the findings suggest that, at the point of screening, employer discrimination against women in Tunisia is sector specific, and, on its own, it cannot fully explain the complex challenge of female unemployment in the country.
- Published
- 2020
20. The Impact of Employer Discrimination on Female Labor Market Outcomes : Experimental Evidence from Tunisia
- Author
-
Alaref, Jumana, Nikaein Towfighian, Samira, Paez, Gustavo Nicolas, and Audah, Mohammed
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,LABOR SKILLS ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,WAGE DIFFERENTIAL ,LABOR ECONOMICS ,HIRING BIAS ,LABOR DISCRIMINATION ,GENDER ECONOMICS ,FIELD EXPERIMENT - Abstract
The role of employer discrimination in widening labor market differences between men and women has been hypothesized and investigated in different settings. Using a field experiment, this paper examines the presence and magnitude of gender-based discrimination by employers at the point of screening in Tunisia. The study sent out 1,571 fictitious and substantially identical pairs of male and female resumes in response to online job advertisements. On average, women were 2.4 percentage points more likely than men to receive a callback from an employer. However, this average effect hides substantial heterogeneity across economic sectors. In the information technology sector, women were 15 percentage points less likely to receive a callback than men. No discrimination against or in favor of women is found in engineering, whereas in marketing and finance, women were 19 and 4 percentage points more likely to receive a callback, respectively. The paper also finds that, unlike men, women may suffer from discrimination based on their physical appearance. Veiled women were 8.5 percentage points less likely to receive a callback than non-veiled women. Overall, the findings suggest that, at the point of screening, employer discrimination against women in Tunisia is sector specific, and, on its own, it cannot fully explain the complex challenge of female unemployment in the country.
- Published
- 2020
21. Gender Pension Gaps in a Private Retirement Accounts System : A Dynamic Model of Household Labor Supply and Savings
- Author
-
Joubert, Clement and Todd, Petra E.
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,SAVINGS ,PENSION SYSTEM ,HOUSEHOLD LABOR ,PRIVATE PENSION ,RETIREMENT - Abstract
This paper develops and estimates a dynamic model of individuals' and couples' labor supply, savings, and retirement decisions to analyze how the design of a privatized pension system affects gender pension gaps. Chile has one of the longest running nationwide private retirements accounts systems in the world, operating since 1980. It has served as a model for many countries and was reformed in 2008 to alleviate old- age poverty and reduce gender pension gaps. The paper estimates the dynamic model using pre-reform data and compares the model's short-term predictions with available evidence on the reform's causal impacts. The analysis finds that household structure is an important determinant of the behavioral and distributional impacts of the reform. The paper evaluates how actual and counterfactual changes in the pension system design affect men's and women's economic decisions, pension receipts, and program costs over a longer time horizon. Three design features significantly reduce gender pension gaps: expanding minimum pension benefit eligibility, providing a per-child pension bonus, and increasing women's retirement age to be equal to men's.
- Published
- 2020
22. Changes in Female Employment in Mexico: Demographics, Economics, and Policies
- Author
-
Diego Cardozo Medeiros, Mexico Alberto Vergara Bahena, Samuel Freije-Rodriguez, and Gladys Lopez-Acevedo
- Subjects
Demographics ,Obstacle ,media_common.quotation_subject ,Probit model ,Unemployment ,Economics ,Unemployment rate ,Demographic economics ,Gender gap ,Employability ,Educational attainment ,media_common - Abstract
The unemployment and labor force participation gender gaps narrowed in Mexico after the 2008 global economic crisis, when female labor force participation increased. This paper aims to understand female labor force participation growth and identify its main determinants. For that purpose, the paper estimates a probit model with data from the National Employment Survey of 2007 and 2017, when the unemployment rate returned to the pre-crisis level. Broadly, the results show that increasing labor force participation of women ages 36 to 65 sustained the growth of overall female labor force participation, women's educational attainment can offset any individual or household obstacle to women's employability, and childcare availability significantly supports mothers' employability.
- Published
- 2020
23. Financial Inclusion and Inclusive Growth : What Does It Mean for Sri Lanka?
- Author
-
Arandara, Rathnija and Gunasekera, Shanuki
- Subjects
ACCESS TO FINANCE ,INCLUSIVE GROWTH ,GENDER GAP ,FORMAL ECONOMY ,DIGITAL FINANCE ,MICROFINANCE ,GENDER ,FINANCIAL INCLUSION - Abstract
This paper uses data from the National Financial Inclusion Survey 2018 to understand the determinants of financial inclusion in Sri Lanka and their significance for inclusive growth. The findings highlight that gender, education, and formal employment are important determinants of financial inclusion in the country. The results indicate that being a male, having better education, and having formal employment increase a person's access to, and usage of, formal finance. The results also suggest that despite high levels and gender parity in education, Sri Lankan women seem to access more informal finance (and less formal finance) compared with men. There is a general lack of familiarity and low use of digital finance among women. Comparative analysis using the World Bank Group’s Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) Database 2017 indicates that although Sri Lanka leads its regional peers in access to finance, it lags its more aspirational East Asian counterparts in usage of savings and credit products as well as digital finance. The paper's findings complement recent policy initiatives such as the National Financial Inclusion Strategy for Sri Lanka. The findings also help in designing targeted actions to address the remaining gaps in financial inclusion in Sri Lanka.
- Published
- 2020
24. Drivers of the Gender Gap in Pensions : Evidence from EU-SILC and the OECD Pension Model
- Author
-
Lis, Maciej and Bonthuis, Boele
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,LABOR MARKET ,PENSIONS ,NOTIONALLY DEFINED CONTRIBUTION - Abstract
This paper explores trends and drivers behind the gender gap in pensions (GGP) in Europe, focusing on countries with notionally defined contribution (NDC) schemes: Italy, Latvia, Norway, Poland, and Sweden. Based on current gender gaps on the labor market, the paper relates the progressivity of pension systems and the coverage of child care related spells to the GGP. It shows that NDC countries do not stand out as a group compared to other European countries in terms of pension outcomes for women. Nevertheless, NDC countries differ significantly from one another. Choices of indexation of pensions in payment and survivors’ pension options have a strong impact on genderinequalities. Still, labor market differences are the most important driver of the GGP.
- Published
- 2019
25. Gender Gaps in Property Ownership in Sub-Saharan Africa
- Author
-
Gaddis, Isis, Lahoti, Rahul, and Li, Wenjie
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,PROPERTY OWNERSHIP ,PROPERTY RIGHTS ,INTRAHOUSEHOLD INEQUALITY ,INEQUALITY ,LAND TENURE - Abstract
Women's ownership, use, and control over property matter for their well-being and agency and can influence outcomes for the second generation -- women's daughters and sons. Additionally, gender gaps in property ownership induce allocative inefficiencies and foregone economic output, thus having economywide implications. This paper uses data for 28 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa to shine a spotlight on gaps between men and women in land and housing (property) ownership and analyze patterns across and within countries. The results indicate that men are about three times as likely as women to claim sole ownership over property. Gender gaps are smaller if joint ownership is taken into consideration, but still materially disadvantage women. Men are significantly more likely to own property than women even after controlling for a host of other factors. This paper is an important step toward a better understanding of gender gaps in property ownership in Africa and outlines an agenda for future data collection and analytic efforts.
- Published
- 2018
26. Jobs! Electricity Shortages and Unemployment in Africa
- Author
-
Mensah, Justice Tei
- Subjects
UNEMPLOYMENT ,GENDER GAP ,TOTAL FACTOR PRODUCTIVITY ,MARGINAL PRODUCT OF LABOR ,PRODUCTIVITY ,LABOR MOBILITY ,ELECTRICITY ACCESS ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,FIRMS ,EMPLOYMENT ,BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT ,ELECTRICITY ,ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION - Abstract
This paper presents evidence on how the provision of unreliable electricity constrains expansion in the productive sectors of the economy, consequently leading to a reduction in the number of employment opportunities in Africa. Using geodata on electricity transmission networks on the continent, the paper computes an index that explores spatial and time variations in technical losses in the electricity network as an instrument for electricity shortages. The instrument is combined with geo-referenced data from the Afrobarometer and Enterprise Surveys from more than 20 African countries to estimate the causal impact of electricity shortages on employment, and the mechanisms driving the impact. Results from the paper reveal that electricity shortages exert a substantial negative impact on employment rates in Africa. The evidence also shows three channels by which electricity shortages affect labor market participation. First, on the extensive margin, electricity shortages constrain the creation of new businesses through their negative effect on entrepreneurship. Second, in the intensive margin, electricity shortages reduce the output and productivity of existing firms, thereby causing them to reduce labor demand. Third, electricity shortages act as a distortion in the business climate, thereby reducing the trade and export competitiveness of African firms.
- Published
- 2018
27. Gender Differences in Poverty and Household Composition through the Life-Cycle : A Global Perspective
- Author
-
Munoz Boudet, Ana Maria, Buitrago, Paola, De La Briere, Benedicte Leroy, Newhouse, David, Rubiano Matulevich, Eliana, Scott, Kinnon, and Suarez-Becerra, Pablo
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,GENDER INEQUALITY ,LIFECYCLE ,WOMEN ,GENDER ,POVERTY AND EQUITY ,HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION ,POVERTY - Abstract
This paper uses household surveys from 89 countries to look at gender differences in poverty in the developing world. In the absence of individual-level poverty data, the paper looks at what can we learn in terms of gender differences by looking at the available individual and household level information. The estimates are based on the same surveys and welfare measures as official World Bank poverty estimates. The paper focuses on the relationship between age, sex and poverty. And finds that, girls and women of reproductive age are more likely to live in poor households (below the international poverty line) than boys and men. It finds that 122 women between the ages of 25 and 34 live in poor households for every 100 men of the same age group. The analysis also examines the household profiles of the poor, seeking to go beyond headship definitions. Using a demographic household composition shows that nuclear family households of two married adults and children account for 41 percent of poor households, and are the most frequent household where poor women are found. Using an economic household composition classification, households with a male earner, children and a non-income earner spouse are the most frequent among the poor at 36 percent, and the more frequent household where poor women live. For individuals, as well as for households, the presence of children increases the household likelihood to be poor, and this has a specific impact on women, but does not fully explain the observed female poverty penalty.
- Published
- 2018
28. What Explains the Gender Gap Reversal in Education? The Role of the Tail Hypothesis
- Author
-
Ohto Kanninen and Laurent Loic Yves Bossavie
- Subjects
Alternative hypothesis ,Test score ,Econometrics ,Statistical dispersion ,Gender gap ,Academic achievement ,Psychology ,Affect (psychology) ,Educational attainment ,Test (assessment) - Abstract
The gender gap reversal in educational attainment is ubiquitous in high-income countries, as well as in a growing share of low- and middle-income countries. To account for the reversal, this paper proposes a theoretical framework in which the interplay between the distributions of academic aptitudes and changes in the net benefits of schooling over time affect the gender composition of those getting more schooling. The framework is used to formulate and test alternative hypotheses to explain the reversal. The paper introduces the tail dynamics hypothesis, which builds on the lower dispersion of academic achievement among females observed empirically. It also studies the mean dynamics hypothesis, which is based on previous literature. Both hypotheses can explain the reversal in this framework. However, the assumption behind the tail hypothesis is better supported by the data. Its predictions are also consistent with gender differences in Scholastic Achievement Test score dynamics and in international test score distributions that cannot be explained by previous theories.
- Published
- 2018
29. What Explains the Gender Gap Reversal in Education? Theory and Evidence
- Author
-
Bossavie, Laurent and Kanninen, Ohto
- Subjects
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,GENDER GAP ,STUDENT TESTING ,SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST - Abstract
The gender gap reversal in educational attainment is ubiquitous in high-income countries, as well as in a growing share of low- and middle-income countries. To account for the reversal, this paper proposes a theoretical framework in which the interplay between the distributions of academic aptitudes and changes in the net benefits of schooling over time affect the gender composition of those getting more schooling. The framework is used to formulate and test alternative hypotheses to explain the reversal. The paper introduces the tail dynamics hypothesis, which builds on the lower dispersion of academic achievement among females observed empirically. It also studies the mean dynamics hypothesis, which is based on previous literature. Both hypotheses can explain the reversal in this framework. However, the assumption behind the tail hypothesis is better supported by the data. Its predictions are also consistent with gender differences in Scholastic Achievement Test score dynamics and in international test score distributions that cannot be explained by previous theories.
- Published
- 2018
30. Women's Entrepreneurship : How to Measure the Gap between New Female and Male Entrepreneurs?
- Author
-
Meunier, Frederic, Krylova, Yulia, and Ramalho, Rita
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,BUSINESS OWNERSHIP ,WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS ,ENTREPRENEURSHIP - Abstract
This paper analyzes data on female and male entrepreneurship that were collected by the World Bank Group's Entrepreneurship Database. Recognizing the importance of a differentiated approach to entrepreneurship in terms of legal entities, the data on female and male business owners are collected at the level of limited liability companies and sole proprietorships. Forty-four of the 143 economies that participated in the Entrepreneurship project provided some sex-disaggregated data for 2016. The paper finds that the gender gap in business ownership remains high in many economies around the world. In the majority of the analyzed economies, less than one-third of new limited liability company owners are women. Although sole proprietorships are more frequently used by female entrepreneurs, only three economies have similar or equal number of women business owners relative to men. The gap in female entrepreneurship is especially apparent in low-income economies, where women are much less likely than men to start a new business. The paper also provides new insights into the relationship between female entrepreneurship and various institutional factors, including women's financial inclusion, the gender gap in education, and legal rights disparities. The analysis suggests a need to expand the collection of sex-disaggregated data, to trace the economies' progress in narrowing the existing gender gap in entrepreneurship.
- Published
- 2017
31. The Impact of Strengthening Agricultural Extension Services : Evidence from Ethiopia
- Author
-
Buehren, Niklas, Goldstein, Markus, Molina, Ezequiel, and Vaillant, Julia
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,AFRICA GENDER POLICY ,CROP CHOICE ,AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION ,WOMEN AND AGRICULTURE ,TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION ,FARMERS ,GENDER INNOVATION LAB - Abstract
This paper evaluates the effect of the Rural Capacity Building Project, which aimed at promoting growth by strengthening the agricultural service systems in Ethiopia and by making them more responsive to smallholders' needs. The project intended to increase the outreach of agricultural extension services to help farmers become aware of and adopt economically viable and environmentally sustainable technologies and practices. The paper examines the impact of the Rural Capacity Building Project using panel data on 1,485 geographically dispersed households in project and control kebeles. The results show that the strengthening of extension services had a positive impact on economic participation in the household, land area cultivated, and adoption of marketable crops, suggesting that access to extension helped farmers switch to more commercial, market-oriented agriculture. In addition, and contrary to previous evidence from other countries, female-headed households seem to have benefited equally from the project. However, the project was not able to reduce the preexisting gender gap in agricultural outcomes.
- Published
- 2017
32. Compensation, Diversity and Inclusion at the World Bank Group
- Author
-
Das, Jishnu, Joubert, Clement, and Tordoir, Sander Florian
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,WAGES ,DIVERSITY - Abstract
This paper examines salary gaps by gender and nationality at the World Bank Group between 1987 and 2015 using a unique panel of all employees over this period. The paper develops and implements a dynamic simulation approach that models existing gaps as arising from differences in job composition at entry, entry salaries, salary growth and attrition. There are three main findings. First, 76 percent of the $27,400 salary gap across the average male and female staff at the World Bank Group can be attributed to composition effects, whereby men entered the World Bank Group at higher paid positions, particularly in the earlier half of the sample. Second, salary gaps 15 years after joining the World Bank Group can favor either men or women depending on their entry position. Third, for the most common entry-level professional position (known as Grade GF at the World Bank Group) there is a gender gap of 3.5 percent in favor of males 15 years after entry. The majority of this gap (84 percent) is due to differences in salary growth rather than differences in entry salaries or attrition. The pattern of these gaps is similar for staff from different nationalities. The dynamic decomposition method developed here thus identifies specific areas of concern and can be widely applied to the analysis of salary gaps within firms.
- Published
- 2017
33. The Gender Gap in the Use of Financial Services in Turkey
- Author
-
Klapper, Leora and Singh, Sandeep
- Subjects
financial literacy ,access to finance ,gender inequality ,gender gap - Abstract
The reach of the financial sector in Turkey is wide - as measured by account penetration, use of electronic payments, and credit card ownership - relative to both developing and high-income countries. The gender gap in Turkey for account ownership is 49 percentage points, the highest rate among all middle-income countries. This paper discusses environmental factors that may help explain the significantly low use of financial services by women in Turkey. The authors explore reasons for the large gender gap in financial inclusion in Turkey and find that female workplace participation is an important factor in explaining financial inclusion among women. Men are more than three times as likely as women to report using an account to receive money from work and or the government. This paper is organized as follows: section one gives introduction. Section two summarizes account ownership and usage in Turkey. Section three analyzes formal and informal saving rates, section four discusses the use of formal and informal credit and the high use of store credit cards. Section five examines gender differences in enterprise financing.
- Published
- 2015
34. Gender Education Gaps among Indigenous and Nonindigenous Groups in Bolivia
- Author
-
Reimão, Maira Emy and Taş, Emcet O.
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,WOMEN IN LITERACY ,LEVELS OF EDUCATION ,IMPACT OF EDUCATION ON FERTILITY ,EDUCATION SYSTEMS ,EDUCATIONAL GAPS ,INDIGENOUS EDUCATION ,QUALITY OF EDUCATION ,FEMALE EDUCATION ,RURAL SCHOOLS ,INDIGENOUS CULTURE ,COMMITMENT TO MULTICULTURALISM ,RURAL EDUCATION ,SCHOOL AGE ,PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION ,VALUES ,EDUCATION ,ACCESS TO PRIMARY EDUCATION ,CURRICULUM ,DECENTRALIZATION OF EDUCATION ,TEACHER ABSENTEEISM ,PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES ,SCHOOL COVERAGE ,TEACHERS ,PRIMARY EDUCATION ,EXPANSION OF EDUCATION ,ETHNIC GROUPS ,BASIC EDUCATION ,EDUCATION DISCOURSE ,SCHOOLS ,SANITATION ,TEACHER QUALIFICATION ,PARENTAL EDUCATION ,TEACHER ,SECONDARY EDUCATION ,UNIVERSAL EDUCATION ,INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES ,LOWER LEVELS OF EDUCATION ,FORMAL SCHOOLING ,SCHOOL COMPLETION ,INDIGENOUS PEOPLE ,EDUCATION SERVICES ,LITERACY ,SCHOOL-AGE ,SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN ,LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY ,SCHOOL INFRASTRUCTURE ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ,INDIGENOUS CHILDREN ,SCHOOL NETWORK ,EDUCATIONAL DISPARITIES ,LIVING CONDITIONS ,EXCLUSION IN EDUCATION ,LITERACY RATES ,RURAL TEACHERS ,COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ,COMPLETION RATES ,EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES ,PERSISTENT INEQUALITIES ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS ,NATIONAL SCHOOL ,GENDER EDUCATION ,PRIMARY SCHOOL COMPLETION RATES ,INDIGENOUS SCHOOLS ,SLUM POPULATIONS ,EDUCATION OUTCOMES ,PARENTAL INCOME ,COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION ,ACCESS TO EDUCATION ,AVAILABILITY OF SCHOOLS ,GENDER INEQUALITY ,EDUCATION REFORMS ,SKILLS ,PRIMARY COMPLETION ,SECONDARY SCHOOL ,SCHOOL DROPOUT ,EDUCATION FOR WOMEN ,RETURNS TO EDUCATION ,TEACHING ,EDUCATION REFORM ,PRIMARY SCHOOLS ,PRIMARY SCHOOL COMPLETION ,EDUCATION POLICIES ,SCHOOL SYSTEM ,SUPPLY OF SCHOOLS ,INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES ,EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS ,PHYSICAL ACCESS ,KNOWLEDGE ,PARENTS’ EDUCATION ,PRIMARY SCHOOL ,LITERACY RATE ,GENDER EQUALITY ,IMPACT OF EDUCATION ,SCHOOL ENROLLMENT ,FEMALE MEMBERS ,DROPOUT RATES ,EDUCATIONAL REFORMS ,SCHOOL ATTENDANCE ,SCHOOL ,GIRLS’ EDUCATION ,SCHOOLING ,EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT ,EDUCATIONAL DISADVANTAGES ,PRIMARY COMPLETION RATE - Abstract
This paper studies gender education gaps among indigenous and nonindigenous groups in Bolivia. Using the National Census of Population and Housing 2012 and an estimation method analogous to difference-in-differences, the paper finds that the intersection of gender and indigenous identity confers cumulative disadvantage for indigenous women in literacy, years of schooling, and primary and secondary school completion. Although gender education gaps have become narrower across generations, there remain significant differences among indigenous groups. The Aymara have the largest gender gap in all outcomes, despite having high overall attainment rates and mostly residing in urban centers, with greater physical access to schools. The Quechua have relatively smaller gender gaps, but these are accompanied by lower attainment levels. The paper discusses the possible sources of these differentials and highlights the importance of taking gender dynamics within each indigenous group into greater consideration.
- Published
- 2015
35. Short-Term Impacts of Formalization Assistance and a Bank Information Session on Business Registration and Access to Finance in Malawi
- Author
-
Campos, Francisco, Goldstein, Markus, and McKenzie, David
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,EDUCATION LEVELS ,ENTREPRENEUR ,HOUSEHOLD FINANCES ,FINANCING NEED ,BUSINESS ENABLING ,DEPRECIATION ,IDENTIFICATION NUMBER ,VERIFICATION ,TRANSACTION COSTS ,TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ,ACCESS TO EXTERNAL FINANCE ,ACCESS TO BANK ACCOUNTS ,BRIBE ,BANK LOAN ,ACCESS TO INSURANCE ,TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE PROJECT ,LICENSES ,WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS ,BUSINESS OWNERS ,PROJECT MANAGEMENT ,COLLATERAL ,ENABLING ENVIRONMENT ,SAVINGS ACCOUNTS ,PROCUREMENT ,BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT ,HARDWARE ,WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP ,EARNINGS ,BUSINESS TRAINING ,ONE-STOP SHOP ,BANK ACCOUNTS ,GENDER GAPS ,NEW BUSINESS ,GENDER DIFFERENCE ,FORMAL SAVINGS ,INFORMAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS ,BUSINESS PERFORMANCE ,INFORMAL ECONOMY ,ENTERPRISE DEVELOPMENT ,INTERNATIONAL FINANCE ,ACCOUNTS ,LACK OF ACCESS ,REGISTRATION PROCESSES ,NEW PRODUCTS ,BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT SERVICES ,ACCESS TO FINANCIAL SERVICES ,CERTIFICATE ,BUSINESS PURPOSES ,BUSINESS CENTERS ,SMALL BUSINESS ,BILLS ,COST SAVINGS ,BUSINESS EXPENSES ,BUSINESS REGISTRATION ,FINANCIAL SERVICES ,CREDIT ASSOCIATION ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS ,FINANCIAL PRODUCTS ,ACCESS TO FINANCE ,FINANCIAL LITERACY ,PROTOCOL ,AFRICA GENDER POLICY ,INNOVATION ,TURNAROUND TIME ,ENTREPRENEURS ,WOMEN AND PRIVATE SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ,ECONOMIC ACTIVITY ,ELECTRICITY ,ACCESS TO MARKETS ,IMPACT EVALUATION ,SELLING ,ACCOUNT USAGE ,BANK ACCOUNT ,DEBT OUTSTANDING ,FIXED ASSETS ,REGISTRATION PROCESS ,SAVINGS PRODUCT ,ACCOUNT ,MANUFACTURING ,CASH DEPOSITS ,FARM ENTERPRISES ,PRIVATE ENTERPRISE ,REPORTING ,SUBSTITUTES ,BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT ,MINIMUM BALANCE ,BUSINESS ACTIVITIES ,OPEN ACCESS ,FORMAL FINANCIAL SECTOR ,GREATER ACCESS ,PHOTO ,RESULT ,INCOME TAX ,REGISTRATION OF BUSINESS ,BUSINESS RESOURCES ,BUSINESS ENABLING ENVIRONMENT ,MIDDLEMAN ,DIRECT COSTS ,FEDERAL TAXES ,FEMALE BUSINESS ,CC ,SMALL ENTERPRISES ,BUSINESS PLAN ,EXCHANGE RATE ,FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS ,LICENSE ,TERM CREDIT ,CONTACT INFORMATION ,PRIVATE SECTOR ,CERTIFICATES ,BANK LOANS ,BANKS ,CHAMBER OF COMMERCE ,FINANCIAL INSTITUTION ,HUMAN RESOURCES ,BORROWING ,OUTSTANDING DEBT ,INNOVATIONS ,ACCESS TO CREDIT ,BUSINESS FACILITATION ,BUSINESS INFORMATION ,FINANCIAL ACCESS ,INTERNATIONAL BANK ,REGISTRATION APPLICATION ,PRIVATE SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ,BUSINESS OWNER ,SALES ,ACCESS TO SAVINGS ,GENDER EQUALITY ,FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE ,RESULTS ,RECEIPTS ,INSPECTION ,BUSINESSES ,INDIVIDUAL ENTREPRENEURS ,GENDER INNOVATION LAB ,FORMAL BANK ,OUTREACH ,BUSINESS LOAN ,REGISTRY ,INSPECTIONS ,BUSINESS FINANCES ,BANK ACCESS ,INTEREST RATE ,GENDER ,ADMINISTRATIVE RECORDS ,TRANSACTION - Abstract
Despite regulatory efforts designed to make it easier for firms to formalize, informality remains extremely high among firms in Sub-Saharan Africa. In most of the region, business registration in a national registry is separate from tax registration. This paper provides initial results from an experiment in Malawi that randomly allocated firms into a control group and three treatment groups: a) a group offered assistance for costless business registration; b) a group offered assistance with costless business registration and (separate) tax registration; and c) a group offered assistance for costless business registration along with an information session at a bank that ended with the offer of business bank accounts. The study finds that all three treatments had extremely large impacts on business registration, with 75 percent of those offered assistance receiving a business registration certificate. The findings offer a cost-effective way of getting firms to formalize in this dimension. However, in common with other studies, information and assistance has a limited impact on tax registration. The paper measures the short-term impacts of formalization on financial access and usage. Business registration alone has no impact for either men or women on bank account usage, savings, or credit. However, the combination of formalization assistance and the bank information session results in significant impacts on having a business bank account, financial practices, savings, and use of complementary financial products.
- Published
- 2015
36. Addressing Gender-Based Segregation through Information : Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in the Republic of Congo
- Author
-
Gassier, Marine, Rouanet, Lea, and Traore, Lacina
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,EARNINGS ,AFRICA GENDER POLICY ,WAGES ,VOCATIONAL TRAINING ,MALE-DOMINATED TRADES ,WOMEN AND WORK ,WOMEN AND EMPLOYMENT ,WOMEN AND YOUTH EMPLOYMENT ,GENDER INNOVATION LAB - Abstract
This paper describes a randomized experiment that used a sample of men and women who were eligible for a vocational training program in the Republic of Congo to test the effect of providing information on trade-specific earnings on trade choice. The analysis finds that women are 28.6 percent more likely to apply to a traditionally male- dominated trade when receiving this information. Men and women are also both more likely to apply to more lucrative trades. This may in part be driven by the intervention filling an information gap. The analysis suggests, however, that behavioral mechanisms, which make trade-specific returns more salient in the decision process of applicants, play an even bigger role. Indeed, there are much larger treatment effects among women who have technical knowledge and experience or male role models, even though the information does not impact their expectations of earnings in male-dominated trades. The treatment is thus most effective among women who are already well positioned to cross over into male-dominated trades and can give greater weight to earning considerations when choosing a trade. The results indicate that this low-cost intervention can be a useful tool to encourage women to cross over to more lucrative trades in which their presence has been limited, and thereby contribute to reducing the gender gap in earnings. There is also a high potential for interventions that would pair information on returns and trade exposure.
- Published
- 2022
37. Trade Openness and Gender Discrimination
- Author
-
Helena Santos, Marina and Arbache, Jorge Saba
- Subjects
LABOR MARKET ,GENDER GAP ,TRADE LIBERALIZATION ,EMPLOYMENT ,WAGE DISCRIMINATION ,COMPETITION ,GENDER - Abstract
This paper investigates the impact of trade liberalization on gender wage discrimination. The authors employ a simple method that is able to capture the direct impacts of openness at the industry level on the gender wages. The authors find evidence that increasing openness is associated with narrowing wage gap, which results mainly from men’s wages declining. This is consistent with the Becker’s (1957) proposition that competition reduces discrimination in the labor market. The plan of the paper is as follows : 1) Section one introduces; 2) Section two presents the trade liberalization in Brazil; 3) Section three presents the data, strategy and results; and 4) Section four concludes.
- Published
- 2005
38. Trends and Determinants of Female Labor Force Participation in Morocco : An Initial Exploratory Analysis
- Author
-
Lopez-Acevedo, Gladys, Devoto, Florencia, Morales, Matias, and Roche Rodriguez, Jaime
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,LABOR MARKET ,O54 ,Morocco ,J16 ,female ,J21 ,labor force participation ,URBAN EMPLOYMENT ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,ddc:330 ,GENDER ROLES - Abstract
The U-shape theory argues that at early stages of development, countries experience a reduction in the female labor force participation, eventually followed by a recovery. In Morocco, female labor force participation is now lower than it was two decades ago due to several factors that are discussed in the paper. There is also a persistent 50-percentage-points gender gap in labor force participation rates, despite improvements typically related to development and female inclusion—such as a higher gross domestic product per capita, lower fertility rates, and better access to education. At the same time, urban job creation has not been able to offset rural job destruction nor the increase in the working age population for both genders. Using data from the Moroccan Labor Force Survey, the World Values Survey, and the Arab Barometer, probit models and a multinomial logit are estimated to explore the challenges affecting female insertion into the labor market. The findings show that higher educational attainment increases the probability of female participation, but this relationship has decreased over time, not being enough to offset other obstacles caused by other individual and household characteristics. Being married and the presence of other inactive women are found to decrease female participation. The educational level of the head of household (typically men) increases female inactivity, suggesting that potentially gender roles may drive women out of the labor market and slow the recovery in women’s participation.
- Published
- 2021
39. Women's Legal Rights and Gender Gaps in Property Ownership in Developing Countries
- Author
-
Gaddis, Isis, Lahoti, Rahul, and Swaminathan, Hema
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,INTRA-HOUSEHOLD INEQUALITY ,PROPERTY OWNERSHIP ,DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY ,GENDER BIAS ,PROPERTY RIGHTS ,WOMEN'S AGENCY ,LEGAL DISCRIMINATION - Abstract
Women's property ownership matters for their well-being and agency; it can also advance economic prosperity and promote the human development of future generations. Yet, until recently, lack of data has constrained researchers from gaining a comprehensive overview of gender differences in property ownership in the developing world. Using Demographic and Health Survey data from 41 developing countries, this paper seeks to fill this gap, by investigating the extent of gender gaps in the incidence of property ownership (land and housing) and the factors associated with these gaps, focusing on the role of legal systems. The study finds that there is substantial variation in gender gaps across countries, but in almost all countries men are more likely to own property than women. Within countries, gender gaps are most pronounced for groups that are already disadvantaged, that is, the rural population and the poorest quintile. The disadvantage in property ownership experienced by women reflects a variety of factors, including discriminatory norms and laws on inheritance, property ownership, marital regimes, and protection from workplace discrimination. Countries with more gender egalitarian legal regimes generally have higher levels of property ownership by women, especially housing. These results suggest that reforms to establish a more gender-equitable legislative framework could be an important mechanism to increase women's property ownership.
- Published
- 2020
40. On the Quantity and Quality of Girls : Fertility, Parental Investments, and Mortality
- Author
-
Eddy H.F. Tam, Sonia R. Bhalotra, and S Anukriti
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,PRENATAL SEX DETECTION ,Economics and Econometrics ,BIRTH ORDER ,media_common.quotation_subject ,Fertility ,FAMILY HEALTH SURVEY ,SEX-SELECTIVE ABORTION ,Abortion ,SEX-SELECTION ,MISSING GIRLS ,Sex-selective abortion ,FEMALE MORTALITY ,ABORTION ,0502 economics and business ,HQ ,FERTILITY ,Quality (business) ,Girl ,050207 economics ,Sex selection ,Socioeconomic status ,050205 econometrics ,media_common ,Mortality rate ,05 social sciences ,SEX OF THE CHILD ,Moderation ,Child mortality ,Birth order ,CHILD MORTALITY ,GENDER ,HEALTH ,Gender gap ,RG ,Psychology ,Demography - Abstract
The introduction of prenatal sex-detection technologies in India has led to a phenomenal increase in abortion of female fetuses. This paper examines the impacts of this on girl relative to boy mortality rates after birth, using data from 1973-2005. The analysis finds a narrowing of the gender gap in under-5 mortality rates, in line with surviving girls being more wanted. The estimates show that for every three aborted girls, one additional girl survives to age five. Investigation of the mechanisms finds a narrowing of gender gaps in parental investments in children, moderation of son-biased fertility stopping, and shrinking of the gap between actual and desired fertility. Heterogeneity in fertility responses suggests a shift in the distribution of girls toward lower socioeconomic status families. The findings have implications not only for counts of missing girls, but also for the later life outcomes of girls.
- Published
- 2020
41. Getting it Right : Strengthening Gender Outcomes in South Sudan
- Author
-
De Silva, Samantha, Hasan, Abir, Ouedraogo, Aissatou, and Rubiano-Matulevich, Eliana
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,VULNERABLE POPULATION ,INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ,SOCIAL PROTECTION ,GENDER ,EXTREME POVERTY ,POVERTY REDUCTION ,GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE - Abstract
As in most conflicts, in South Sudan, women and girls have been the most vulnerable. Not only do they face many challenges, including extreme poverty and lack of access to basic services and productive assets, but many of the risks they face, such as gender–based violence (GBV), are heightened during times of conflict. The implementation of well–designed and inclusive poverty reduction programs can contribute to empowering women and addressing persistent gender gaps. Yet, until now, there have been few assessments undertaken to better understand how successfully these goals have been achieved. This paper examines how social protection and other poverty reduction programs targeting the most vulnerable have addressed the needs of women and girls in South Sudan. Based on a portfolio review of World Bank operations and a review of impact evaluation evidence, it provides guidance to practitioners to integrate gender equality in the design and implementation of social protection and poverty reduction programs in fragile situations.
- Published
- 2020
42. Leveraging ICT Technologies in Closing the Gender Gap
- Author
-
Sicat, Marie, Xu, Ankai, Mehetaj, Ermira, Ferrantino, Michael, and Chemutai, Vicky
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,ACCESS TO FINANCE ,INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ,E-COMMERCE ,BROADBAND ,MICROENTERPRISES ,BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT ,WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT ,DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS - Abstract
In recent decades, the growth of information and communications technologies (ICT) and the move toward the digitalization of trade and global value chains has been radically transforming the global trade scene, with important implications for women engaged in trade. In order to identify adequate measures to reduce gender disparities, this paper reviews and discusses evidence from the existing literature, as well as presents evidence from several new empirical analyses. It also introduces two new frameworks to analyze the gender dimensions of e-commerce. Digital technologies have the potential to empower women socially and economically by creating new employment and entrepreneurial opportunities, removing trade barriers for women, enhancing access to finance and information and optimizing their business processes. For example, e-commerce substantially lowers the barriers to entry for micro-, small- and medium sized enterprises by reducing the investment needed to launch and run a business. Digital solutions that remove the need for face-to-face interactions when trading can help reduce the difficulties women business owners face, such as mobility constraints, discrimination, and in some countries even violence. As workers, digital technologies may help women overcome time and mobility constraints by connecting women to work from different locations and in flexible hours through emails, instant messaging and tele-conferences. It will also benefit women as consumers by saving time, providing access to information, reducing transaction costs, or giving them more control over the purchasing process. Yet, technology is not the silver bullet in resolving all the gender gaps in trade. This is because women’s access and use of ICTs and digital technologies tend to lag in contrast to men. The benefits of digital technologies hinges on well-designed and specifically targeted policies.
- Published
- 2020
43. Gender differences in Agricultural Productivity in Cote d'Ivoire : Changes in Determinants and Distributional Composition over the Past Decade
- Author
-
Donald, Aletheia, Lawin, Gabriel, and Rouanet, Lea
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,AFRICA GENDER POLICY ,HOUSEHOLD WELFARE ,GENDER ,WOMEN AND AGRICULTURE ,INCOME DISTRIBUTION ,AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY ,GENDER INNOVATION LAB - Abstract
This paper analyzes changes in agricultural productivity gender gaps in Côte d'Ivoire between 2008 and 2016 using decomposition methods. The analysis finds that the unconditional gender gap between male- and female-headed households has decreased by 14 percent over the past decade. The conditional gender gap has decreased by 32 percent and becomes statistically insignificant once accounting for whether households farm export crops. This transition is driven by improvements across crop types, but it is particularly remarkable for export crop productivity, likely due to increased adoption of fertilizer and pesticide by female-headed households. Despite these substantial improvements, female-headed households in the bottom half of the distribution remain disadvantaged. Moreover, over the past decade, female-headed households did not transition into commercial agriculture and have witnessed greater reductions in land area compared with their male counterparts. The results show that helping these female-headed households access agricultural labor, strengthen their land rights, and adopt export crops are the three most promising policy options to reach gender parity in agriculture in Côte d'Ivoire.
- Published
- 2020
44. Gender Bias in SME Lending : Experimental Evidence from Turkey
- Author
-
Alibhai, Salman, Donald, Aletheia, Goldstein, Markus, Oguz, Alper Ahmet, Pankov, Alexander, and Strobbe, Francesco
- Subjects
ACCESS TO FINANCE ,GENDER GAP ,AFRICA GENDER POLICY ,SME FINANCE ,GENDER BIAS ,SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES ,BANKING ,CREDIT ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS ,ENTREPRENEURSHIP ,GENDER INNOVATION LAB - Abstract
Gender disparities in small and medium-size enterprise lending exist around the world and impede the growth of millions of women-led firms. This paper examines a potential driver of these disparities: gender-biased loan officers. Officer bias is measured through a novel loan application experiment conducted with 77 loan officers in Turkish banks. The analysis finds that 35 percent of the loan officers are biased against female applicants, with women receiving loan amounts $14,000 lower on average compared with men. Experience in the banking sector can attenuate this bias, with each year of experience reducing gender biased loan allocations by 6 percent. The results suggest that loan officers may use gender bias as a heuristic device given limited information and risk aversion. Helping newly recruited and lesser experienced loan officers to better discern loan application quality may thus improve financing of business loans to women and reduce gender gaps in entrepreneurship.
- Published
- 2019
45. Tackling the Global Profitarchy : Gender and the Choice of Business Sector
- Author
-
Goldstein, Markus, Gonzalez Martinez, Paula, and Papineni, Sreelakshmi
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,AFRICA GENDER POLICY ,MICROENTERPRISES ,WOMEN AND PRIVATE SECTOR DEVELOPMENT ,SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES ,GENDER ,health care economics and organizations ,ENTREPRENEURSHIP ,GENDER EARNINGS GAP ,GENDER INNOVATION LAB - Abstract
Sectoral segregation is often used to explain a large part of a well-documented gender earnings gap in business profits. Women tend to sort into different sectors than men, and the sectors dominated by women tend to be less profitable. This paper investigates the horizonal dimension of sectoral segregation by studying global data on female and male enterprises operating in sectors that are typically dominated by the same and opposite sex. The analysis uses the novel Future of Business dataset, which spans 97 countries and was administered to enterprise owners, managers, and employees who use Facebook. The analysis finds that some of the earnings gap can indeed be explained by sector choice: female-owned businesses in male-dominated sectors make significantly higher profits than those in traditionally female sectors. The evidence points to a hierarchy of earnings, with male-owned businesses in male-dominated sectors earning the most, women in male-dominated sectors and men in female-concentrated sectors in the middle tier, and women in female-concentrated sectors at the bottom. Correlational analysis suggests that women who own businesses in male-dominated sectors are younger, married, and more likely to have inherited the business than women in female-concentrated sectors. They have similar education to women in female-concentrated sectors and present higher self-efficacy but lower entrepreneurial identity and commitment to the sector. Male support networks appear to be key for female-owned firms, with co-ownership with husbands and male role models factoring into the decision to cross over.
- Published
- 2019
46. Chile’s Solidarity Pillar : A Benchmark for Adjoining Zero Pillar with DC Schemes
- Author
-
Fajnzylber, Eduardo
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,PUBLIC PENSIONS ,REDISTRIBUTION ,SOCIAL PROTECTION ,SOCIAL SECURITY ,PENSION REFORM ,DEFINED CONTRIBUTION - Abstract
In 2008, Chile introduced a New Solidarity Pillar (NSP) designed to eliminate the incidence of poverty among elderly adults by setting a floor at around forty percent of the minimum monthly income for the poorest sixty percent of the population. This paper describes the NSP’s main characteristics and the main results achieved during its first seven years of operations: coverage, fiscal cost, poverty reduction, and the system’s role in reducing the significant gender gap in pensions. Its effects on incentives to contribute are discussed, as well as the literature that has attempted to measure these effects. Finally, the main challenges facing the NSP and the implications for other countries under defined contribution pension schemes are summarized.
- Published
- 2019
47. Bridging Partner Lifecycle Earnings and Pension Gaps by Sharing NDC Accounts
- Author
-
Klerby, Anna, Larsson, Bo, and Palmer, Edward
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,PENSION GUARANTEE ,ComputingMilieux_THECOMPUTINGPROFESSION ,PENSIONS ,NONFINANCIAL DEFINED CONTRIBUTIONS ,GENDER PENSION GAP ,GENDER EARNINGS GAP - Abstract
Sweden’s gender pension gap is about 33 percent at retirement, reflecting the gender earnings gap – itself a reflection of a structural gender difference in low-pay jobs for women and men and career advancement opportunities. The individual nonfinancial defined contribution (NDC) account data examined show that the allocation of time to informal care work in the home versus formal market work is the main determinant of the gaps. A case is presented for sharing accounts as the default, making the cost of women’s time in home care explicit and negotiable, reducing the minimum guarantee pension’s role as an implicit tax-financed spousal subsidy. The paper also analyzes the likelihood of needing a guarantee and the effect of sharing under various circumstances.
- Published
- 2019
48. Gender Gaps in the Labor Market and Economic Growth
- Author
-
Agenor, Pierre-Richard, Karakurum Ozdemir, Kamer, and Pinto Moreira, Emmanuel
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,LABOR MARKET ,UNEMPLOYMENT ,GENDER EQUALITY ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,EMPLOYMENT ,GENDER BIAS ,ECONOMIC GROWTH ,DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN ,INEQUALITY ,SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ,health care economics and organizations - Abstract
This paper studies the effects of policies aimed at mitigating discrimination against women in the marketplace on the gender wage gap, decisions to invest in skills, the composition of employment and unemployment, and long-run growth. The analysis uses a gender-based overlapping generations model with labor market rigidities. Gender bias in the workplace varies inversely with the presence of skilled women (as agents of change) in the labor market and has a direct impact on their bargaining power in the family. The model is calibrated for Morocco. Experiments show that although the benefits of policies aimed at mitigating gender bias in the workplace can promote growth and be significantly magnified through a stronger presence of skilled women in the labor market, a trade-off may emerge with respect to female unemployment when anti-discrimination policies are combined with policies aimed at subsidizing women's training. To internalize this trade-off, anti-discrimination policies in the marketplace may need to be complemented by measures aimed at reducing labor costs and raising productivity.
- Published
- 2018
49. Female Entrepreneurs : How and Why Are They Different?
- Author
-
Carranza, Eliana, Dhakal, Chandra, and Love, Inessa
- Subjects
LABOR MARKET ,GENDER GAP ,SOCIAL NORMS ,ASPIRATIONS ,ENDOWMENTS ,WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS ,BUSINESS NETWORKS ,DISCRIMINATION ,WAGE GAP ,GENDER BIAS ,BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT ,SELF-CONFIDENCE ,SELF-EMPLOYMENT ,FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS - Abstract
This paper reviews and critically evaluates existing evidence on female entrepreneurial activity. First, we identify how female-run businesses are different, by examining both economic and non-economic outcomes which are frequently overlooked. Second, we offer a comprehensive discussion of drivers to explain why these differences. We group these drivers in four categories: (i) preferences, (ii) endowments, (iv) external constraints, and (iv) internal constraints. Third, we review evidence on the types of policies that have been effective or have potential to address the different drivers. Finally, we offer a discussion of the gaps in the literature and identify areas for future research.
- Published
- 2018
50. More Than Schooling : Understanding Gender Differences in the Labor Market When Measures of Skill Are Available
- Author
-
Gunewardena, Dileni, King, Elizabeth M., and Valerio, Alexandria
- Subjects
GENDER GAP ,LABOR MARKET ,EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT ,ECONOMICS OF EDUCATION ,HUMAN CAPITAL ,education ,FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION ,WAGE GAP ,ECONOMICS OF GENDER ,health care economics and organizations - Abstract
This paper uses measures of cognitive and noncognitive skills in an expanded definition of human capital to examine how schooling and skills differ between men and women and how those differences relate to gender gaps in earnings across nine middle-income countries. The analysis finds that post-secondary schooling and cognitive skills are more important for women's earnings at the lower end and middle of the earnings distribution, and that men and women have positive returns to openness to new experiences and risk-taking behavior and negative returns to hostile attribution bias. Especially at the lower end of the earnings distribution, women are disadvantaged not so much by having lower human capital than men, but by institutional factors such as wage structures that reward women's human capital systematically less than men's.
- Published
- 2018
Discovery Service for Jio Institute Digital Library
For full access to our library's resources, please sign in.