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The article reflects on the strategies developed by China to reverse brain drain among students. The section is divided into various parts. Its first part examines how the environment in China has changed over the past two decades. The second focuses on specific policies pursued by the central government to encourage returnees. The next two parts studies the action taken by the local government and individual institutions. Its fifth part reviews the quality of returnees, while the sixth evaluates the role of government policy in encouraging return migration. The seventh explores the controversy over preferential policies for returnees, and the final part offers concluding remarks.

Brain drain, the international migration of scientists in search of better opportunities, has been a long-standing concern, but quantitative measurements are uncommon and limited to specific countries or disciplines. We need to understand brain drain at a global level and estimate the extent to which scientists born in countries with low opportunities never realize their potential. Data on 1523 of the most highly cited scientists for 1981-1999 are analyzed. Overall, 31.9% of these scientists did not reside in the country where they were born (range 18.1-54.6% across 21 different scientific fields). There was great variability across developed countries in the proportions of foreign-born resident scientists and emigrating scientists. Countries without a critical mass of native scientists lost most scientists to migration. This loss occurred in both developed and developing countries. Adjusting for population and using the U.S. as reference, the number of highly cited native-born scientists was at least 75% of the expected number in only 8 countries other than the U.S. It is estimated that ∼94% of the expected top scientists worldwide have not been able to materialize themselves due to various adverse conditions. Scientific deficit is only likely to help perpetuate these adverse conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural communities are increasingly being faced with the prospect of accepting facilities characterized as "opportunity-threat," such as facilities that generate, treat, store, or otherwise dispose of hazardous wastes. Such facilities may offer economic gains through jobs and tax revenue, although they may also act as environmental "disamenities." This analysis examines the possibility that the presence of such facilities equates with lower loss of rural human capital, a question as yet unexamined on a national scale within the academic literature. Making use of secondary data from several different sources, we examine the association between age- and education-specific outmigration and 1) the number of hazardous waste facilities, 2) the number of large quantity hazardous waste generators, and 3) the number of hazardous waste landfills and incinerators across rural counties within the 48 contiguous states. Our findings suggest that the presence of hazardous waste facilities does not clearly equate with reductions in rural "brain drain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an historical context, highly skilled migration typically involved the forced movement of professionals as a result of political conflicts, followed by the emergence of the “brain drain” in the 1960s. In the current situation, highly skilled migration represents an increasingly large component of global migration streams. The current state of theory in relation to highly skilled migration is far from adequate in terms of explaining what is occurring at the high skill end of the migration spectrum. Continuing growth of temporary skilled migration is heralding changes in the operation of professions. Formal procedures for recognizing the skills of permanent immigrant professionals are breaking down as “fast-track” processes for assessing the skills of temporary professional migrants are put in place. The increasing globalization of firms and the internationalization of higher education are encouraging professions to internationalize. In this article, four professions are cited as case studies to show that professional inclusion/exclusion is no longer defined by national professional bodies alone. The operation of professions has become a transnational matter although the extent of internationalization varies with professions. Typologies for analysing professional migration flows are discussed and a sixth means of categorization, by profession or industry, is introduced to allow for the nature of interactions between the market, the state and the profession/industry. The question whether states should continue to be concerned about self-sufficiency in national professional labour markets in an increasingly globalized environment is also addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globalization of human capital through international migration is no longer about global physical presence only; it is also about global applicability of skills across various fields of specialization. This marks the main characteristics of skilled migration from India to developed countries in the twenty-first century. The focus is shifting away from professionals in specific occupations, like doctors, engineers, scientists, architects, bankers, to information technology (IT) professionals embodying, in a way, more generic skills. In other words, it is the generic applicability of information and communications technology (ICT) which has led to large-scale migration of Indians skilled in IT. Moreover, the exodus comprises not only the fully trained and educated workers going abroad for employment, but also students - the semi-finished human capital - pursuing higher education in onshore as well as offshore universities of the developed countries. The new emigration is directed towards traditional host countries in the West such as the UK, Canada, and the US, but also towards newly emerging destinations in continental Europe (Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Denmark), Australasia (Australia, New Zealand), East Asia (Japan, Republic of Korea), and South-East Asia (Singapore, Malaysia). By using mainly current information and informal data as reported in the media, this article perceives emerging trends and changes in the context of the global labour market for skills, and suggests a possible framework towards evolving strategies of remedial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the last half of the twentieth century the Latin American sub-continent, historically a region of immigration, became one of emigration characterized by intra-regional movements and movements towards the developed world, particularly the US. The emigration of highly skilled resources was a new phenomenon in the 1960s and debate on “brain drain” took a significant place in academia and in international organizations. In recent years, within the context of intensification of the globalization process and by virtue of the drive for technological development and the subsequent demand for specialization, the issue has returned to both the arena of political debate and to the academic world. This article presents an analysis of trends in Latin American migration in the context of the new situation. It discusses whether there is a continuation of the “brain drain” phenomenon or the emergence of a trend towards “brain exchange” or “brain circulation”, as appears to be occurring in other parts of the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information Technology (IT) is leading to a new form of capital accumulation as is clearly evident in the IT industry. Regardless of its origin and amount, capital can be circulated and accumulated on a global scale, at an unprecedented speed and therefore with extreme volatility. An urgent task of the study of globalization and migration is to understand the international labour system of the “new economy”. This article is an ethnographic study of those agents who have been the main means by which Indian IT professionals move globally. “Body shopping” is the practice whereby a firm recruits IT workers and then farms them out to clients for a particular project, though the firm itself is not involved in the project. The key players in “body shopping” are a series of recruitment agents. They form “agent chains” where they depend on each other and assume different functions in dealing with the market, the state and the workers. “Body shops” rely on ethnic networks. Their practices have led to the emergence of a flexible international labour supply system that benefits some IT professionals but also imposes costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the past two decades, network approaches have led to many conceptual and empirical developments in the studies of international migration as well as of technological innovation. However, surprisingly, such approaches have hardly been used for the study of what is at the intersection of both fields, namely the mobility of highly skilled persons or knowledge workers. This article draws on recent evidence brought by case studies on intellectual diaspora networks to bridge this gap and to explore the issue. These highly skilled expatriate networks, through a connectionist approach linking diaspora members with their countries of origin, turn the brain drain into a brain gain approach. These persons and groups also provide original information that questions conventional human capital based assumptions. The article argues that descriptions in terms of network open interesting perspectives for the understanding as well as management of the current global skills’ circulation. The network approach under consideration combines input from migration as well as from innovation studies. This suggests an expanded version of the network approach, referring to actors and intermediaries, of which traditional kinship ties are but a part of more systematic associative dynamics actually at work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigates the potential reverse transfer of technology from Zimbabwe, using as case study, academic staff at the main campus of the University of Zimbabwe. Brain drain phenomenon; Factors cited for dissatisfaction with conditions at the source; Potential destinations and the attractions or pull factors at these destinations.

Examines the phenomenon of brain drain or the international migration of scientists in Croatia. Concept of brain drain; Social position of scientists in Croatia; Level of investment in science; Characteristics of scientific system; Reasons for departure of scientists; Scope of scientists' drain; Potential and actual drain in 1990's; Scientific and ethical repercussions of drain.

The article focuses on the evaluation standards for programs to address the issue on the decline of skilled professionals being referred as brain drain. It states that the country that transports professional migrants fail to obtain large human capital investment while receiving countries acquire greater benefits. It mentions that the loss of skilled workers brings out development deceleration. It says that preventive measures and corrective programs to handle the issue will be briefly evaluated and has been considered. It adds that the standards for evaluating the effectiveness of the programs will also be regarded.

Evaluates the impact of the multinational intellectual emigration crisis on the reconstruction policy implications and the future development of Lebanon. Historical background of the intellectual emigration from 1975 to 1994; Trend analysis of Lebanese emigrants; Map of the multinational brain drain crisis.

The article discusses "Brain Drain" for Hong Kong. The Hong Kong government estimates that some 50,000 people will leave the state in 1990; the business community estimates that from 5 to 10 percent of its 250,000 to 300,000 professional and management staff is leaving annually. Positive management tactics can and are being tried among Hong Kong's more enlightened businesses in an attempt to offset the negative implications of the exodus from Hong Kong and make planning for the future a less complex task. Unfortunately, however, none of these tactics can be wholly successful in stemming the tide. One U.S. law firm in Hong Kong has gone so far as to set up a corporate migration plan for all companies doing business there. The plan offers managers stints overseas to allow them to qualify for a second passport. Reportedly, the number of companies taking part in this plan is substantial. Ultimately, the only true resolution of this "brain drain" will come as a result of politicians in Hong Kong and Beijing coming together in a studied program aimed at increasing public confidence that Hong Kong's unique standing will not be jeopardized after repatriation in 1997.

Focuses on the issue concerning a shortage of nurses in the Philippines in view of the departure from the country by nursing graduates. Speculations with regard to the reasons why nurses leave the country; Figures depicting vacancy rates of a number of tertiary hospitals in Manila from a 1987 survey by the Philippine Nurses' Association International and Placement Committee; Problems created by the migration of nurses. INSETS: Good Reason for the Exodus: Low Pay;Rivalries May Cause Case Management Problems.

Assesses the magnitude of the loss for developing countries by the emigration of trained personnel to industrialized countries. Discussion on the causes of brain drain; Countermeasures that could be taken in countries of origin; Consideration for the success of the actions against brain drain.

Explores the problem of the brain drain that arises because of the simultaneous operation of the Exchange Economy. Impact of the problem on flow of productive factors; Useful purpose of the discussions of the brain drain.

Provides information on a study which investigated the causes and dimensions of serious brain drain of engineers from Argentina. Implications of brain drain for the country's economic development.

The fertility behaviour of migrants is often studied by examining migrants and native nonmigrants in the country of destination. To understand the mechanisms for migrant fertility, it is important to know what distinguishes them from the population they originate from. The Ghanaian sample of the "Migrations between Africa and Europe" project allows us to contrast the fertility of those who never emigrated from Ghana and Ghanaian migrants who are residing in the UK or the Netherlands. First, we estimate discrete‐time hazard models of first birth to evaluate whether first birth timing is influenced by migration. Second, we apply Poisson regression techniques to examine differentials in completed fertility. We find that Ghanaian migrants postpone first childbirth compared with nonmigrants. Differences are largest at ages 20 to 24 for women and 20 to 29 for men. Ghana experiences a typical brain drain, which means that especially the highly skilled emigrate. In our sample, this is particularly true for women. Education seems to be an important determinant of the postponement of first childbirth in Ghana, although we cannot clearly attribute migrants' later first births to their higher level of education. However, our findings on completed fertility reveal that migrants have fewer children than nonmigrants and this difference diminishes considerably if we take into account their level of education. Apparently, migrants do not fully catch up after postponing first childbirth and end up with a lower number of children by the age of 40. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's view concerning the impact of retirement to the brain drain of retiring nurses. The author cites several studies on the impact of creating of retired nurses, the willingness of retiring nurses to continue contributing their knowledge, and on the delaying retirement strategies. The author suggests the need to consider the ways hat nursing could continue to benefit from the knowledge and contributions of a very skilled and experienced retiring nurses.

Skilled migration, taking the forms of brain drain, movements of professionals and job transfers, has become an important component of contemporary migration flows. However, it does not necessarily follow that incoming flows of highly qualified immigrants automatically translate into an effective supply of skilled labour, since immigrants are often prepared to accept underemployment and working conditions that nationals from the local market have refused. This study aims to verify whether the phenomenon of brain waste exists in Rome. We analysed the data of 147,587 foreigners recorded in the City Register Office as being residents on 31 August 1999. Of these, 68,539 indicated their educational level and 73,746 their occupation. The data also revealed that the more stable segment of immigrants to Rome, i.e. those who have taken up residency, is composed mainly of qualified, or highly qualified, persons. Many foreign residents possess university degrees and are employed in managerial and/or intellectual professions. Alongside this important datum, however, we observe that the majority of foreign residents are employed in unqualified jobs, a considerable percentage of whom possess much higher qualifications than those required for the job they do. Analysing the temporal evolution of these data on the qualifications and professions of foreign residents leads us to believe that the phenomenon of underemployment is decidedly on the upturn. In order to understand the cause of this phenomenon, qualitative data from case study interviews have also been analysed. The most common reason why immigrants take on under-skilled jobs is lack of job offers appropriate to their academic or professional qualifications due to the peculiar situation of the Roman labour market. Other problems, such as the lack of protocols concerning the recognition of the academic qualifications of non-EU citizens and the language barrier, also play a role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]