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Background Topical intranasal corticosteroid sprays (INCSs) are standard treatment for nasal polyps (NPs), but their efficacy is reduced by poor patient compliance and impaired access of drug to the sinus mucosa. A corticosteroid-eluting sinus implant was designed to address these limitations in patients with recurrent polyposis after sinus surgery by delivering 1350 μg of mometasone furoate (MF) directly to the ethmoid sinus mucosa over approximately 90 days. Methods A randomized, sham-controlled, double-blind trial was undertaken in 300 adults with refractory chronic rhinosinusitis with NPs (CRSwNP), who were candidates for repeat surgery. Eligible patients were randomized (2:1) and underwent in-office bilateral placement of 2 implants or a sham procedure. All patients used the MF INCS 200 μg once daily. Co-primary efficacy endpoints were the change from baseline in nasal obstruction/congestion score and bilateral polyp grade, as determined by an independent panel based on centralized, blinded videoendoscopy review. Results Patients treated with implants experienced significant reductions in both nasal obstruction/congestion score (p = 0.0074) and bilateral polyp grade (p = 0.0073) compared to controls. At day 90, implants were also associated with significant reductions in 4 of 5 prespecified secondary endpoints compared to control: proportion of patients still indicated for repeat sinus surgery (p = 0.0004), percent ethmoid sinus obstruction (p = 0.0007), nasal obstruction/congestion (p = 0.0248), and decreased sense of smell (p = 0.0470), but not facial pain/pressure (p = 0.9130). One patient experienced an implant-related serious adverse event (epistaxis). Conclusion Significant improvements over a range of subjective and objective endpoints, including a reduction in the need for sinus surgery by 61%, suggest that MF sinus implants may play an important role in management of recurrent NP.

This is a protocol for a Cochrane Review (Intervention). The objectives are as follows: To analyze the temporal (hourly and 24-hour) blood pressure (BP) lowering efficacy of angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs).

This article explores the use of longitudinal regression as a tool for identifying scoring inaccuracies. Student progression patterns, as evaluated through longitudinal regressions, typically are more stable from year to year than are scale score distributions and statistics, which require representative samples to conduct credibility checks. Historical data from a large-scale K-12 testing program were used to evaluate the usefulness of several proposed longitudinal procedures. Results showed that the use of longitudinal regression in quality control was effective in detecting scoring errors, especially when the scoring errors were non-negligible.

Enzyme or gene replacement therapy with acid α-glucosidase (GAA) has achieved only partial efficacy in Pompe disease. We evaluated the effect of adjunctive clenbuterol treatment on cation-independent mannose-6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR)-mediated uptake and intracellular trafficking of GAA during muscle-specific GAA expression with an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector in GAA-knockout (KO) mice. Clenbuterol, which increases expression of CI-MPR in muscle, was administered with the AAV vector. This combination therapy increased latency during rotarod and wirehang testing at 12 wk, in comparison with vector alone. The mean urinary glucose tetrasaccharide (Glc4), a urinary biomarker, was lower in GAA-KO mice following combination therapy, compared with vector alone. Similarly, glycogen content was lower in cardiac and skeletal muscle following 12 wk of combination therapy in heart, quadriceps, diaphragm, and soleus, compared with vector alone. These data suggested that clenbuterol treatment enhanced trafficking of GAA to lysosomes, given that GAA was expressed within myofibers. The integral role of CI-MPR was demonstrated by the lack of effectiveness from clenbuterol in GAA-KO mice that lacked CI-MPR in muscle, where it failed to reverse the high glycogen content of the heart and diaphragm or impaired wirehang performance. However, the glycogen content of skeletal muscle was reduced by the addition of clenbuterol in the absence of CI-MPR, as was lysosomal vacuolation, which correlated with increased AKT signaling. In summary, β2-agonist treatment enhanced CI-MPR-mediated uptake and trafficking of GAA in mice with Pompe disease, and a similarly enhanced benefit might be expected in other lysosomal storage disorders.—Farah, B. L., Madden, L., Li, S., Nance, S., Bird, A., Bursac, N., Yen, P. M., Young, S. P., Koeberl, D. D. Adjunctive β2-agonist treatment reduces glycogen independently of receptor-mediated acid α-glucosidase uptake in the limb muscles of mice with Pompe disease.

Severe tetanus is characterised by muscle spasms and autonomic dysfunction. We recently reported the results of a randomised placebo controlled trial of magnesium sulphate infusions for the treatment of severe tetanus which showed magnesium was associated with improved muscle spasm and cardiovascular control. We hypothesised that magnesium controlled autonomic dysfunction by reducing catecholamine release and thus urinary excretion. Urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline concentrations were measured during the first 24 h of therapy in 180 adults with severe tetanus randomised to treatment with magnesium (n = 92) or placebo (n = 88). Magnesium therapy was associated with lower urinary adrenaline excretion and higher urinary noradrenaline excretion. High urinary adrenaline concentrations were associated with documented autonomic dysfunction. Patients given magnesium had significantly less autonomic dysfunction, required less cardiovascular stabilising drugs, and had lower urinary concentrations of adrenaline. These findings suggest adrenaline is important in the pathophysiology of severe tetanus and magnesium controls autonomic dysfunction by reducing adrenaline release.

Single crystalline MAl 2 O 4 (M = Ca and Sr) persistent phosphors, which are nominally pure or additionally doped with Eu and Nd or Dy, respectively, were investigated for their recombination luminescence (RL) and microwave-induced changes in the RL at low temperatures. The analysis of the optically-detected electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra, recorded after ultraviolet excitation at 4.2 K, shows that intrinsic donor and acceptor centres are involved in the recombination process. Spectral dependent RL-EPR measurements on undoped CaAl 2 O 4 (CAO) and SrAl 2 O 4 (SAO) show that we deal with only one donor but at least two different acceptors. The g value of the donor is 1.99 in CAO and 1.97 in SAO; the g value of the acceptors is about 2.02. The donor-acceptor recombination energy is either emitted directly (undoped samples) or almost completely transferred to the rare-earth activators (doped samples).

Summary Objectives To create a new tetanus score and compare it with the Phillips and Dakar scores. Methods We used prospectively acquired data from consecutive patients admitted to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, to create the Tetanus Severity Score (TSS) with multivariate logistic regression. We compared the new score with Phillips and Dakar scores by means of resubstituted and prospective data, assessing performance in terms of sensitivity, specificity and area under receiver operator characteristic curves. Results Resubstitution testing yielded a sensitivity of 77% (298/385) and a specificity of 82% (1183/1437) for the TSS; 89% (342/385) and 20% (281/1437) for the Phillips score; and 13% (49/385) and 98% (1415/1437) for the Dakar score. The TSS showed greatest discrimination with 0.89 area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (95% CI 0.88–0.90); this was 0.74 for the Dakar score and (95% CI 0.71–0.77) and 0.66 for the Phillips score (95% CI 0.63–0.70; P values

For standards-referenced assessment systems, there is a tension between setting high goals versus attainable ones for adequate yearly progress. The more relevant information that policymakers can consider in setting these goals, the more likely it will be that productive goals are set. Some strategies are presented here that can be used either singly or in combination to evaluate the level of rigor implied by these expectations. These strategies relate to understanding how likely it is, based on past experience, that a particular goal can be met.

How accurate is the reported percent of students’reaching standards at the school level? How are standard errors for these statistics computed? How do estimates vary with choice of generalizability model?

The use of multiple measures is emphasized by legislation regulating the distribution of Title I funding to states, as well as by professional and industry standards regarding the use of test scores in high-stakes decisions. There are a wide variety of methods with which multiple measures can be designed and analyzed, and these methods have different implications for conclusions that will be reached. Recognizing the complexities associated with the implementation of a multiple measures approach to system evaluation, this article provides an overview and discussion of alternative models that may be considered in an accountability system and their applicability relative to the goals of the system evaluation. The article concludes with an example of the use of multiple measures with regard to No Child Left Behind legislation.

The pressure dependence of the emission of the 4f15d1 state of Pr3+ is reported. Excitation of the 4f15d1 state of Pr3+ is accomplished using excited state absorption from the 3P0 state to populate the 4f15d1 state of Pr3+ from which emission is measured as a function of pressure. The emission, which occurs at 320 nm at ambient pressure, is found to shift to lower energy, nearly linearly at a rate of –14.1 cm–1/kbar. This compares with –12.5 cm–1/kbar for Ce3+ in YAG. The pressure dependence of the 4f15d1 4f2 transitions are explained using a standard crystal field approach and a configurational coordinate model to describe the effects of pressure on the electronic energy of the 4f15d1 state and the electron-lattice coupling. (© 2005 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

We discuss in general terms factors which determine the luminescence efficiency of activated wide band gap materials. These processes can be classified into two broad categories: the first, which has been thoroughly studied, entails interactions which lead to non-radiative dissipation of optical energy at the specific active center. The second set concerns interactions leading to the delocalization and the transport of optical energy away from the originally excited state. Recent spectroscopic results from these studies have allowed the absolute placement of the ground state of luminescent ion series within the band gap of the host crystal and have cast light on the systematics of such placement. These results are relevant to materials which evince the property of persistent phosphorescence. Developments in these materials as well as a number of new applications will be touched upon.

Background The major alkaloid in the betel nut, arecoline, has been reported to be potent in inducing developmentally toxic effects by generally lowering the embryo weight and retarding development of the embryo. This study examined the adverse effects of arecoline and tried to unravel the mechanism through the tools of molecular biology. METHODS Arecoline was administered to zebrafish embryos by incubation at concentrations ranging from 0.01–0.04% (wt/vol) and lethality and morphological changes were recorded. The expression of genes was analyzed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and whole-mount in situ hybridization. In addition, the protective effects of several antioxidants were tested. RESULTS The survival rate of treated embryos during a three-day incubation significantly declined as the arecoline concentration increased. Treated embryos showed general growth retardation and lower rate of heartbeat. When examined at the 24-hr stage, the relative amounts of transcripts of p53, p21, and cyclin D1, and the spatial expression patterns of these genes in treated groups, were comparable to those of the untreated early stages of embryos. Finally, the addition of glutathione (GSH) or its precursor, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), ameliorated the developmental retardation of embryos by arecoline. CONCLUSIONS Arecoline-treated embryos exhibited general developmental retardation in a dose-dependent manner. Our results from RT-PCR, in situ hybridization, and antioxidant-protection experiments indicate that the mechanism underlying growth retardation by arecoline in embryos is predominately due to a general cytotoxic effect induced by depletion of intracellular thiols. Birth Defects Research (Part A) 67:000–000, 2003. © 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Item response theory scalings were conducted for six tests with mixed item formats. These tests differed in their proportions of constructed response (c.r.) and multiple choice (m.c.) items and in overall difficulty. The scalings included those based on scores for the c.r. items that had maintained the number of levels as the item rubrics, either produced from single ratings or multiple ratings that were averaged and rounded to the nearest integer, as well as scalings for a single form of c.r. items obtained by summing multiple ratings. A one-parameter (IPPC) or two-parameter (2PPC) partial credit model was used for the c.r. items and the one-parameter logistic (IPL) or three-parameter logistic (3PL) model for the m.c. items, ltem fit was substantially worse with the combination IPL/IPPC model than the 3PL/2PPC model due to the former's restrictive assumptions that there would be no guessing on the m.c. items and equal item discrimination across items and item types. The presence of varying item discriminations resulted in the IPL/IPPC model producing estimates of item information that could be spuriously inflated for c.r. items that had three or more score levels. Information for some items with summed ratings were usually overestimated by 300% or more for the IPL/IPPC model. These inflated information values resulted in under-estbnated standard errors of ability estimates. The constraints posed by the restricted model suggests limitations on the testing contexts in which the IPL/IPPC model can be accurately applied.

We have investigated ligand-dependent negative regulation of the thyroid-stimulating hormone beta (TSHbeta) gene. Thyroid hormone (T3) markedly repressed activity of the TSHbeta promoter that had been stably integrated into GH(3 )pituitary cells, through the conserved negative regulatory element (NRE) in the promoter. By DNA affinity binding assay, we show that the NRE constitutively binds to the histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) present in GH(3 )cells. Significantly, upon addition of T3, the NRE further recruited the thyroid hormone receptor (TRbeta) and another deacetylase, HDAC2. This recruitment coincided with an alteration of in vivo chromatin structure, as revealed by changes in restriction site accessibility. Supporting the direct interaction between TR and HDAC, in vitro assays showed that TR, through its DNA binding domain, strongly bound to HDAC2. Consistent with the role for HDACs in negative regulation, an inhibitor of the enzymes, trichostatin A, attenuated T3-dependent promoter repression. We suggest that ligand-dependent histone deacetylase recruitment is a mechanism of the negative-feedback regulation, a critical function of the pituitary-thyroid axis.

Vertical achievement scales, which range from the lower elementary grades to high school, are used pervasively in educational assessment. Using simulated data modeled after real tests, the present article examines two procedures available for vertical scaling: a Thurstone method and three-parameter item response theory. Neither procedure produced artifactual scale shrinkage; both procedures produced modest scale expansion for one simulated condition.

In one study, parameters were estimated for constructed-response (CR) items in 8 tests from 4 operational testing programs using the l-parameter and 2- parameter partial credit (IPPC and 2PPC) models. Where multiple-choice (MC) items were present, these models were combined with the 1-parameter and 3-parameter logistic (IPL and 3PL) models, respectively. We found that item fit was better when the 2PPC model was used alone or with the 3PL model. Also, the slopes of the CR and MC items were found to differ substantially. In a second study, item parameter estimates produced using the IPL-IPPC and 3PL-2PPC model combinations were evaluated for fit to simulated data generated using true parameters known to fit one model combination or ttle other. The results suggested that the more flexible 3PL-2PPC model combination would produce better item fit than the IPL-1PPC combination.

Hyperthyroidism is associated with an increase in both osteoblast and osteoclast activity. We have previously shown that, in vitro, osteoclasts do not respond directly to tri-iodothyronine to increase bone resorption but that the effect is mediated by another bone cell, probably the osteoblast. To investigate this issue further we have studied the isoform-specific expression of thyroid receptor (TR) protein in human osteoclasts derived from an osteoclastoma (giant cell tumour of bone) and the expression of TR mRNA and protein in the osteoblastic cell lines MG 63 and UMR 106. Three major TR receptor variants have been described; TR alpha 1 and TR beta are functional receptors whereas c-erbA alpha 2 is a non-functional variant. Northern blot analysis using [32P]-cDNA probes against human TR alpha 1, c-erbA alpha 2 and TR beta demonstrated specific binding of these probes to mRNA from MG 63 and UMR 106. mRNA for all three receptor variants was observed in both cell lines, in UMR 106 multiple mRNA transcripts were present for TR alpha 1 and TR beta. Immunohistochemical staining with antibodies recognizing a common TR alpha epitope and specific c-erbA alpha 2 and TR beta epitopes extended these observations by demonstrating receptor protein in both osteoblasts and osteoclasts. These findings are consistent with previous observations of TR expression in osteoblast-like-cells and are the first direct demonstration of TR in osteoclasts.

This study investigated the psychometric characteristics of constructed-response (CR) items referring to choice and non-choice passages administered to students in Grades 3, 5, and 8. The items were scaled using item response theory (IRT) methodology. The results indicated no consistent differences in the difficulty and discrimination of the items referring to the two types of passages. On the average, students' scale scores on the choice and non-choice passages were comparable. Finally, the choice passages differed in terms of overall popularity and in their attractiveness to different gender and ethnic groups

Performance assessments appear on a priori grounds to be likely to produce far more local item dependence (LID) than that produced in the use of traditional multiple-choice tests. This article (a) defines local item independence, (b) presents a compendium of causes of LID, (c) discusses some of LID's practical measurement implications, (d) details some empirical results for both performance assessments and multiple-choice tests, and (e) suggests some strategies for managing LID in order to avoid negative measurement consequences.

e discuss recent advances in the synthesis and study of metal-ion-activated insulators. These materials are of interest in the development of tunable solid-state lasers. We focus our attention first on the synthesis of new materials in single-crystal fiber form, which is achieved by the laser-heated podestal growth technique. and, we discuss high-resolution optical techniques which have been developod to study these new materials, with emphasis on laser spectroscopy and fluorescence line narrowing in the near-infrared region

PracticeRat® (Sharpoint, Reading PA) is a system containing a simulation vein, artery and nerve, designed as an alternative to live animal use in microsurgical training. We find PracticeRat® to be more expensive than living models. However, it does decrease animal usage and provides a very convenient opportunity to practice microsurgical techniques and procedures in a fairly realistic manner. Trainees can practice anytime, for any length of time, wherever microscopes are available. In this regard we find PracticeRat® to be a useful addition to microsurgical training programs and an excellent tool for skills maintenance. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Alternatives to vertical scales are compared for measuring longitudinal academic growth and for producing school-level growth measures. The alternatives examined were empirical cross-grade regression, ordinary least squares and logistic regression, and multilevel models. The student data used for the comparisons were Arabic Grades 4 to 10 in Qatar, and results were examined in the scale score and performance level metrics. It is found that vertical scales and cross-grade regressions can show different results at the individual student level, but at the school level, the different measures of growth were strongly correlated, particularly in the scale score metric. Differences between the methods appear more likely in the performance level metric than the scale score metric and for grade pairs with more extreme performance.

Where do we stand today as the concept of the consequential aspect of validity gains maturity? What are the implications for the various stakeholders in the measurement enterprise?

The study of phosphor materials generally focuses on systems with a high quantum efficiency. On the other hand, a thorough understanding why certain systems show very low quantum yield will certainly lead to a better understanding of phosphor materials in general. Here we present studies on cerium-doped lutetium oxide and yttrium oxide crystals that are characterized by a complete quenching of the 4f-5d luminescence. To find the origin of the quenching mechanism, as well as to understand the difference to other Ce 3+ systems with high quantum efficiencies, we have performed extensive absorption, photoexcitation, and photoconductivity studies on single crystals of these systems, prepared by the laser-heated-pedestal growth technique. It is experimentally verified that the quenching mechanism is determined by the location of the first excited level of the cerium ions with respect to the conduction band - a general result that can be applied to a broad range of materials and will allow us to characterize and engineer future phosphor materials.

Y 2 O 3 :Eu 3+ has been extensively investigated as a red phosphor for fluorescent lamps and color displays. In particular, there have recently been several studies examining the effect of impurities on the luminescence efficiency for Y 2 O 3 :Eu 3+ under UV excitation. In this work we investigate the effects of codoping Y 2 O 3 :Eu 3+ with Ca 2+ and Zr 4+ on the emission produced by cathode-ray excitation. Specifically, we have measured the relative efficiency, fluorescent lifetimes, and fluorescent spectra under cathode-ray excitation and compare these results to those previously observed under UV excitation.

Photodownconversion of UV radiation incident on a polymeric substrate, polycarbonate, into visible and IR region is effected by coating the substrate with cerous chloride (CeCl3)/poly(vinyl alcohol) complex whereby photolytic degradation of the substrate is significantly inhibited. Thus it appears that cerous ion coating serves as an effective UV screener. The testing method consists of exposing the coated and naked substrate films to a medium intensity UV source with a cutoff filter below 280 nm for different intervals and determining their optical transmission characteristics. Some of the cerous ion coated films were further overcoated with polyvinyl acetate in order to prevent ion leaching by water. The final product retains the visible and IR transmittance of untreated polycarbonate film, and when the optimum composition of CeCl3 in poly(vinyl alcohol) is coated, its transmission spectrum is barely changed even after 24 hr of UV irradiation. The object is to develop inexpensive solar glazing materials which can last up to 20 years without deterioration of their optical and mechanical properties upon solar irradiation.

are contrasted. It is argued that clearer criteria are needed for judging the appropriateness and usefulness of alternative scaling procedures, and more information is needed about the qualities of the different scales that are available. In answer to this second need, some examples are presented of how IRT can be used to examine the properties of scales: It is demonstrated that for observed score scales in common use (i.e., any scores that are influenced by measurement error), (a) systematic errors can be introduced when comparing growth at selected percentiles, and (b) normalizing observed scores will not necessarily produce a scale that is linearly related to an underlying normally distributed true trait. For many years educators have asked important and seemingly answerable questions about their students' achievement: How much does one program improve achievement relative to another program? How much are our low-achieving students learning relative to our high-achieving students? Are our third graders learning at the same rate as our 10th graders? Is this student learning as much in sixth grade as he or she learned in fifth grade? Educators have asked these questions, and test developers have offered a variety of ways to get answers. Many types of scales have been made available to measure educational achievement. Examples are number-correct scores, percentiles, grade equivalents, and scale scores. Most of these scales are monotonic transformations of each other; they rank examinees in the same way, but they differ in terms of scale units. This paper focuses on putative equal-interval scales that are available for measuring change in examinees' achievement within and across test levels. For many years Thurstonian absolute scaling based on number-correct scores was the major method used for scaling multilevel educational achievement tests. Test publishers encouraged the interpretation of the Thurstonian scale as an equalinterval scale and the use of this scale for measuring growth and for numerical calculations (e.g., CTB/McGraw-Hill, 1968b, 1982; Madden, Gardner, Rudman, Karlsen, & Merwin, 1975). The acceptance of the Thurstonian scale as being linearly related to "achievement" was not effectively challenged for many years, largely because there was no strong alternative scaling method. With the

There is widespread interest in latent trait models-an entire edition of this journal (Volume 14, No. 2) was devoted to them. One of the most important assumptions of latent trait models is that the characteristics of each item can be described by one set of parameters. (See Allen & Yen, 1979 or Lord & Novick, 1968 for further discussions of the models and their assumptions.) If item parameters are influenced by the sequencing of the items or by the characteristics of other items in the test, then context effects are occurring. Two situations in which context effects are particularly important are (a) the field testing and selection of items and (b) the calibration of items (i.e., the estimation of item parameters) for item pools. If there are context effects, the items that appear to be best in a field test may not be the best in a final test booklet. With item pools, context effects can influence the choice of the best items and the parameter values associated with each item. The item parameter values also influence the trait values that are obtained subsequently for any given examinee's pass/fail responses to the items, and the parameter values influence the standard error of the trait value provided by the latent trait model. The item parameter values also influence the item characteristic curve (ICC) predicted by the latent trait model. The values of the ICC can be important. For example, the ICC can be used to estimate the degree to which a rise in a trait value, say through average growth from grade 3 to grade 4, will affect an examinee's performance on particular items. The test characteristic curve (TCC), which is the mean of the ICC values for the items in a particular test, also can be influenced by context effects on item parameters. The TCC relates expected proportion-correct scores to trait values, and it is useful in interpreting score distributions (Lord & Novick, 1968, pp. 386-392). Numerous studies have examined the effects of changes in item order or context on test performance. Most of these studies have not reported results for item statistics but rather have reported results for examinees' scores (Brenner, 1964; Cronbach, 1946, 1950; Sax & Carr, 1962; Sax & Cromack, 1966; Sirotnik & Wellington, 1974; Tuck, 1978), particularly as these scores relate to anxiety (Berger, Munz, Smouse, & Angelino, 1969; Hambleton & Traub, 1974; Marso, 1970; Munz & Smouse, 1968; Towle & Merrill, 1975). Several studies have examined the stability of classical item statistics under changes in context. When administered under power or slightly speeded conditions, items on some tests tended to be somewhat easier when they appeared near the beginning of a test than when they appeared near the end of a test (Flaugher, Melton, & Myers, 1968; Mollenkopf, 1950). Rearrangements of the items in other tests produced little change in item difficulties under slightly speeded or power conditions (Flaugher et al., 1968; Gerow, 1980; Huck & Bowers, 1972; Mollenkopf, 1950; Monk & Stallings, 1970). While item-test biserials were not systematically affected by position under power conditions (Flaugher et al., 1968; Mollenkopf, 1950), under speeded conditions biserials were higher when an item appeared near the end of a test than when it came near the beginning (Mollenkopf, 1950).

We introduce an index matching technique which exploits the waveguiding properties of sapphire fibers, reduces the stray light level, and allows for the enhancement of Raman scattering signal- noise ratio. Raman scattering of sapphire fibers was conducted at room temperature using the 476.5 argon laser line. Red shifts were observed under tensile stress for both A1 g and E g phonon modes. The stress-induced Raman shifts for the A1 g modes are in good agreement with the theoretical calculations. The deformation potential constants used in these calculations were obtained from the literature of bulk sapphire measurement under compressive uniaxial stress. However, the E g modes shift to lower energy much faster than the calculated values. The behavior of the E g modes under tensile stress is not fully understood and may be due to the restricted dimension effects. Since the surface effects are 2-D, they should only influence the E g modes. Tensile stress tends to stretch the surface and relax the surface compression. Thus, a larger red frequency shift of the phonon modes may be expected compared with the bulk samples.

This paper discusses how to maintain the integrity of national normative information for achievement tests when the test that is administered has been customized to satisfy local needs and is not a test that has been nationally normed. Using an Item Response Theory perspective, alternative procedures for item selection and calibration are examined with respect to their effect on the accuracy of normative information. It is emphasized that it is important to match the content of the customized test with that of the normed test if accurate normative data are desired.

Phillips and Clarizio (1988) make a serious error In concluding that developmental standard score scales produce unrealistic expectations for growth of low-achieving students. The nature of their error is described in this response to their paper.