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1.Biological pest control is known to depend on landscape heterogeneity. However, such relationship shows irregular pattern and seems influenced by local farming practices and natural enemies that overwinter within crop fields. The objective of this study was to assess the contribution of emerging natural enemies in spring to biological control, and their response to the interaction between landscape heterogeneity and farming intensity. 2.We monitored the overwintering insect community using emergence traps and measured the local potential pest predation using prey cards in 30 cereal fields, in spring in France. Study fields were selected along a landscape heterogeneity gradient and farming practices were recorded. 3.None of the ten emerging taxa influenced predation of lepidopteran eggs or weed seeds. On the ground, aphid predation was positively correlated with emerging carabid beetles. In foliage, aphid predation was negatively correlated with emerging parasitoids. Overall, the community of natural enemies that overwinter within crop fields seemed to benefit from lower crop diversity and higher edge density in combination with higher farming intensities. This suggest that they represent a subset of species adapted to. This study highlights a large broad taxonomic panel of emerging natural enemies and their potential local pest predation. peerReviewed

Insect CAPA neuropeptides are considered to affect water and ion balance by mediating the physiological metabolism activities of the Malpighian tubules. In previous studies, the CAPA-PK analogue 1895 (2Abf-Suc-FGPRLamide) was reported to decrease aphid fitness when administered through micro-injection or via topical application. However, a further statistically significant decrease in the fitness of aphids and an increased mortality could not be established with pairwise combinations of 1895 with other CAPA analogues. In this study, we assessed the topical application of new combinations of 1895 with five CAPA-PVK analogues on the fitness of aphids. We found that 1895 and CAPA-PVK analogue 2315 (ASG-[β3 L]-VAFPRVamide) was statistically the most effective combination to control the peach potato aphid Myzus persicae nymphs via topical application, leading to 72% mortality. Additionally, the combination (1895+2315) was evaluated against a selection of beneficial insects, i.e. a pollinator (Bombus terrestris) and three natural enemies (Chrysoperla carnea, Nasonia vitripennis and Adalia bipunctata). We found no significant influence on food intake, weight increase and survival for the pollinator and the three representative natural enemies. These results could facilitate to further establish, and generate CAPA analogues as alternatives to broad spectrum and less friendly insecticides. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Introducing areas of wildflower vegetation within crop fields has been shown to enhance pollinator activity and pollination services to crops, and findings in Europe showed an interaction effect between floral treatments and landscape context. Natural fynbos patches in the South African Cape Floristic Region (CFR) are potential reservoirs for beneficial insects that could enhance pollinator populations and crop pollination in commercial apple orchards. However, the effect of proximity to natural habitat and floral enhancement treatments on crop pollinators and yield are yet to be fully tested in southern temperate regions.\ud \ud To elucidate the impact of enhanced floral resources to apple flower visitors and crop yield, we established small experimental patches of flowers in non-productive areas of commercial apple Malus domestica orchards in the CFR. Experimental orchards were embedded in landscapes with varying proportions of natural habitat within 1 km. We used pollinator exclusion experiments to determine the benefits of insect pollination on apple yield, quality and economic value.\ud \ud We found that the primary pollinator of apple flowers in the region is the endemic Cape honey bee, Apis mellifera capensis. Floral plantings enhanced overall pollinator abundance and honey bee flower visitation within the orchards, and positively affected apple size and economic value. Increased landscape complexity had a significantly positive effect on wild bees but not on honey bees.\ud \ud Synthesis and applications. We demonstrate that presence of floral plantings within orchards enhances pollinator activity within apple orchards and apple quality. This sustainable management practice may represent a profitable choice for growers, which could increase pollination services while reducing reliance on renting hives. These practices can indirectly contribute to increased landscape-scale resilience and connectivity while also benefiting pollinators within the remaining natural habitat.

Background Insect Capability neuropeptides (CAP2b/CAPA-PKs) play a critical role in modulating different physiologies and behavior in insects. In a previous proof-of-concept study, the CAP2b analogues 1895 (2Abf-Suc-FGPRLamide) and 2129 (2Abf-Suc-ATPRIamide) were reported to reduce aphid fitness when administered by injection. In the current study, the insecticidal efficacy of 1895 and 2129 on the peach potato aphid Myzus persicae was analyzed by topical application, simulating a spray application scenario in the field. Additionally, the selectivity of the tested analogues was evaluated against a selection of beneficial insects, namely three natural enemies (Adalia bipunctata, Chrysoperla carnea and Nasonia vitripennis) and a pollinator (Bombus terrestris). Results Within 3-5 days post topical exposure of aphids to 1895, higher mortality (33%) was observed, as was the case for the treatment with 2129 (17%) and the mixture of 1895 + 2129 (47%) compared to the control (3%). 1895 and the mix 1895 + 2129 showed the strongest and comparable insecticidal effects. Additionally, surviving aphids treated with 1895 showed a reduction in total lifetime reproduction (GRR) of 30%, 19% with 2129 and 39% with the mix 1895 + 2129. Of interest from a biosafety perspective is that by using the same delivery method and dose, no significant effects on survival, weight increase and food intake was observed for the representative natural enemies and the pollinator. Conclusion This study highlights the potential of exploiting CAP2b analogues such as 1895 (core structure FGPRL) as aphicides. Additionally, the CAP2b analogues used in this study were selective as they showed no effects when applied on four representative beneficial insects.

1. Hover flies (Syrphidae: Diptera) are a cosmopolitan group of insects that provide important ecosystem services including pollination and pest control. The seasonal migration of hover flies is probably best known in Europe, but it remains unstudied in many other parts of the world. 2. Australia is believed to be home to around 160 hover fly species, some of which are common in urban and agricultural environments. The current evidence for hover fly migration in Australia is scarce and anecdotal, yet migration may be critical to the success of pollination and the biological control of aphids. 3. In this study, species occurrence records from an online biodiversity database (Atlas of Living Australia) were used to look for evidence of migratory behaviours in all Australian hover flies with more than 200 occurrence records. 4. Four of the 10 species displayed seasonal changes in their distribution consistent with migration, including Australia's two most abundant species: Melangyna viridiceps and Simosyrphus grandicornis. This work is an important first step in understanding the prevalence of migration in Australian hover flies. However, confirmation of our findings requires additional evidence to rule out other plausible explanations for the observed patterns. 5. Based on changes in summer and winter latitudinal distribution, it is estimated that some Australian hover flies may make annual migrations of 400–1800 km. 6. This work suggests that the management of beneficial insects requires consideration of factors at both local and continental scales, as landscape use changes may have an impact on ecosystem services delivered hundreds of kilometres away.

The efficacy of commercially available chemical insecticides and biopesticides on the cotton mealybug (CMB), Phenacoccus solenopsis, was evaluated in the glasshouse. Spirotetramat, sulfoxaflor and buprofezin were identified as key insecticides for use in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies aimed at controlling CMB without flaring other co-occurring pests. When used as a single application, spirotetramat and sulfoxaflor at the rate of 96 g (active ingredient, ha−1) provided variable control of CMB. Spirotetramat used in a double spray tactic (two sequential sprays, 14–15 days apart) without crop oil provided ≥80% control of adult CMB while the addition of oil (5% v/v) increased control to ≥90%. Clothianidin synergised the spirotetramat + oil combination and was identified as a potentially useful tank mix option for use in situations where a quick knockdown of high density and/or large infestation of CMB is required, or to treat high risk infestations in squaring or younger cotton when the abundance of beneficial insects is typically low. Sulfoxaflor used in a double spray tactic provided ≥90% control of adult CMB. The addition of Pulse® penetrant (0.5% v/v) to both options improved overall efficacy. Addition of crop oil to sulfoxaflor did not yield any tangible benefits. Spirotetramat and buprofezin were identified as important tools in managing situations where whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) is the primary pest management target, but CMB is also present in the crop. Buprofezin was effective on early instar mealybugs; this makes it an option for arresting CMB population growth while allowing the beneficial insect populations to increase. Sulfoxaflor was shown to be a useful option in situations where CMB is present along with key pests such as mirids (Creontiades spp.). Mealybugs are typically well controlled by naturally occurring beneficial insects without the need for insecticide use. Chemical insecticides for CMB control should be considered only as a last resort and deployed within the bounds of an IPM strategy.

Background Green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) are important beneficial insects that can be raised on artificial diets for culturing experimental lines. An encapsulation method for embedding a core material within a sealed shell to prevent evaporation and biological contamination is crucial for providing food to these predatory insects. Results This study presents a new encapsulation process to mass produce a core-shell microcapsule diet for rearing Mallada basalis (Walker) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). This new process provided consistent quality control and effectiveness of the microcapsule diet (742.1 ± 11.3 μm in diameter and 44.2 ± 1.9 μm in shell thickness). Furthermore, significant differences were measured in larval development (24.0 ± 0.3 vs. 20.1 ± 0.6 days) and fecundity (465 ± 65.05 vs. 678 ± 54.91 eggs) on comparing the development of M. basalis larvae fed the old and new diets. Survival rates increased in both single- and group-rearing tests for adults fed the new diet during the larval stages. Neither diet affected predation rates for M. basalis larvae preying on nymphs of Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and Bemisia argentifolli Bellows and Perring (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Conclusion Compared with the old process, the new encapsulation process requires reduced effort during preparation, and reduces the weight, cost and space occupied by the equipment. The results of this study suggest that this new spherical microcapsule artificial diet is suitable for group-rearing of M. basalis and may be appropriate for mass-rearing of other types of carnivorous insects. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Background RNA interference (RNAi) has potential as a pest insect control technique. One possible RNAi target is the cuticle protein, which is important in insect molting and development. As an example, here we evaluate the possibility of designing double-stranded RNA (RNA) that is effective for silencing the cuticle protein 19 gene (CP19) in aphids but is harmless to non-target predator insects. Results The sequences of CP19s were similar (86.6-94.4%) among the tested aphid species (Aphis citricidus, Acyrthosiphon pisum, and Myzus persicae) but different in the predator Propylaea japonica. Ingestion of species-specific dsRNAs of CP19 by the three aphids produced 39.3-64.2% gene silencing and 45.8-55.8% mortality. Ingestion of non-species-specific dsRNA (dsAcCP19) by Ac. pisum and M. persicae gave gene silencing levels ranging from 40.4% to 50.3% and 43.3-50.8% mortality. The dsApCP19 did not affect PjCP19 expression or developmental duration in P. japonica. Conclusion The results demonstrate that CP19 is a promising RNAi target for aphid control via one dsRNA design. The targeting of genes that are conserved in insect pests but not present in beneficial insects is a useful RNAi-based pest control strategy. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Many insects, especially nocturnal insects, exhibit positive phototaxis to artificial lights. Light traps are currently used to monitor and manage insect pest populations, and play a crucial role in physical pest control. Efficient use of light traps to attract target insect pests is an important topic in the application of integrated pest management (IPM). Phototactic responses of insects vary among species, light characteristics and the physiological status of the insects. In addition, light can cause several biological responses, including biochemical, physiological, molecular and fitness changes in insects. In this review, we discuss several hypotheses on insect phototaxis, factors affecting insect phototaxis, insect-sensitive wavelengths, biological responses of insects to light, and countermeasures for conserving beneficial insects and increasing the effect of trapping. In addition, we provide information on the different sensitivities to wavelengths causing positive phototactic behavior in > 70 insect pest and beneficial insect species. The use of advanced light traps equipped with superior light sources, such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), will make physical pest control in IPM more efficient. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Spider venoms are complex chemical arsenals that contain a rich variety of insecticidal toxins. However, the major toxin class in many spider venoms is disulfide-rich peptides known as knottins. The knotted three-dimensional fold of these mini-proteins provides them with exceptional chemical and thermal stability as well as resistance to proteases. In contrast with other bioinsecticides, which are often slow-acting, spider knottins are fast-acting neurotoxins. In addition to being potently insecticidal, some knottins have exceptional taxonomic selectivity, being lethal to key agricultural pests but innocuous to vertebrates and beneficial insects such as bees. The intrinsic oral activity of these peptides, combined with the ability of aerosolized knottins to penetrate insect spiracles, has enabled them to be developed commercially as eco-friendly bioinsecticides. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that spider-knottin transgenes can be used to engineer faster-acting entomopathogens and insect-resistant crops. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Background Small-scale farmers often take a double hit from pests such as tephritid fruit-flies. The high price of products against fruit-flies, together with the higher risk of reinfestation from neighboring orchards, limits options for control. Therefore, management requires low-cost local products and concerted action. Peach production in central Bolivia is increasingly affected by invasive Ceratitis capitata. To provide locally sustainable techniques that could incentivize area-wide cooperation of growers, we tested efficiency and specificity of low-cost lures and traps compared with commercial lures and traps (Tephritrap). Results In the laboratory, the local fermented beverage 'chicha' and baker's yeast were equally or more attractive than commercial lures. Both chicha and baker's yeast trapped more flies in field (average FTD 10.31 and 9.49), whereas commercially hydrolyzed protein lure (4.71) or Torula yeast (6.82). However, many non-target species were caught (57.3% and 53.4%). Of the six PET bottles-based traps used, the T-trap caught a similar number of flies (average FTD 5.55), but fewer beneficial insects (0.16) compared to the Tephritrap (0.92). Conclusions This study provides fruit growers with an economical and effective method to capture large numbers of C. capitata, suitable to be part of integrated pest management programs for fruit fly control. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Three-domain Cry toxins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are increasingly used in agriculture to replace chemical insecticides in pest control. Most chemical insecticides kill pest insects swiftly, but are also toxic to beneficial insects and other species in the agroecosystem. Cry toxins enjoy the advantages of high selectivity and the possibility of the application by sprays or transgenic plants. However, these benefits are offset by the limited host range and the evolution of resistance to Bt toxins by insect pests. Understanding how Bt toxins kill insects will help to understand the nature of both problems. The recent realization that ABC transporters play a central role in the killing mechanism will play an important role in devising solutions.

Over the past decade or so, there has been an increasing concern that the use of conventional synthetic pesticides may be having a detrimental effect not just on pollinators and other beneficial insects (Goulson et al., 2015; Regan et al., 2017), but also on insects in general (Sorg et al., 2013; Pisa et al., 2015; Leather, 2018; Main et al., 2018). In addition, the problem of insect resistance to insecticides is a serious problem, with almost 600 arthropod species‐resistant to one or more of the chemical groups commonly used in crop protection products (Sparks & Nauen, 2015). Aphids are particularly good at evolving resistance to insecticides, with the peach–potato aphid, Myzus persicae displaying six types of resistance (Simon & Peccoud, 2018). There is obviously a need to develop new crop protection products that are fully compatible with modern Integrated Pest Management approaches. Biopesticides based on entomopathogenic fungi have been used for many decades but their development and use has been hampered by legislation and, in some cases difficulties with formulation and delivery (Chandler et al., 2011).

The use of glyphosate‐based herbicides in agroecosystems has increased over the past few years because of the advent of genetically modified glyphosate‐resistant crops and resistant weeds. This is alarming because of potential damaging effects on non‐target organisms. In sub‐Saharan Africa, for example Ghana, many rural farmers have not received training in the use of glyphosate‐based herbicides, thus tend to apply higher than recommended concentrations on farms. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of glyphosate‐based herbicides on beneficial insects under laboratory conditions, using Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Apini) and Hypotrigona ruspolii (Magretti) (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Meliponini) as models. The bees were put in contact for 24 h with the recommended concentration of Sunphosate 360 SL, a glyphosate‐based herbicide, 2× the recommended concentration, or distilled water as control. The effect of the herbicide on the bees was compared to the effect of a lambda‐cyhalothrin insecticide. Generally, more bees died after contact with plants freshly sprayed with the herbicide than on herbicide‐treated filter paper. In both cases, more bees died after contact with the higher concentration of the herbicide. These findings suggest that beneficial insects, specifically A. mellifera and H. ruspolii, may get killed if they are sprayed upon or come into contact with plants that have been freshly sprayed with (more than) the recommended concentration of glyphosate‐based herbicides. Therefore, it is important to restrict access and use of such herbicides to trained personnel who will comply with spraying guidelines, that is, recommended concentrations and timing of spray. Spraying at a time when insects are flying about may be detrimental to beneficial insects such as pollinator bees, parasitoids, and predators.

Neonicotinoid insecticides are currently the fastest-growing and most widely used insecticide class worldwide. Valued for their versatility in application, these insecticides may cause deleterious effects in a range of non-target (beneficial) arthropods. However, it remains unclear whether strong patterns exist in terms of their major effects, if broad measures of arthropod performance are negatively affected, or whether different functional groups are equally vulnerable. Here, we present a meta-analysis of 372 observations from 44 field and laboratory studies that describe neonicotinoid effects on 14 arthropod orders across five broad performance measures: abundance, behavior, condition, reproductive success, and survival. Across studies, neonicotinoids negatively affected all performance metrics evaluated; however, magnitude of the effects varied. Arthropod behavior and survival were the most negatively affected and abundance was the least negatively affected. Effects on arthropod functional groups were inconsistent. Pollinator condition, reproductive success, and survival were significantly lower in neonicotinoid treatments compared to untreated controls; whereas, neonicotinoid effects on detritivores were not significant. Although magnitude of arthropod response to neonicotinoids varied among performance measures and functional groups, we documented a consistent negative relationship between exposure to neonicotinoid insecticides in published studies and beneficial arthropod performance.

Scientists have made significant progress in understanding and unraveling several aspects of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-mediated gene silencing during the last two decades. Now that the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism is well understood, it is time to consider how to apply the acquired knowledge to agriculture and crop protection. Some RNAi-based products are already available for farmers and more are expected to reach the market soon. Tailor-made dsRNA as an active ingredient for biopesticide formulations is considered a raw material that can be used for diverse purposes, from pest control and bee protection against viruses to pesticide resistance management. The RNAi mechanism works at the messenger RNA (mRNA) level, exploiting a sequence-dependent mode of action, which makes it unique in potency and selectivity compared with conventional agrochemicals. Furthermore, the use of RNAi in crop protection can be achieved by employing plant-incorporated protectants through plant transformation, but also by non-transformative strategies such as the use of formulations of sprayable RNAs as direct control agents, resistance factor repressors or developmental disruptors. In this review, RNAi is presented in an agricultural context (discussing products that have been launched on the market or will soon be available), and we go beyond the classical presentation of successful examples of RNAi in pest-insect control and comprehensively explore its potential for the control of plant pathogens, nematodes and mites, and to fight against diseases and parasites in beneficial insects. Moreover, we also discuss its use as a repressor for the management of pesticide-resistant weeds and insects. Finally, this review reports on the advances in non-transformative dsRNA delivery and the production costs of dsRNA, and discusses environmental considerations. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Microbiome organisms can degrade environmental xenobiotics including pesticides, conferring resistance to most types of pests. Some cases of pesticide resistance in insects, nematodes and weeds are now documented to be due to microbiome detoxification, and is a demonstrated possibility with rodents. Some cases of metabolic resistance may have been misattributed to pest metabolism, and not to organisms in the microbiome, because few researchers use axenic pests in studying pesticide metabolism. Instances of microbiomes evolving pesticide resistance contributing to resistance of their hosts may become more common due the erratic nature of climate change, as microbiome populations typically increase and evolve faster in stressful conditions. Conversely, microbiome organisms can be engineered to provide crops and beneficial insects with needed resistance to herbicides and insecticides, respectively, but there has not been sufficient efficacy to achieve commercial products useful at the field level, even with genetically engineered microbiome organisms. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

● Flowering plants often depend on the attraction of biotic pollinators for sexual reproduction. Consequently, the emergence and maintenance of selected floral attributes related to pollinator attraction and rewarding are driven by pollinators pressures. ● In this paper we explore the effect of pollinators, rainfall, and temperature and air humidity on the reproduction of a Brazilian terrestrial orchid, Cranichis candida based on data of phenology, flower resources, olfactory and visual attraction cues, pollinators and breeding system. ● The flowers of Cranichis candida are strongly protandrous and pollinated by workers of the social native bee Tetragonisca angustula. The bees collect labellar lipoidal substances (wax scales), which transported to the nest. The lipoidal substance is composed of sterols, hydrocarbons and terpenes. The latter presumably protects the bees and their nests against pathogens and other arthropods. Cranichis candida sets fruits through biotic self- and cross-pollination, and spontaneously due the action of raindrops on flowers. ● Our results indicate that in C. candida, although rain-mediated spontaneous self-pollination happens, fructification mediated by biotic pollinations also occurs, which may result in fruit set by cross-pollination. A mixed pollination system must result in higher genetic variability when compared to species whose fruits are produced entirely by self-pollination. In the other hand, the autogamy is a form of reproductive assurance, and commonly has evolved where pollination services are rare or absent. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Local and landscape factors interact to influence animal populations and, ultimately, crop yields in agroecosystems. Yet few studies have considered interactions and trade-offs between these factors within a single agroecosystem. We sampled insect communities (fruit-damaging pests and Diptera and Hymenoptera pollinator and natural enemy taxa) associated with focal apple trees in south-eastern Australian orchards across a single growing season. We also measured marketable fruit yields on netted (preventing access to vertebrates) and open branches on each focal tree. We focused on relationships with local (ground cover attributes) and landscape (proximity to natural woodland) factors. Importantly, we found that local flower richness in orchard understoreys may buffer the negative effects that isolation from natural woodland has on wild bee and natural enemy communities and the ecosystem services they provide. The results of the present study suggest that floral diversity may be more effective in supporting beneficial insects in crop interiors, rather than at edges near natural vegetation. More studies are needed that identify how local and landscape vegetation structure interact to influence communities of pest and beneficial taxa, and relevant ecosystem functions, in agroecosystems.

Background Neonicotinoid insecticides are under review owing to emerging toxicity to non-target species. Interest has focused on biological pollinators while their effects on other organisms that are key contributors to the ecosystem remain largely unknown. To advance this, we have tested the effects of representatives of three major classes of neonicotinoids, thiacloprid, clothianidin and nitenpyram, on the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), as a representative of the Nematoda, an ecologically important phylum contributing to biomass. Results Concentrations that are several-fold higher than those with effects against target species had limited impact on locomotor function. However, increased potency was observed in a mutant with a hyperpermeable cuticle, which shows that drug access limits the effects of the neonicotinoids in C. elegans. Thiacloprid was most potent (EC50 714 μm). In addition, it selectively delayed larval development in wild-type worms at 1 mm. Conclusion C. elegans is less susceptible to neonicotinoids than target species of pest insect. We discuss an approach in which this defined low sensitivity may be exploited by heterologous expression of insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors from both pest and beneficial insects in transgenic C. elegans with increased cuticle permeability to provide a whole organism assay for species-dependent neonicotinoid effects. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

The continuing pollinator crisis is due, in part, to the lack of year-round floral resources. In intensive farming regions, such as the Upper Midwest (UMW) of the USA, natural and pastoral vegetation largely has been replaced by annual crops such as maize (Zea mays L.), soyabean (Glycine max L.) and wheat (Triticum spp.). Neither the energy (nectar) nor protein (pollen) needs of pollinating and other beneficial insects are being met sufficiently by the new, high-intensity, agricultural landscape. Several potentially useful oilseed crops can be grown in the UMW, and many of these oilseeds are highly attractive to beneficial insects. Prior research showed that some of these oilseeds produced abundant nectar, but their corresponding values for pollen production are unknown. Accordingly, the aim of our research was to document pollen (and protein) production per unit area of twelve oilseed crops grown in Minnesota and associate these values with levels of beneficial insect visitation during anthesis. Our results show that oilseed crops such as camelina (Camelina sativa L.), flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) and pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) produce relatively little pollen (≤40 kg/ha); borage (Borago officinalis L.), calendula (Calendula officinalis L.), canola (Brassica napus L.), crambe (Crambe abyssianica Hochst) and cuphea (Cuphea viscosissima Jacq. × Cuphea lanceolata W. T. Aiton) produce bountiful pollen resources (50–150 kg/ha); and oilseed echium (Echium plantagineum L.) generates massive amounts of pollen (>400 kg/ha), about 50% of which is protein. Our study is unique in presenting a season-long perspective of pollen production in alternative oilseed crops, a resource valuable to pollen-feeding insects such as managed and wild bees. Diversification of UMW landscapes that includes alternative oilseed crops such as oilseed echium and cuphea can potentially provide a ready source of pollen and protein to help combat pollinator decline.

BACKGROUND Neonicotinoids, among the most important pesticides in recent decades, have played pivotal roles in controlling agricultural pests. However, the toxicity to some environmentally beneficial insects is a cause of concern. The development of novel insecticides safer to these insects is increasingly urgent. RESULTS A novel series of hydrocarbylidene nitrohydrazinecarboximidamides were designed and synthesised, starting from S-methylisothiourea sulphate. Preliminary bioassays showed that the target molecules exhibited good activities against Lipaphis erysimi (turnip aphid) and Myzus persicae. As shown by initial insecticidal activity data, most of the target compounds had moderate to excellent activities at a concentration of 600 mg L−1 against L. erysimi, and the lethal rate of most compounds exceeded 90%. They were also highly effective against M. persicae. Some of them have shown excellent insecticidal activities, for example, the LC50 values of compounds Ie-02 to Ie-07 were found to be 3.8, 3.0, 2.5, 3.1, 4.1 and 4.0 mg L−1 respectively. CONCLUSION Structure–activity relationship analysis indicated that a suitable flexible alkyl chain at the imine point and a Cl-substituted pyridine ring are the most crucial factors affecting the activity. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry

Upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) produces terpenoid aldehydes (TAs) that protect the plant from microbial and insect infestations. Foliar TAs include plus (+)‐ and minus (−)‐gossypol, hemigossypolone, and heliocides. To examine foliar TAs’ response to physical wounding, the four TA derivatives of a fully glanded G. hirsutum variety JACO GL were quantified by ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography. The results show that foliar heliocides increased by 1.7‐fold in younger leaves after wounding. While the hemigossypolone level was not affected by the physical wounding, the level of heliocides was significantly increased up to 1.8‐fold in the younger leaves. Upland cotton accumulates concentrated carbohydrates, amino acids, and fatty acids in foliar extrafloral nectar (EFN) to serve as a nutrient resource, which attracts both beneficial insects and damaging pests. To better understand the nectar physiology, particularly to determine the temporal dynamics of EFN metabolites in response to the wounding, a gas chromatograph‐mass spectrometer (GC‐MS) was used to perform metabolic profiling analyses of a G. hirsutum variety Deltapine 383 that has fully developed extrafloral nectaries. A total of 301 compounds were monitored, specifically 75 primary metabolites, two secondary metabolites and 224 unidentified compounds. The physical wounding treatment changed the EFN composition and lowered overall production. The accumulation of 30 metabolites was altered in response to the wounding treatment and threonic acid levels increased consistently. GC‐MS combined with Kovat's analysis enabled identification of EFN secondary metabolites including furfuryl alcohol and 5‐hyrdomethoxyfurfural, which both have antioxidant and antimicrobial properties that may protect the nectar against microbial pathogens. This study provides new insights into the wounding response of cotton plants in terms of cotton metabolites found in leaf glands and extrafloral nectar as well as highlighting some protective functions of secondary metabolites produced in foliar glands and extrafloral nectaries.

RNA interference (RNAi) involves a natural mechanism of gene regulation and an antiviral defense system in eukaryotic cells, resulting in sequence-specific degradation of RNAs. Recent studies demonstrated the feasibility of using RNAi-based strategies to reduce insect pests or increase the health of beneficial insects. This technology permits the development of strategies to control a single insect species, with possibly no negative effects on non-target species, like honey bees or parasitoids. Focus on the development of topically applied RNAi-based approaches to manage insect pests and pathogens may provide environmentally sound products for use across all agriculture production systems. Herein presented are methods to develop RNAi-based control to the Asian citrus psyllid (ACP), Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), vector of citrus Huanglongbing (HLB). Described is an RNAi feeding bioassay, called in plant system (iPS), which uses vegetative new-growth citrus flush to deliver double-strand RNA (dsRNA) to ACP during natural feeding. The iPS demonstrated delivery of non-specific dsRNA in ACP 72 h post feeding. Feeding on flushes treated with dsRNA targeting ACP Arginine Kinase (dsAK), caused relative transcript knockdown and psyllid mortality. Increasing the dose of dsAK or use of dsRNA triggers made to different regions of the AK mRNA did not increase psyllid mortality. The iPS bioassay provides an easy system for use across many plants to successfully deliver dsRNA to ACP and other hemipteran insects for research or RNAi development.

Summary Extrafloral nectar (EFN) provides plants with indirect defence against herbivores by attracting predatory insects, predominantly ants. Decades of research have supported the role of EFN as an effective plant defence, dating back to Thomas Belt's description of ants on acacia in 1874. Despite this extensive body of literature, knowledge of the ecological role of EFN has rarely been applied in the field of pest management. We review the existing literature on the use of EFN in agriculture and consider the obstacles that have hindered this transition. Chief among these obstacles is the influence of ecological context on the outcome of EFN-mediated interactions. As such, we consider the options for various agricultural systems in the light of the growth habit of EFN-producing species, focusing first on orchard species and then on herbaceous crops. In each case, we highlight the benefits and difficulties of utilizing EFN as a pest management tool and of measuring its efficacy. Synthesis and applications. We argue that it is time for a shift in extrafloral nectar (EFN) research towards applied settings and seek to address the question: How can a context-dependent and often inducible plant trait be utilized as a reliable tool in agricultural pest management? Breeding crops for increased EFN production, and intercropping with EFN-producing plants, can enhance assemblages of beneficial insects in many agricultural settings. Orchard systems, in particular, provide an ecological context in which the attraction of ants can contribute to cost-effective and sustainable pest management programmes over a broad geographic range.

Transgenic plants containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) genes are being cultivated worldwide to express toxic insecticidal proteins. However, the commercial utilisation of Bt crops greatly highlights biosafety issues worldwide. Therefore, assessing the risks caused by genetically modified crops prior to their commercial cultivation is a critical issue to be addressed. In agricultural biotechnology, the goal of safety assessment is not just to identify the safety of a genetically modified (GM) plant, rather to demonstrate its impact on the ecosystem. Various experimental studies have been made worldwide during the last 20 years to investigate the risks and fears associated with non-target organisms (NTOs). The NTOs include beneficial insects, natural pest controllers, rhizobacteria, growth promoting microbes, pollinators, soil dwellers, aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates, mammals and humans. To highlight all the possible risks associated with different GM events, information has been gathered from a total of 76 articles, regarding non-target plant and soil inhabiting organisms, and summarised in the form of the current review article. No significant harmful impact has been reported in any case study related to approved GM events, although critical risk assessments are still needed before commercialisation of these crops. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Recent work in natural enemy nutrition has generated dramatic results, ranging from parasitoid longevity increasing several-fold when appropriate nectar is made available to detailed quantification of changes in parasitoid searching behaviour and ‘giving-up times’ when they have nectar access. This floral-resource-based approach to enhancing biological control of pests has also led to many outcomes and is currently operating in a wider context: that of on-farm ecosystem services. Some recent publications have demonstrated that the provision of nectar resource subsidies within and around crops can positively impact a number of other ecosystem services, ranging from pollination to aesthetics, and benefit eco-marketing. However, adult food is not the only resource requirement of parasitoids. Many species require alternative hosts, overwintering habitat, protection from tillage, and refuge from adverse biotic and abiotic conditions. Also, recent work has emphasised the importance of considering spatial and temporal scales when manipulating agro-ecosystems in favour of beneficial insects and the impact that climate change may make on future host-parasitoid dynamics. This review summarises recent work on these additional requirements of parasitoids with the aim of promoting the integration of the floral resource subsidies into a more ecosystem-based view of pest suppression by parasitoids.

Because of their natural origin, biopesticides are assumed to be less harmful to beneficial insects, including bees, and therefore their use has been widely encouraged for crop protection. There is little evidence, however, to support this ingrained notion of biopesticide safety to pollinators. Because larval exposure is still largely unexplored in ecotoxicology and risk assessment on bees, an investigation was performed on the lethal and sublethal effects of a diet treated with 2 bioinsecticides, azadirachtin and spinosad, on the stingless bee, Melipona quadrifasciata, which is one of the most important pollinators in the Neotropics. Survival of stingless bee larvae was significantly compromised at doses above 210 ng a.i./bee for azadirachtin and 114 ng a.i./bee for spinosad. No sublethal effect was observed on larvae developmental time, but doses of both compounds negatively affected pupal body mass. Azadirachtin produced deformed pupae and adults as a result of its insect growth regulator properties, but spinosad was more harmful and produced greater numbers of deformed individuals. Only spinosad compromised walking activity of the adult workers at doses as low as 2.29 ng a.i./bee, which is 1/5000 of the maximum field recommended rate. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that bioinsecticides can pose significant risks to native pollinators with lethal and sublethal effects; future investigations are needed on the likelihood of such effects under field conditions. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:2149–2158. © 2015 SETAC

Insect species inventories along with pest prevalence, foraging behavior of pollinators and their effect on fruit set of mango were studied in a mango-based agroforestry area in Bangladesh during January to June 2013. Of 1751 collected insects, 11 species in five orders and nine families were pests, 13 species in six orders and eight families were predators and eight species belonging to three orders and seven families were found as pollinators. The pests exerted significantly higher abundance but lower diversity than pollinator, predator and other insects. The pollinator richness was found to be lowest but showed higher as well as similar diversity to other category insects. Three pest species prevailed throughout the season and hoppers showed significant abundance. Among the predators, ants were most abundant. Sulphur butterfly and syrphid fly revealed statistically identical and higher abundance than other pollinators. During the flowering season, pests were dominant and the abundance of insects was observed to peak at 11.00 h. The pollinators differed in their landing duration on flowers and their activity led to higher levels of fruit set. This study provides baseline information on insect abundance in an agroforestry system, which stresses the importance of conservation of beneficial insects.

Summary 1. The potential for infectious pathogens to spillover and emerge from managed populations to wildlife communities is poorly understood, but ecological, evolutionary and anthropogenic factors are all likely to influence the initial exposure and subsequent infection, spread and impact of disease. Fast-evolving RNA viruses, known to cause severe colony losses in managed honeybee populations, deserve particular attention for their propensity to jump between host species and thus threaten ecologically and economically important wild pollinator communities. 2. We review the literature on pollinator viruses to identify biological and anthropogenic drivers of disease emergence, highlight gaps in the literature, and discuss potential management strategies. 3. We provide evidence that many wild pollinator species are exposed to viruses from commercial species, resulting in multiple spillover events. However, it is not clear whether species become infected as a result of spillover or whether transmission is occurring within these wild populations. Ecological traits of pollinating insects, such as overlapping ranges, niches and behaviours, clearly promote cross-species transmission of RNA viruses. Moreover, we conclude that the social behaviour and phylogenetic relatedness of social pollinators further facilitate within- and between-host transmission, leaving these species particularly vulnerable to emerging diseases. 4. We argue that the commercial use of pollinators is a key driver of disease emergence in these beneficial insects and that this must be addressed by management and policy. 5. Synthesis and applications. There are important knowledge gaps, ranging from disease distribution and prevalence, to pathogen life history and virulence, to the impacts of disease emergence, which need to be addressed as research priorities. It is clear that avoiding anthropogenic pathogen spillover is crucial to preventing and managing disease emergence in pollinators, with far-reaching effects on our food security, ecosystem services and biodiversity. We argue that it is crucial to prevent the introduction of diseased pollinators into natural environments, which can be achieved through improved monitoring and management practices.

The Australian cotton industry is now dominated by transgenic (Bt) varieties, which provide a strong platform for integrated pest management (IPM) of Helicoverpa spp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). New IPM-compatible tools are required to manage the development of resistance in Helicoverpa spp. and the control of other sucking pests. A 10-year study commenced in 2001 to identify short-range, non-volatile compounds on organ surfaces of plants that deter feeding or oviposition, or are toxic and do not support development of Helicoverpa spp. on cotton plants. The results of the initial study identified Clitoria ternateaL. (Fabaceae) as non-preferred for Helicoverpa spp. oviposition and larval feeding. The study found that C. ternatea fractionalized extract mixture (fractions 2, 3, 4, and 6) caused oviposition and feeding deterrence as well as direct toxicity to Helicoverpa spp. This study has developed an oil-based semiochemical product from C. ternatea identified in the initial study into a potential commercial product. The application of 1–2% (vol/vol) of the oil-based formulation of the C. ternatea mixture against Helicoverpa spp. on commercial transgenic and conventional cotton crops resulted in Helicoverpa spp. oviposition and larval feeding deterrence, as well as caused direct mortality to larvae. No negative effect on beneficial insects was observed. In conclusion, the ability of the oil-based C. ternatea mixture to control Helicoverpa spp. infestations, while conserving beneficial insect populations, suggests its potential for use in supplementing IPM programs to reduce the use of synthetic insecticides on transgenic and conventional cotton crops.

Despite the extensive use of the neonicotinoid insecticide clothianidin, and its known toxicity to beneficial insects such as pollinators, little attention has been given to its fate under agricultural field conditions. The present study investigated the fate and toxicity of clothianidin applied every other year as a corn seed-coating at 2 different rates, 0.25 mg/seed and 0.50 mg/seed, in an agricultural field undergoing a corn–soybean annual rotation, and conservation tillage. Concentrations were measured in soil, surface runoff, infiltration, and groundwater from 2011 to 2013. Clothianidin was detected at low concentrations in soil and water throughout the 2-yr corn and soybean rotation. Low and no-tillage had little or no effect on clothianidin concentrations. Laboratory toxicity bioassays were performed on nontarget species, including Daphnia magna, Hyalella azteca, Chironomus dilutus, Pimephales promelas and Eisenia fetida. Risk quotients were calculated from clothianidin concentrations measured in the field and compared with the laboratory toxicity bioassay results to assess the environmental risk of the insecticide. The risk quotient was found to be lower than the level of concern for C. dilutus, which was the most sensitive species tested; therefore, no short-term environmental risk was expected for the species investigated in the present study. Environ Toxicol Chem 2014;9999:1–8. © 2014 SETAC

BACKGROUND The invasive brown marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys (Stal) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), has emerged as a key pest in mid-Atlantic peach production. Current management of H. halys has disrupted IPM programs by relying exclusively on frequent, repeated, season-long insecticide applications. We developed a behaviorally-based tactic termed IPM-CPR (Crop Perimeter Restructuring) that utilizes border sprays for H. halys, groundcover management for Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois) (Hemiptera: Miridae) and mating disruption for Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). RESULTS IPM-CPR reduced insecticide usage by 25–61%. Generally there was less, and at times significantly less, catfacing injury (attributable to H. halys) in peaches in the IPM-CPR blocks relative to the standard, and minimal differences in injury due to G. molesta or L. lineolaris. These results suggest that perimeter applications of insecticides exploit the border-arrestment behavior of H. halys by controlling them at the orchard edge, reducing damage throughout the block. CONCLUSION IPM-CPR significantly reduces the area managed by growers for control of H. halys, while simultaneously managing key pests at levels equal to current grower standard practices. This approach brings IPM tactics back into the orchard system after disruption by the invasive H. halys and potentially supports beneficial insects. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

The Asian citrus psyllid (ACP) Diaphorina citri Kuwayama vectors pathogens that cause huanglongbing (HLB) or citrus greening devastating and economically important disease present in most citrus growing regions. Young citrus shoots are required for psyllid reproduction and development. During winter citrus trees produce little or no new growth. Overwintering adults reproduce in spring on newly emerging shoots also attractive to other pests and beneficial insects. Botanicals and relatively selective insecticides could help to conserve beneficial insects and reduce pest resistance to insecticides. Sprays of Azadirachtin (Neem), Tropane (Datura), Spirotetramat, Spinetoram, and broad-spectrum Imidacloprid were evaluated to control ACP in spring and summer on 10-year-old "Kinow" Citrus reticulata Blanco trees producing new growth. Psyllid populations were high averaging 5-9 nymphs or adults per sample before treatment application. Nymphs or adults were significantly reduced to 0.5-1.5 per sample in all treatments for 3 weeks, average 61%-83% reduction. No significant reduction in ladybeetles Adalia bipunctata, Aneglei scardoni, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, and Coccinella septempunctata was observed. Syrphids, spiders and green lacewings were reduced in treated trees except with Tropane. Studies are warranted to assess impact of these predators on ACP and interaction with insecticides. Observed reduction in ACP populations may not be enough considering its reproductive potential and role in the spread of HLB. Follow-up sprays may be required to achieve additional suppression using rotations of different insecticides.

Common green lacewings (Chrysoperla carnea species complex) are important predators of several insect pests, particularly aphids. Due to their potential in biological control, several efforts have been made to find means to retain common green lacewing adults or even to increase their numbers at a given site. In the course of field experiments conducted in Hungary and Norway, we tested the effect of a known ternary bait (phenylacetaldehyde, methyl salicylate, acetic acid) on oviposition and overwintering site choice of common green lacewings. In an orchard in Hungary, overwintering chambers were set up with and without baits. For the experiment on oviposition in Norway, a number of lacewing eggs were compared on trees with and without baits in selected sectors of the canopy. With the ternary bait, more common green lacewings could be attracted to overwintering chambers, and also significantly more eggs were found in the vicinity of baits than in other selected parts of the canopy, suggesting that this bait has the potential to manipulate both overwintering site choice and oviposition site choice of these important beneficial insects.

Hormesis, a biphasic dose response whereby exposure to low doses of a stressor can stimulate biological processes, has been reported in many organisms, including pest insects when they are exposed to low doses of a pesticide. However, awareness of the hormesis phenomenon seems to be limited among bee researchers, in spite of the increased emphasis of late on pollinator toxicology and risk assessment. In this commentary, we show that there are several examples in the literature of substances that are toxic to bees at high doses but stimulatory at low doses. Appreciation of the hormetic dose response by bee researchers will improve our fundamental understanding of how bees respond to low doses of chemical stressors, and may be useful in pollinator risk assessment. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry

Insect pest management in wild blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton) usually involves insecticidal sprays, which may have detrimental effects on non-target beneficial insects. Dogbane beetle (Chrysochus auratus Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) feeds almost exclusively on spreading dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium L.), an increasing weed problem in wild blueberry production. Because C. auratus is an important natural enemy of spreading dogbane, we assessed its susceptibility to several insecticides it may be exposed to during insect pest management. In laboratory bioassays, we found adult dogbane beetles were highly susceptible to field rates of phosmet (Imidan) and acetamiprid (Assail) by direct topical contact and ingestion of treated foliage, whereas no mortality was seen with spirotetramat (Movento) and chlorantraniliprole (Altacor). Topical applications of spinetoram (Delegate) did not cause significant mortality of beetles, but high mortality to beetles was found when they ingested spinetoram-treated foliage. The results suggest that while some insecticides used in blueberry management will be hazardous to C. auratus, options are available that will cause little harm to this natural enemy.

BACKGROUND Sub-lethal effects of pesticides on behavioural endpoints are poorly studied in carabids (Coleoptera: Carabidae) though changes in behaviour caused by chemical stress may affect populations of these non-targeted beneficial insects. General motor activity and locomotion are inherent in many behavioural patterns, and changes in these activities that result from xenobiotic influence mirror an integrated response of the insect to pesticides. Influence of pyrethroid insecticides over a wide range of sub-lethal doses on the motor activities of carabids still remains unclear. RESULTS Video tracking of Platynus assimilis showed that brief exposure to alpha-cypermethrin at sub-lethal concentrations ranged from 0.01 to 100 mg L−1 caused initial short-term ( 24 h) locomotor hypo-activity. In addition, significant short- and long-term concentration and time-dependent changes occurred in general motor activity patterns and rates. CONCLUSION Conspicuous changes in motor activity of Platynus assimilis beetles treated at alpha-cypermethrin concentrations up to 75 000-fold lower than maximum field recommended concentration (MFRC) suggest that many, basic fitness-related behaviours might be severely injured as well. These changes may negatively affect carabid populations in agro-ecosystems. Long-term hypo-activity could directly contribute to decreased trap captures of carabids frequently observed after insecticide application in the field. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry

The control of agricultural pests is an important ecosystem service provided by predacious insects. In Midwestern USA, areas of remnant tallgrass prairie and prairie restorations may serve as relatively undisturbed sources of natural predators, and smaller areas of non-crop habitats such as seminatural areas and conservation plantings (CP) may serve as stepping stones across landscapes dominated by intensive agriculture. However, little is known about the flow of beneficial insects across large habitat networks. We measured abundance of soybean aphids and predators in 15 CP and adjacent soybean fields. We tested two hypotheses: (1) landscape connectivity enhances the flow of beneficial insects; and (2) prairies act as a source of sustaining populations of beneficial insects in well-connected habitats, by using adaptations of graph and circuit theory, respectively. For graph connectivity, incoming fluxes to the 15 CP from connected habitats were measured using an area- and distance-weighted flux metric with a range of negative exponential dispersal kernels. Distance was weighted by the percentage of seminatural area within ellipse-shaped landscapes, the shape of which was determined with correlated random walks. For circuit connectivity, effective conductance from the prairie to the individual 15 CP was measured by regarding the flux as conductance in a circuit. We used these two connectivity measures to predict the abundance of natural enemies in the selected sites. The most abundant predators were Anthocoridae, followed by exotic Coccinellidae, and native Coccinellidae. Predator abundances were explained well by aphid abundance. However, only native Coccinellidae were influenced by the flux and conductance. Interestingly, exotic Coccinellidae were negatively related to the flux, and native Coccinellidae were highly influenced by the interaction between exotic Coccinellidae and aphids. Our area- and distance-weighted flux and the conductance variables showed better fit to field data than area-weighted flux or Euclidean distance from the prairie. These results indicate that the network of seminatural areas has greater influence on the flow of native predators than that of exotic predators, and that the prairie acts as a source for native Coccinellidae. Managers can enhance conservation biocontrol and sustain the diversity of natural enemies by optimizing habitat networks.

International audience; Population structure of pests and beneficial species is an important issue when designing management strategies to optimize ecosystem services. In this study, we investigated for the first time the population structure at a continental scale of two migratory species of hoverflies providing both pest regulation and pollination services [Episyrphus balteatus and Sphaerophoria scripta (Diptera: Syrphidae)]. To achieve this objective, we used two sets of 12 species-specific microsatellite markers on a large-scale sampling from all over Europe. Our findings showed a high level of genetic mixing resulting in a lack of genetic differentiation at a continental scale and a great genetic diversity in the two species. All the pairwise F-ST values between European localities were less 0.05 in the two species. These low values reflect a large-scale genetic mixing probably caused by the existence of frequent migratory movements in the two species. Mantel tests revealed isolation-by-distance pattern on the East-West axis, but not on the North-South axis. This isolation-by-distance pattern confirms the existence of North-South migratory movements in both directions and suggests an important step by step dispersal. Population features shown by this study are common in invasive species and pests, but are not often observed in beneficial species. They reflect great colonization abilities and a high adaptive potential when dealing with a changing environment. Our results highlight the two studied species as particularly interesting beneficial insects for pollination and pest predation in the current context of global change.

Flowering plant species in hedgerows may be food sources for beneficial insects and therefore play a role in biodiversity conservation and agroecosystem functioning. Research was conducted in eight organic cider-apple orchards in Asturias (north-west Spain) aiming to (i) identify the native flowering plants in the surrounding hedgerows and (ii) assess the attractiveness of those flowers for beneficial insects, such as pollinators and natural enemies of pests. A total of 7745 flowers belonging to 63 plant species were recorded in the hedgerows from May to September 2012. Flower abundance and species richness decreased as the season progressed. Orchard differences were observed for plant species richness but not for the total number of flowers in the hedgerows, likely as a result of similar management among orchards. Hymenoptera pollinators (honey bees, bumblebees and wild bees) accounted for 37.8% of the total insects recorded visiting flowers, whereas predatory hoverflies (14.9%) were the dominant natural enemies. The attractiveness for insects was assessed for 21 of the flowering plant species identified in the hedgerows. Flowering plants differed in the number of taxa that they attracted and in their attractiveness for particular insect groups and for insects as a whole. The present study described the floral composition of the hedgerows that surround apple orchards and identified the local floral resources that could provide benefits for farmers by improving ecosystem services of pollination and biological control of pests.

Understanding predator–prey interactions of the arthropod community in any given ecosystem is essential in pinpointing the biological control services provided by natural enemies. Hence, four prey-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were developed to analyse the gut contents of the cotton predator community. The four targeted prey included a herbivore/pest, omnivore/pest, omnivore/beneficial, and carnivore/beneficial. First, prey retention tests were conducted to determine how long a prey item of each target species could be detected in a predator after ingestion. The assays yielded highly variable inter-assay and intra-assay prey detection efficiencies. Then, a multifaceted field study was conducted to quantify the population dynamics of the cotton predator assemblage and to assess the frequencies of predation that each predator species exhibited on the targeted prey. In total, 1794 predators, representing 17 arthropod families, were collected over two seasons using both sweep net and whole plant sampling procedures. The predator gut assays showed that there was substantial inter-guild predation occurring on the herbivore/pest, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius); moderate intra-guild predation on the omnivore/pest, Lygus spp. (Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), L. hesperus Knight, and L. elisus Van Duzee) and the omnivore/beneficial, Geocoris spp. (Geocoris punctipes (Say), and G. pallens Stal); and very little intra-guild predation on the carnivore/beneficial, Collops vittatus (Say). The gut assays also revealed that DNA of the targeted pests, B. tabaci and Lygus spp., were found more frequently in insect predators than spiders; whereas there were no significant differences in predation between the predatory insects and spiders for the beneficial insects, Geocoris spp. and C. vittatus. Finally, there was a significantly higher frequency of predation events recorded for B. tabaci, Lygus spp., and Geocoris spp. in the sweep net samples. This indicates that the method of collection might influence the interpretation of the gut assay results.

An important means of conserving beneficial insects in resource-limited habitats is to meet their ecological requirements, which may be achieved by providing areas containing flowering plants that bloom throughout the season, but little is known about the importance of wildflower plot size for supporting natural enemies or the biological control they provide. 2. Wildflowers were established in plots of sizes ranging from 1 to 100 m 2 , and found that natural enemy density, group richness, and diversity of natural enemy groups increased with plot size. 3. The density of insect herbivores was lower in all flower plots than in the control samples, whereas the diversity of herbivore groups was significantly higher in flower plots. 4. Comparing population growth of sentinel soybean aphids (Aphis glycines Matsumura) among plot sizes, aphid colonies were smaller as plot size increased. 5. Providing beneficial insects with flowering resources resulted in significantly more natural enemies and greater pest control than in smaller flower plots or mown grass areas. 6. These results indicate that the density, diversity, and function of natural enemies are sensitive to the size of wildflower plantings, even at relatively small scales. Therefore, larger wildflower plots are more suitable for the conservation of beneficial insects and their provision of natural pest control.

Field borders are an effective conservation strategy for providing habitat to overwintering sparrows, and may be a venue through which beneficial insect populations are promoted. However, traditional fallow field borders lack sufficient pollen and nectar sources required to sustain beneficial insect populations; therefore, borders planted to a mix of native prairie flowers and grasses may be needed if increases in beneficial insect populations are desired. Although the value of fallow borders to birds has been established, little is known about bird use of beneficial insect habitats. Using single-observer transect surveys, we compared overwintering sparrow densities among 4 field border treatments (planted native warm season grasses and prairie flowers, planted prairie flowers only, fallow, and mowed) replicated around 9 organic crop fields from November to March 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. Sparrow densities were 5-10 times lower in mowed borders than in other border treatments in 2009-2010 and 2010-2011, but did not differ among planted and fallow borders in either year. Planted field borders may be a useful conservation practice for providing habitat for both overwintering sparrows and beneficial insects. 2012 The Wildlife Society.

Volatiles resulting from plant–herbivore interactions play an important role in the behavioral decisions of phytophagous, predatory, and parasitoid insects and could be used for managing pest insects. However, to date and after about 40 years of research, documented studies on applications in the field remain extremely scarce. Delia radicum L. (Diptera: Anthomyiidae), the cabbage root fly, is a major pest of brassicaceous crops for which classical control strategies are currently lacking. Our previous studies showed that dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), a compound emitted by roots heavily infested by D. radicum larvae, was attractive for the fly’s main natural enemies and could lead to a reduction of 60% in number of eggs laid on treated plants in the field. As a follow-up of this work, we conducted another field study to select additional volatiles that could be used in a push–pull approach. Several synthetic herbivore-induced plant volatiles, selected on the basis of their potential action on the behavior of both the fly and its natural enemies, were placed in odor dispensers in experimental broccoli plots and their influence on oviposition by D. radicum and egg predation by ground-dwelling predators was assessed. Our results confirmed the role of DMDS in reducing D. radicum egg numbers on broccoli plants and revealed that (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, a green leaf volatile released by recently damaged plants, strongly stimulated fly oviposition. Also, two of the compounds tested slightly modified predation activity of ground-dwelling predators: acetophenone decreased the proportion of predated patches, whereas methyl salicylate increased it. This study is a first step in designing a push–pull strategy to control the cabbage root fly.

Microorganisms establish with their animal hosts close interactions. They are involved in many aspects of the host life, physiology and evolution, including nutrition, reproduction, immune homeostasis, defence and speciation. Thus, the manipulation and the exploitation the microbiota could result in important practical applications for the development of strategies for the management of insect-related problems. This approach, defined as Microbial Resource Management (MRM), has been applied successfully in various environments and ecosystems, as wastewater treatments, prebiotics in humans, anaerobic digestion and so on. MRM foresees the proper management of the microbial resource present in a given ecosystem in order to solve practical problems through the use of microorganisms. In this review we present an interesting field for application for MRM concept, i.e. the microbial communities associated with arthropods and nematodes. Several examples related to this field of applications are presented. Insect microbiota can be manipulated: (i) to control insect pests for agriculture; (ii) to control pathogens transmitted by insects to humans, animals and plants; (iii) to protect beneficial insects from diseases and stresses. Besides, we prospect further studies aimed to verify, improve and apply MRM by using the insectsymbiont ecosystem as a model.