Search

Enzymes are challenging to formulate due to their inherent instability, particularly in solution. This study aims to use the design of experiment (DOE) approach to develop spray-dried encapsulated trypsin nano-powder (TrySP) with maximum activity and stability using a Büchi B-90 nano spray dryer. A 53 full factorial design with 26 randomly ordered experiments was created to study the impact of process variables on the quality attributes of TrySP. The additive concentration (%), mesh cap size (μm), inlet temperature (Tinlet) (°C), trypsin concentration (%), and additive type (Mannitol or trehalose) were selected as the independent variables. The dependent parameters were yield value, particle size, residual enzyme activity, and moisture content. Further, comparative physicochemical and kinetic characterization of TrySP was performed. TrySP had diverse qualities (yield value 60.2–96.8%, residual activity >90–50%, particle size 314–1030 nm, and moisture content 0.7–2.2%). Optimized TrySP exhibited 89% yield value and 95% residual activity in the presence of 8% (w/w) mannitol. Kcat of TypSP increased from 22.5/s to 25.6/s with improved operational and storage stabilities. The half-life (t1/2) of TrySP showed 6 folds increase. Furthermore, TrySP activation energy increased from 45,918 J/mol to 94,491 J/mol. The sustainable model presented in this study enables the development of a thermostable, encapsulated trypsin nano-powder with physical and chemical properties that are optimized for various biotechnological industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractThe study examined the efficacy of additives in preventing the crystallization of functional ingredients during the spray-drying process. Spray-drying of a hydrophobic drug from alcohol in the presence of a hydrophilic carrier-forming agent was utilized as a representative scenario, which frequently leads to the crystallization of the main drug component induced by the drying process. Ibuprofen (IBP) and its four congeners were employed as representatives of readily crystallizable hydrophobic pharmaceutical compounds. Disaccharides were intentionally employed as components of the drug carrier to create conditions conducive to crystallization. Ten materials, including the IBP congeners, were investigated for their anti-crystallization properties. The findings indicated that additives with a hydrophobic moiety similar to that of IBP and a carboxylic acid salt moiety effectively prevented IBP and its congeners from crystallizing when the additive content was ≥0.2 g/g-drug during spray-drying and storage at 30 °C over silica gel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of an inhalation powder (IP) for cancer therapy is desired to improve the therapeutic response and patient compliance. The latest studies highlighted that statins, a class of drugs used in hypercholesterolemia, can have anticancer and antiinflammatory properties. Therefore, the aim of the study was to develop an IP containing liposomes loaded with simvastatin using spray drying technology, as well as to investigate the influence of formulation factors on the quality attributes of the IP by means of experimental design. Results highlighted that the composition of liposomes, namely type of phospholipid and cholesterol concentration, highly influences the quality attributes of IP, and the use of optimal concentrations of excipients, i.e. D-mannitol and L-leucine, is essential to preserve the characteristics of liposomes throughout the spray drying process. The in vitro characterization of the optimal IP formulation revealed that the total percentage of released drug is higher from the IP formulation compared to the powder of active substance (53.38 vs. 42.76%) over a period of six hours, and 39.67% of dry particles have a size less than 5 µm, making them suitable for inhalation. As a conclusion, spray drying technology can be effectively used in the development and preparation of IP containing liposomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractAimsMethodsResultsConclusionThis study examines microencapsulation as a method to enhance the stability of natural compounds, which typically suffer from inherent instability under environmental conditions, aiming to extend their application in the pharmaceutical industry.We explore and compare various microencapsulation techniques, including spray drying, freeze drying, and coacervation, with a focus on spray drying due to its noted advantages.The analysis reveals that microencapsulation, especially via spray drying, significantly improves natural compounds’ stability, offering varied morphologies, sizes, and efficiencies in encapsulation. These advancements facilitate controlled release, taste modification, protection from degradation, and extended shelf life of pharmaceutical products.Microencapsulation, particularly through spray drying, presents a viable solution to the instability of natural compounds, broadening their application in pharmaceuticals by enhancing protection and shelf life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractImproving exergy efficiency is crucial to the drying process, especially in reducing costs and carbon dioxide emissions. A closed-loop drying system with a condenser-reheater system was built and analyzed using a numerical simulation to explore the optimal drying conditions, such as inlet air temperature and the air flow rate. Heat-loss coefficients in the simulation were fitted to experimental measurements. The study found that increasing the inlet temperature led to an increase in energy inflow and exergy loss in the system. With an increase in air flow rate from 0.005 to 0.01 kg/s, the exergy loss of the chamber decreased (0.07–0.04 kW), and the exergy efficiency increased (69–92%). The exergy loss was mainly concentrated in the drying chamber, that is, the drying process, and the newly connected condenser and reheater had good exergy efficiencies, exceeding 60%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jasmine rice leaves extract contains a high number of beneficial flavonoids that have antioxidative, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties. The extract has a short shelf-life due to high water activity. The powder form of the extract is convenient to handle and has a longer shelf-life. This study demonstrates an optimization of the microencapsulation process for protecting flavonoids from jasmine rice leaves extract by varying coating materials (maltodextrin, gum Arabic and chitosan) and spray drying conditions that are resulting in high yield and bioactivity. Physical and bio-chemical properties of jasmine rice extract microcapsules from different drying conditions (150–190 °C) also examined and compared to lead to the selection of a suitable coating material and spray drying condition. The results revealed the high potential of using gum Arabic to coat rice leaves extract at a 1:7.5 ratio under spray drying at 190 °C for the best retaining of bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-quality baijiu yeast – modified Sporidiobolus johnsonii A (MSJA) suffers from the problem of weak vitality, thus failing to combine high efficiency and high survival rate drying. Therefore, in this study, we firstly designed a real-time sampling experiment of MSJA spray drying process, and based on this, we established a New CFD model (N-CFD model) that can accurately simulate the variation of the spray drying process of microorganisms such as MSJA. Then, a new spray drying air inlet mechanism of "high-temperature cyclone in the center L-type guide plate + medium-temperature laminar flow in the peripheral holes and slots" was invented. Finally, the parametric scanning simulation was carried out to optimize the flow angle θ of the L-type guide plate using the N-CFD model. The results show that, firstly, the N-CFD model can accurately simulate the temperature distribution (P1 = 0.05) and the motion of drying particles in the drying tower. Secondly, the optimized new air inlet mechanism with the L-type guide plate flow angle θ = 47° can even out the temperature and particle distribution in the drying tower, which meets the "two-stage theory of spray drying." Finally, under the premise of ensuring the drying efficiency, the survival rate of MSJA spray drying was increased from 42.6% to 82.24%, which achieved the objectives of low sticking wall, high efficiency and high survival rate of spray drying MSJA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the frame of this work, the experimental analysis of the reconstitution properties, sorption isotherms and the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra of maltodextrin powder was carried out. Before the analysis the substance was dried by standard spray drying method or flame spray drying (FSD). During the analyses, the influence of the applied FSD parameters on the analyzed properties was also estimated. The powders dried using the standard spray dryer were characterized by a better wettability parameter, which was related to a high bulk density. A shorter solubility time was obtained for powders dried by the FSD method, which may be explained by the larger particle diameters. Analyzing maltodextrin powders dried with the FSD, a significant influence of the atomization pressure and particle size on the wettability parameter was found. Application of FSD method does not affect the sorption characteristics of maltodextrin and does not change significantly the chemical structure of the material, since characteristic peaks of FTIR spectra were preserved after the FSD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying (SD) is one of the most important thermal processes used to produce different powders and encapsulated materials. During this process, quality degradation might happen. The main objective of applying optimization methods in SD processes is maximizing the final nutritional quality of the product besides sensory attributes. Optimization regarding economic issues might be also performed. Applying optimization approaches in line with mathematical models to predict product changes during thermal processes such as SD can be a promising method to enhance the quality of final products. In this review, the application of the response surface methodology (RSM), as the most widely used approach, is introduced along with other optimization techniques such as factorial, Taguchi, and some artificial intelligence-based methods like artificial neural networks (ANN), genetic algorithms (GA), Fuzzy logic, and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). Also, probabilistic methods such as Monte Carlo are briefly introduced. Some recent case studies regarding the implementation of these methods in SD processes are also exemplified and discussed. The quality of spray dried products can be enhanced using different optimization methods. Drying air temperature and flow rate, feed flow rate, wall material concentration, and atomization pressure are the most significant adjustable input variables in the optimization of the spray drying process. Product yield, moisture content, water activity, hygroscopicity, solubility, total color differences, particle size, bulk density, glass transition temperature, encapsulation efficiency, and viability (about probiotics) are the most important output variables in the optimization of the spray drying process. Response surface methodology (RSM), is the most widely used approach in spray drying optimization. Artificial intelligence-based methods like artificial neural networks (ANN), genetic algorithms (GA), Fuzzy logic, and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) have a great potential in spray drying optimization. Probabilistic methods such as Monte Carlo are able to predict and optimize the spray drying process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the effect of whey protein isolate (WPI) and its coconut oil complexes (CO-WPI) on the viability of Limosilactobacillus reuteri KUB-AC5 during spray drying and storage. Varied CO concentrations (0%, 4%, and 8%, w/w) and spray drying temperatures (110 °C and 130 °C) influenced secondary structures, free sulfhydryl groups, disulfide bonds, and DPPH• and ABTS•+ scavenging activities of WPI. Throughout the spray drying and storage processes, CO-WPI effectively reduced lipid peroxidation in the probiotic membranes, as detected by advanced 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance, compared to WPI alone. Microencapsulation in 4CO-WPI at 110 °C provided the highest cell viability during drying (1.34 × 1011 CFU g−1), coupled with the highest cholesterol assimilation (58.43%). After 12 months at 4 °C, viability remained high (5.57 × 1010 CFU g−1). This study demonstrated CO-WPI's potential in reducing oxidative damage and improving probiotic survival, highlighting its efficacy as a microencapsulant in spray drying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biotechnological and pharmaceutical processes based on bacteria require an inoculum with high long-term viability. In order to provide a stabilized bacterial culture for biodegradation of ammonia and ammonium, the model species Kocuria rhizophila DSM 348 was spray-dried using different protective agents. Providing a medium with 200 g/L skimmed milk powder (SMP) and 12.5 g/L monosodium L-glutamate (MSG) resulted in a survival rate of 99.1% ± 3.6% immediately after spray drying, whereas 200 g/L trehalose and 12.5 g/L MSG led to a lower viability (34.7% ± 5.9%). A reference medium with phosphates (7 g/L KH2PO4 + 7 g/L K2HPO4) accomplished a survival rate of 9.8% ± 2.9%. Long-term experiments confirmed high viability of spray-dried bacteria after 52 weeks at 4 °C with less than 1 log-reduction compared to the first day of storage, resulting in powders with at least 1010 CFU/g. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of drying probiotic bacteria to enhance their storage stability is important for the food industry. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of various drying techniques and food-grade protectants in preserving the viability of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis KMP H9-01 during drying and under prolonged storage conditions. Among the four protectants tested (skim milk, trehalose, sucrose, and maltodextrin), trehalose and skim milk at 5% (w/v) were selected for freeze- and spray-drying, each conducted at different temperatures. This evaluation encompasses survivability and the observation of the shelf life of probiotic powders. The results demonstrated that spray-drying at 160 °C/80 °C, with either skim milk or trehalose as a protectant, yielded the highest viable cell counts (>log 7 CFU/g) even after 6 months of storage at room temperature in the range of 25–30 °C, regardless of the use of vacuum and nonvacuum packaging. Notably, the calculated inactivation rate values (KRT) demonstrated remarkable stability, ranging from 5.36 × 10−2 to 5.82 × 10−2 day−1. Furthermore, the decimal reduction time (DRT) values predicted that a 90% reduction in probiotic cell number would require approximately 1.3 to 1.4 months at room temperature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oils (EOs) have many beneficial qualities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiviral, and antifungal activities, along with good aroma, which have played a significant role in pharmaceutical, textile, and food industries. However, their high volatility and sensibility to external factors, as well as susceptibility to deterioration caused by environmental and storage conditions, or even common processing, and consequently limited water solubility, makes it difficult to incorporate them into aqueous food matrices and limits their industrial application. Spray-drying encapsulation has been proposed as a solution and a challenging research field to retard oil oxidation, extend EO's shelf life, improve their physicochemical stability, achieve controlled release, suggest novel uses, and therefore boost their added value. The objective of this review is to discuss various used wall materials, infeed emulsion properties, the main formulation and process variables affecting the physicochemical properties and release characteristics of the EOs-loaded particles obtained by spray-drying, the stability of EOs during storage, and the applications of encapsulated EOs powders in foods and nutrition, pharmaceuticals, and textile industries. The current review also summarizes recent advances in spray drying approaches for improving encapsulation efficiency, flavor retention, controlled release, and applicability of encapsulated EOs, thereby expanding their use and functionalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work aimed to reduce the loss of thermally unstable nutrients during the powder production process using closed-loop spray drying using an innovative carrier, coconut husk powder. β-carotene was selected as the subject of this study because it decomposes easily, but it is essential for the human body. The use of coconut husk powder as the carrier achieved an excellent powder recovery rate (RR) and β-carotene concentration compared with whey protein isolate, maltodextrin, cellulose, pectin, casein, and other commonly used carriers. The optimal outlet air temperature for spray drying was also found to be 50-55 °C. Coconut husk powder showed an excellent powder recovery rate (84%) and concentration (0.32 mg/g), which is high compared with the other carriers, because of its multi-layered spherical structure. The coconut powder also increased the stability of β-carotene. After being exposed to a temperature of 85 °C for 6 h, coconut husk powder was more resistant to high temperatures than maltodextrin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fast, simple and cost-effective technique has been used to produce spray-drying porous particles of salbutamol sulfate (SS) for inhalation drug delivery. The particles were produced using water as solvent and ammonium bicarbonate as pore-forming agent. A full factorial experimental design (24) with a central point was used to evaluate the influence of process parameters (drying air inlet temperature, atomization air volume flowrate, feed volume flowrate and the pore-forming agent concentration) on process yield, moisture content, densities and particle size. In addition, particle morphology, in-vitro aerosolization properties, stability and cytotoxicity of selected samples were studied. Within the experimental design parameters window, it was shown that the highest inlet temperature and pore-forming agent concentration were the factors that more affected the process yield and tap density values. Particles with the lowest tap densities values exhibited porous morphology. In addition, the pore-forming agent concentration proved to be the most significant variable affecting particle size. The highest pore-forming agent concentration, the largest particle size. The porous particles exhibit remarkable aerosolization performance, surpassing the performance of previously reported SS porous particles and a commercial formulation. These powders showed a high process yield and the absence of ammonium bicarbonate in the final product, as confirmed by FT-IR. Furthermore, the powders presented good stability even over long periods of time and did not exhibit cytotoxicity on the murine alveolar macrophage cell line RAW 264.7. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Results of the experiments on drying of skin-forming material sprayed with two nozzles in counter-current pilot spray dryer are presented in the article. Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA) measurements were conducted above, between, and below two nozzles spraying upward and downward which allowed us to track changes of particle size distribution (PSD) and particle velocities in the tower for different nozzle configurations. The analysis of PSD shows that for two nozzles pointing downwards, the drying zone was observed under the lower nozzle whereas the agglomeration zone develops between nozzles. For the upward orientation of the lower nozzle, a zone of simultaneous drying and agglomeration forms between the nozzles. Analysis of product moisture content, PSD, and bulk density showed the effect of nozzle configuration on product properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying of sugar-rich foods causes problems, related mainly to low glass transition temperature, which is manifested by high stickiness, lower drying efficiency, and yield. Thus, a number of research papers have been published recently on this topic. This study summarizes the obtained results and indicates possible future directions. The most popular method to overcome the stickiness problem is still the application of carriers. However, in addition to conventional carriers like maltodextrin and gum Arabic, novel carriers are also being tested. The carriers with additional health-promoting properties are the most interesting group. In the material-science approach the application of proteins as anti-stickiness agents can also be mentioned. Moreover, the raw materials can be modified by membrane techniques to reduce sugar content and increase glass transition temperature. In the process-based approach, the main efforts are mostly focused on decreasing of drying temperature. Currently, the use of dehumidified air has been successfully verified as a possible way to reduce drying temperature. The reduction of stickiness achieved by this method allows to minimize the amounts of carriers added into the feed before spray drying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying of milk is a highly energy intensive process. In this study, thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analyses of two-stage spray drying plant have been executed. This plant was analyzed on the basis of various parameters such as energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, energy improvement potential, exergy improvement potential, etc. The energy and exergy efficiency of the plant were 72.90 and 35.15%, respectively. The maximum energy improvement potential was for drying whereas maximum exergy improvement potential was for homogenizer. It indicates huge scope in the technical improvement for drying chamber and homogenizer of the plant. The highest cost of processing was for cyclone separator (percentage relative cost difference: 44%) followed by drying chamber (percentage relative cost difference: 40.71%). Highest energy destroyed was calculated for drying chamber (195.83 kJ/kg) followed by VFBD (87.62 kJ/kg). Lowest energy efficiency was calculated for VFBD (34.64%) followed by drying chamber (50.04%). Highest energy improvement potential was estimated for drying chamber (97.86 kJ/kg). Highest relative energy destruction ratio was calculated for drying chamber (52.04%) followed by VFBD (23.30%). Highest energetic factor was calculated for drying chamber (28.22%) followed by homogenizer (16.71%). Based on these analyses, it was realized that performance of the spray drying plant may be substantially improved by some design improvement of drying chamber and homogenizer only. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spray drying systems with heat recovery have gained prominence in recent times due to the energy crises and changing weather conditions. These systems are widely used in various industries, including chemical, food, fertilizer, and pharmaceutical, but their energy-intensive nature calls for efficient operation and heat retrieval. This review article discusses the current developments in heat recovery methods, including direct, indirect, and hybrid systems, as well as improvements in dryer efficiency and thermal optimization techniques. Pinch and exergy evaluations are extensively investigated as they play a crucial role in heat integration design and analysis. Recovering heat from the exhaust stream of spray dryers poses challenges due to fouling caused by fines in the exit stream and the selection of analysis methods. Exploring non-conventional energy sources like solar and geothermal energy shows potential for drying operations, but further research is needed for design and control. The adoption of recovery options has led to a 35% improvement in energy efficiency and around 74% energy savings in specific cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, Dunaliella salina and Porphyridium cruentum biomass were encapsulated by using a spray-dryer (SD) and combined D-optimal method. The independent variables were SD inlet temperature (170–190 °C), maltodextrin (25–75%, w/w, in dm), and microalgae biomass (25–75%, w/w, in dm). Prior to spray drying, P. cruentum and D. salina were cultivated in a pilot scale tubular photobioreactor and than harvested using a conical plate centrifuge. Significant models were determined for the effects of independent variables on total carotenoids, chlorophyll-a, crude protein, moisture contents and encapsulation yield (EY), water activity, average particle size, wettability, hygroscopicity, L* and C* properties for both microalgae species (p <.05). Due to the low EY (11.1–33.1%), we recommend encapsulation and drying of P. cruentum biomass with alternative methods to SD. The extracellular, as well as the cell wall and storage polysaccharides released into the culture medium of these microalgae are possible reasons for the low EY. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein denaturation during spray drying is critical for high-quality food powders. This study investigated the influence of particle size on protein denaturation using phycocyanin as a marker. The effect of particle size was investigated at three different air outlet temperatures, with the inlet air temperature held constant. For each temperature combination, different nozzles were utilized to obtain varying particle sizes. Denaturation increased with higher outlet air temperature and larger particle size, up to a size of 40 μm. This increase in denaturation with particle size was attributed to faster drying rates and the absence of denaturation once particles are dry. Particle size had a similar magnitude of effect as outlet air temperature. For larger particles, a plateau in denaturation was observed due to a prolonged constant drying rate regime. It can be assumed that conditions that retain phycocyanin are also suited for the retention for less thermolabile proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The final particle moisture content of ceramic slurry spray drying affects the processing, product quality, and process energy consumption. While the real-time moisture content determination is very difficult for spray drying process due to nonlinear, severe lag, interference factors, and complexity of the systems, the high temperature, high humidity drying environment and short drying process. In current work, an improved moth optimization (IMFO) algorithm combined with backpropagation neural network (BPNN) was proposed to predict the moisture content of ceramic slurry particles during spray drying. The performance of the model is trained and tested. Results demonstrate that IMFO has better convergence ability and speed compared to other algorithms such as particle swarm optimization (PSO) and gravitational search algorithm (GSA). The IMFO-BPNN model achieves a MAE of 0.0293, RMSE of 0.0383, and R2 value of 0.9113, outperforming the prediction performance of BPNN and MFO-BPNN models. The absolute error rate of the IMFO-BPNN model (0–5%) is lower compared to BPNN (5–10%) and MFO-BPNN model (>10%), showcasing superior accuracy in predicting moisture content. This mathematical model established in the study provides an efficient, accurate, and nondestructive method for predicting the drying endpoint of ceramic slurry spray drying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to model CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics modeling), a spray dryer, for which experimental studies were conducted, and the general parameters of the drying process in the software environment ANSYS, FLUENT were determined. The numerical model should meet most requirements, such as the modeling of spray dryers. Thus, the purpose of the basic model is to provide the principles of a modern industrial approach to the modeling of spray dryers at moderate computational costs, while laying the foundation for further development and evaluation of relevant aspects of modeling spray systems equipped with disk sprayers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enzymes are widely used in the food industry due to their ability in improving the functional, sensory, and nutritional properties of food products. However, their poor stability under harsh industrial conditions and their compromised shelf-lives during long-term storage limit their applications. This review introduces typical enzymes and their functionality in the food industry and demonstrates spray drying as a promising approach for enzyme encapsulation. Recent studies on encapsulation of enzymes in the food industry using spray drying and the key achievements are summarized. The latest developments including the novel design of spray drying chambers, nozzle atomizers and advanced spray drying techniques are also analyzed and discussed in depth. In addition, the scale-up pathways connecting laboratory scale trials and industrial scale productions are illustrated, as most of the current studies have been limited to lab-scales. Enzyme encapsulation using spray drying is a versatile strategy to improve enzyme stability in an economical and industrial viable way. Various nozzle atomizers and drying chambers have recently been developed to increase process efficiency and product quality. A comprehensive understanding of the complex droplet-to-particle transformations during the drying process would be beneficial for both process optimization and scale-up design. Highlights: Encapsulation of enzyme using spray drying is a versatile approach for improving enzyme stability and shelf-life in food industry. This paper gives an overview of recent development and progress in enzyme encapsulation using spray drying. Emerging spray drying techniques and novel design of spray drying chambers and atomizers are summarized. Ex ante process simulations and technoeconomic analysis are also presented providing critical insights for commercial production of encapsulated enzymes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of drying history and structure formation is essential for the quality of spray dried products. In this study, these factors are investigated using the denaturation of phycocyanin. By studying the denaturation kinetics of this marker, added to the feed solution, it was found that denaturation can neither occur in the constant drying rate regime nor in the final stage of drying, as the temperature (T < 60 °C) and the moisture content (aw < 0.6) is too low, respectively. Thus, it was concluded that phycocyanin denaturation is influenced by the crust formation during spray drying. This was applied to pilot scale spray drying, where the effect of air inlet and outlet temperature, air moisture content, feed solids content and particle residence time was investigated. The qualitative agreement between phycocyanin denaturation and the determined particle structure provides a basis for the validation of models, predicting structure development during drying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a detailed experimental investigation on volumetric heat transfer during intermittent spray drying of a 20% w/w of mannitol solution in a custom-made spray dryer. Unlike the conventional intermittent drying process, which achieves intermittency by pulsating the properties of the carrier gas medium, the present works achieve intermittency by pulsating the nozzle spray. The estimated volumetric heat transfer coefficient varies between 0.8 and 2 kW/m3K, and the volumetric mass transfer coefficient is between 0.6 and 2.5 s−1. The correlation for heat and mass transfer coefficients is evolved that relates the heat and mass transfer coefficient with the flow properties and thermophysical properties of both the carrier gas and the precursor fluid in terms of Ohnesorge number and Nusselt number. The investigation uses response surface analysis to analyze the effect of Reynolds number of air and Ohnesorge number of precursors on the volumetric heat transfer coefficient. The results show that a decrease in Reynolds number for a wide range and Ohnesorge number causes the volumetric heat transfer coefficient to increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advanced data analytics platform bridges the gap between industrial automation technology and new cloud-based technology. The information on the implementation of a data analytics platform to convert huge data into valuable information and use it to serve the scheduled maintenance of the components involved in the food processing industry is rarely reported in the literature. This work reports a data-driven framework for prediction and fault detection in key performance parameters for a milk spray drying process plant. The framework consists of different data analysis methods and it helps to take decisions about the selection of key performance parameters involved in improving the spray drying thermal efficiency. The neural network-based NARX model demonstrates a better performance than the linear models in the prediction of cyclone exit air temperature which is the key performance parameter in spray drying as it governs thermal efficiency. The performance of the predictive model is validated using RMSE. The ML-based classification methods are also used in the present work to classify the different faults and the decisions regarding the maintenance of the components responsible for the faults. The performance of these models was verified using a confusion matrix. It is proposed that the decision tree classifier and random forest classifier are best suitable for fault finding as their accuracy is highest at 99.83%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies regarding spray drying microencapsulation are aplenty available; especially focusing on processing parameters, microparticle characteristics and encapsulation efficiency. Hence, there is a rising interest in tailoring wall materials aiming to improve the process's effectiveness. Reflecting a market trend in the food industry, plant-based proteins are emerging as alternative protein sources, and their application adaptability is an increasing research of interest related to consumers' demand for healthy food, product innovation, and sustainability. This review presents a perspective on the investigation of potato protein as a technological ingredient, considering it a nonconventional source obtained as by-product from starch industry. Furthermore, this piece emphasizes the potential application of potato protein as wall material in spray drying encapsulation, considering that this purpose is still limited for this ingredient. The literature reports that vegetal-based proteins might present compromised functionality due to processing conditions, impairing its technological application. Structural modification can offer a potential approach to modify potato protein configuration aiming to improve its utilization. Studies reported that modified proteins can perform as better emulsifiers and antioxidant agents compared to intact proteins. Hence, it is expected that their use in microencapsulation would improve process efficiency and protection of the core material, consequently delivering superior encapsulation performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Honey is an excellent alternative to be used in different applications by the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries. However, the use of honey in its liquid form can present several disadvantages due to its high viscosity and density. In addition, honey can naturally crystallize during storage time, limiting its application in new products by industries. Thus, an alternative to using liquid honey in industry is the powder form. The objective of this study was to obtain honey powder by spray drying using a plant-based protein as a carrier. The honey used as raw material showed acceptable physicochemical parameters by the legislation of honey quality control, such as pH of (4.0 ± 0.1), the water content of (20.70 ± 0.3) g/100 g, ash of (0.48 ± 0.02) g/100 g, the fructose content of (35.42 ± 0.14) g/100 g, (43.05 ± 0.46) g/100 g for glucose, (0.56 ± 0.02) g/100 g for sucrose, and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) value of (37.47 ± 1.04) mg/kg of honey, leading to the production of the honey powder. The mixture of fresh honey and plant-based protein was made with dispersions of 15, 16 and 18 g/100 g of honey using isolated rice protein as a carrier (total solid at 30 g/100 g d.b.). Finally, the honey powder produced was physicochemically characterized. The dispersion with 16 g/100 g of honey achieved an intermediary sugar/honey recovery of 35.93 ± 0.82% and 68.54 ± 2.16% of total protein recovery, and the spray drying yield was satisfactory > 50%. The overall results suggested that this dispersion is the ideal formulation when commercialization of the honey powder as an ingredient is intended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the powderization of flavoring substances, using an amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) technique, in which hydrophobic molecules are separately embedded in a water-soluble carrier matrix. Six flavors, five carrier forming materials (polyvinylpyrrolidone/disaccharides), two solvents (methanol/ethanol) and two drying methods (vacuum-foam-/spray-drying) were employed. The drying conditions for the two drying processes were first examined, and under the optimal drying conditions, various flavor-carrier combinations and compositions of ASD samples were prepared and their flavor retention after drying and during storage under a vacuum were compared. Results demonstrated that flavor loss during drying and storage was minimized when the material was vacuum-foam-dried with polyvinylpyrrolidone. Vacuum-foam-drying in the presence of α-maltose or palatinose also resulted in a greater retention of flavor during drying and storage than a typical O/W emulsification-based powderization. These findings suggest that the ASD-based powderization of flavoring materials is a feasible alternative to the currently used produces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible oils with physiological functions, such as fish oil and krill oil, which contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), are highly unstable to heat and oxygen. One of the methods for improving the shelf life of these oils is microencapsulation of the oils through spray drying. This mini-review describes the effects of the surface–oil ratio, oil location within the microcapsules, and oil-droplet diameter on the oxidative stability of functional oils in microcapsules prepared through spray drying. The surface–oil ratio, s, can be expressed through the ratio of the average oil-droplet diameter to the average powder diameter, E, by s = 1 − (1 − 2E)3. Additionally, the effects of oil-droplet size and storage temperature on the stability of the encapsulated oil were examined using squalene as a model functional oil. The activation energy Ea of the squalene degradation rate constant of the Avrami equation can be correlated with the average oil-droplet diameter de. The release behavior of the microencapsulated flavors is also discussed because spray drying is also used for the microencapsulation of flavors. The flavor release rate constant of the Avrami equation is related to the oxygen diffusion coefficient of the wall material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With globalization, growing popularization and changes in dietary habits where more processed food is consumed, a generation of food wastes and by-products has increased. Under-exploitation of by-products and waste leads to finance losses and environmental pollution although most of the waste are a rich source of bioactive compounds. Using spray drying process, extracted bioactive compounds from food wastes and by-products can be transferred into powder form, and returned to the food chain. Spray drying technique showed to be the most convenient, energy efficient and time-saving process, where a liquid is directly transformed into stable powder, which can be stored for a prolonged time or easily incorporated into other products. This review article focuses on the application of processing parameters of spray drying with specific emphasis on the production of dry extracts of food waste and their influence on powder properties. Research gaps and challenges along with possible applications are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Binary and ternary molecular inclusion complexes (MICs) of beta-cyclodextrin (βCD - binary), and chitosan-βCD (ternary) loaded with Lippia sidoides (LS) and Syzygium aromaticum (SA) volatile oils (VOs—pure and in 1:1 mixtures) were engineered by a modified slurry method followed by spray drying. Eugenol and Thymol, the major constituents of SA and LS VOs, were successfully retained in MICs, showing good values of the encapsulation efficiency (EE), molar ratio (MR), and VOs load (DL). EEs were higher for the pure VOs (68.7 ± 1.6 to 86.1 ± 4.0% w/w) compared to their mixtures (37.8 ± 1.4 to 65.9 ± 2.4% w/w). The chitosan addition increased the Thymol's EE, while for Eugenol, an opposite effect was exhibited. The MICs formed showed slight changes in the volatiles' composition, evidencing a selective encapsulation of the VOs constituents. The effects of processing conditions on moisture content, water activity, and particle size were negligible. The reported results suggest the feasibility of the complexation protocols proposed to manufacture novel binary and ternary complexes of βCD and chitosan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to identify the influence of rice protein hydrolysates (RPH) (degree of hydrolysis DH of 2, 6, and 10%) and rice protein isolate (RPI) on the formation and stabilization of the volatile oil droplets and to verify how protein hydrolysate affects the distribution of components on the surface and physicochemical properties of the spray-dried microparticles. In general, RPHs could reduce the interfacial tension (3.78–4.04 mN/m) compared to non-hydrolyzed protein (4.74 mN/m). However, no significant difference was observed between RPH samples. A positive correlation was observed between the interfacial tension and the oil droplet size, in which RPH emulsions showed 8.29–8.66 µm while RPI was 9.06 µm. DH influenced the surface composition of the spray-dried RPH emulsions. RPH10 powder showed a greater presence of protein (3.3%) on the particle surface and consequently exhibited high oil retention (50.0%). In contrast, this sample presented high hygroscopicity attributed to the protein surface. This study provides insights into differences between RPH powders, which can potentially impact the powder functionality and protection of the active compound. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to explore plant-derived peptides as carrier material with the function of anti-hot-melt stickiness of traditional Chinese herbal extracts during spray drying. Crataegi fructus extract (CFE) with a severe hot-melt stickiness problem was used as a model drug, and soy peptides (SPT) were screened as the most effective and suitable carrier material among seven plant-derived proteins and peptides which include soy protein isolate, walnut protein and five kinds of peptides (corn peptides, wheat peptides, walnut peptides, rice peptides and SPT). The addition of 15% SPT also exhibited a strong anti-stickiness effect in other four hot-melt sticky herbal extracts from Chinese herbs (Lycii fructus, Corni fructus, Chaenomelis fructus and Mume fructus) since the obtained powder increased from completely sticking to the wall to more than 50% powder yield. The dynamic surface tensions (DST) of CFE decreased consistently with the increase of SPT from 5% to 20%, and DST1000ms had consistent reduction with the addition of SPT from zero to 20%. Meanwhile, the adhesive force of the single droplet at 28 min decreased below 18.5 N. The softening point of the spray-dried powder of CFE added 15% SPT increased by about 40 °C, and the addition of 15% SPT improved the stability which might be similar with the addition of 50% MD based on scanning electron microscope analysis but more efficiently. These findings confirmed that SPT plant-derived could serve as effective and stable carrier material with good anti-stickiness ability during spray drying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research presents an experimental analysis of a counter flow spray drying process using water and skim milk as a feed. The study was performed by examining the droplet size distribution of sprays and the temperature profiles in the dryer. The influence of air inlet temperature, air mass flow rate, feed flow rate, and droplet size on air temperatures in the dryer was evaluated. The evaporation and deposition zones were found to be highly dependent on the droplet size. The obtained results show that it is possible to achieve efficient contact between hot air and spray in a small volume using a counter-current mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cyclodextrin (CD) powders are the most suitable solid matrices to encapsulate gases to produce gas powders in agri-food industries, where gases have been widely used to ensure processability, quality, functionality, safety, and stability of many products. The use of gases in powder form is much easier and safer than conventional means of gas utilization from pressurized cylinders or tanks. Gas powders are typically produced by crystallization from aqueous CD solutions under gas pressure, which is time consuming and results in low product yield. In amorphous structure, CD powders enable a rapid and 100% yield method to produce stable gas powders. However, most commercial CD powders exist in crystalline structure. In this review, we describe the amorphization of CD powders by spray drying, the properties of amorphous CD powders in comparison with its crystalline counterparts, gas encapsulation using amorphous CD powders, and applications of gas-CD powders in food and agriculture production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to introduce a new dryer configuration to mitigate the particle deposition problem. Three new geometries (single-rib, double-ribs, and triple-ribs dryers) are compared with the typical cylinder-on-cone dryer. The equations governing the transient flow field are solved using the Eulerian approach, while particles are tracked through a Lagrangian coordinate system. The characteristic drying curve approach is used to model the drying of skim milk within the chamber. The sticky point curve of skim milk is chosen as a criterion for the detection of sticking or bouncing particles. The obtained results are validated using both experimental and numerical data, showing that particle deposition is significantly reduced in all-new geometries compared to the base design. More specifically, deposition is reduced by 56.8% in the double-ribs dryer, and the dryer's yield has increased by 41.7% in the triple-ribs dryer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Herein we report the microencapsulation of curcumin-rich oily turmeric extract using various combinations of whey protein isolates (WPI), gum Arabic (GA) and maltodextrin (MD) wall materials via spray drying technique. Prepared microcapsules were qualitatively analyzed by varying core- to wall material ratio (1:5 and 1:10, weight/weight), inlet air temperature of spray drying (180 and 190 °C) and coating material ratio (1:1, 1:2 and 1:3, w/w). The physicochemical properties and stability of the microcapsules were investigated under both light and dark at different temperatures (4, 25 and 50 °C) and pH (3.5, 4.6 and 7.0). Microcapsules produced with 1:5 core- to wall material ratio, 1:1 MD:WPI at 190 °C spray drying inlet temperature showed the least moisture content (1.79%), water activity (0.21 aw) and wettability time (57.48 s) and the highest solubility (96.40%), color intensity (292.62 h°) and microencapsulation efficiency (90.72%). The sample that gives the best result showed higher stability (21 days) at 4 °C and pH 7.0 under dark conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drying is a widely adopted unit operation that enhances the stability of pharmaceuticals. Conventionally, freeze-drying has been chosen, as evidenced by the numerous freeze-dried products available on the market. However, there are drawbacks related to freeze drying, extended drying times, freezing and processing-related stresses, and it operates as a batch process, making integration into continuous manufacturing schemes challenging. Similarly, spray drying has garnered significant consideration in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, but limited production yields hinder its adoption. These shortcomings prompted a quest for next-generation drying technologies tailored for therapeutic products. The emerging drying technologies include nano-spray drying, spray freeze drying, thin film freeze drying, supercritical fluid drying, foam drying, and other miscellaneous techniques to cater to stability issues and enhanced bioavailability. While certain drying technologies have been successfully implemented in the processing of therapeutics, others are currently undergoing early-stage feasibility assessments. This review aims to comprehensively understand novel drying technologies and their potential to tailor pharmaceuticals and biologicals for optimal therapeutic outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, research in the probiotic field is attracting attention worldwide, also in the pharmaceutical industry. New insights are gained about the functionality of beneficial bacteria, like Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, and their role in health and disease. It is therefore also important to study the impact of industrial processing techniques on the viability and functionality of probiotics. Different stresses, that hamper bacterial viability, are inherent to different processing techniques. As probiotics need to be alive and active by definition, the manufacturing of successful pharmabiotics remains challenging. Therefore, it is interesting to assess the effect of strategies that improve bacterial viability after spray drying. In this study, heat pretreatment of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG enhanced bacterial viability with one log-unit after spray drying. Finally, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG proved to have the capacity to develop resistance to consecutive spray-drying cycles, creating a more robust strain of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on some theoretical and experimental investigation of spray drying technology to produce dry powdery pharmaceuticals for healing application via inhalation. A numerical simulation of the atomizing gas flow pattern in the vicinity of two-fluid nozzle is presented, which is then used to identify the key parameters of the spray drying process, namely the velocity of the atomizing gas in relation to liquid feed rate. The range of permissible atomizing gas velocities was determined and the effect of the atomizing gas velocity on the size of the resulting particles was quantified. Consequently, the method for the production of microparticles with an average size of 2.6 µm and a fairly narrow size distribution has been proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human milk is important for modulating the newborn's immune and antioxidant response. The applicability of lyophilization and spray-drying processes in human milk donated to human milk banks are alternatives for storage and distribution when breastfeeding is not possible. Therefore, the aim of this work was to detect and quantify cytokines (IFN-ɣ, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, IL-17 A/F, IL-21, and IL-22) and to evaluate the antioxidant capacity in different phases of donated HM submitted to lyophilization and spray-drying processes. The HM donated in natura was submitted to pasteurization, lyophilization and spray-drying processes, then cytokine concentrations were measured using Luminex technology and antioxidant capacity of the superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymes and reduced glutathione levels in vitro. Cytokine profiles, catalase, superoxide dismutase and reduced glutathione profiles were preserved after processing of lyophilization and spray-drying in all phases of donated human milk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saccharomyces boulardii as the probiotic yeast was widely used in the pharmaceutical, feed and food industries. The influence of skim milk, gelatin, and carbohydrates on the heat resistance of S. boulardii is explored in the article. Response surface methodology was effectively applied to optimize the thermoprotectant composition for S. boulardii during spray-drying. The accelerated test is applied to evaluate its the subsequent storage stability. The results show that the thermoprotectants composition was comprehensively optimized such as: 15.12% skim milk, 1.81% gelatin, and 9.73% trehalose. The highest viability was 17.77%, which was basically the same as the predicted value of 18.21%. The inactivation rate constant of spray-dried powder was k-18 = 1.04 × 10−5 h−1, the quantity of viable cells stored at this temperature for 1 and 10 years was 8.25 × 108 CFU/g and 1.25 × 108 CFU/g, separately. This work provides a thermoprotectants formula for the S. boulardii during the spray drying process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AbstractSeveral studies have demonstrated potential of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) in various applications. However, no protocols are available for the production of spray-dried CNF with high water redispersibility; interfibrillar hydrogen bonding that occurs during spray drying is believed to be responsible for such lack of redispersibility. The present study therefore aimed to develop a protocol that can be used to prepare CNF powders from Centella asiatica via spray drying, with maltodextrin (MD) at CNF-to-MD ratios of 1:0, 1:1, 1:1.5, 1:2 and 1:2.5 as the drying aid. Chlorophylls within such plant were also complexed with zinc in order to allow the resulting redispersed CNF to exhibit thermally stable green color. The resulting powders were analyzed for their morphology, XRD pattern and FTIR spectra to confirm the interaction between CNF and MD. Appropriate CNF-to-MD ratios were determined based on the sedimentation behavior, morphology, fiber sizes and viscoelasticity of the redispersed suspensions. Only spray-dried powders with CNF-to-MD ratios of 1:2 and 1:2.5 showed no sedimentation during the entire storage period. Suspensions prepared from the powders produced at these ratios were also capable of regaining morphology and nanofibrous widths (19–20 nm) comparable to those of freshly prepared CNF suspension, with gel-like behavior and viscoelasticity remained unchanged. Zinc-chlorophylls complex possessed thermal stability under the employed spray drying condition, as confirmed by the retention of chlorophylls in the powders. Green color of redispersed CNF suspensions was similar to that of freshly prepared CNF suspension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research studies the impacts of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) concentrations on the physicochemical properties of spray-dried water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) vitamin C double emulsion powder Four MCC concentration (1%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5%) were used to produce the vitamin C double emulsion powder. The results of the emulsion's creaming index, flow behaviour index, zeta value, and particle size indicated that these parameters decreased when the MCC concentration increased. Scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the higher MCC concentration resulted in a smoother surface In general, the MCC concentration increased, the particle size, hygroscopicity, solubility, water content, and water activity of the double emulsion powder decreased. Double emulsion powder containing 2% MCC presented the highest level of antioxidant activity and was mostly stable after storage for 56 days. Before and after drying, transmission electron microscope (TEM) analysis of the morphological characteristics of the liquid emulsion showed that the concentration of 2% MCC in the emulsion could form a W/O/W double emulsion structure. In conclusion, the addition of MCC significantly affect the properties of vitamin C double emulsion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work is aiming to propose a new formulation of Bacillus spp. strains in combination with natural phosphate by spray drying. Bacillus sp. strain (SS0306) has proven its plant growth promoting effectiveness mainly on phosphate solubilization capacity and improved nutrient assimilation in wheat plants. Bacterial microencapsulation methods involved spray-drying assays that were conducted using 5% of rock phosphate with 2%–10% of maltodextrin and 2% of alginic acid sodium salt. The process parameters were also optimized with inlet temperature (155 °C), feed rate (9 min mL−1), and spray air rate (413.87 L h−1). Results showed a moisture content of the dried powders ranged between 2% and 8% and satisfactory viability levels of Bacillus sp. SS0306 (105–106 CFU g−1) after drying assay, with the survival rates between 61.56% and 64.18%. Optimized process reached 50.30% and 65.10% for the product yield, with 1.25 ± 0.006 mg g−1 of higher Pi content observed in rock phosphate formulations based on Alg 2%. The present study opens new possibilities to develop Bio-mineral fertilizers using the spray drying approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The residence time distribution of particles is one of the most important parameters during spray drying, since it directly impacts the thermal damage of a potential product. Due to insufficiencies of previous approaches for measuring the residence time distribution, a new method for continuous measurements was developed. This method simultaneously allows the determination of the residence time distribution of individual particle size fractions. The impact of air mass flow rate and particle size on the residence time distribution during spray drying was investigated. The mean particle residence time decreased with increasing air mass flow rate from 15.8 s for 190 kg/h, to 13.0 s for 210 kg/h and to 7.1 s for 230 kg/h, which is significantly shorter than the mean air residence time of 35.3 s, 31.9 s and 29.1 s, respectively. The mean particle residence time decreased with increasing particle size, with this effect being more pronounced for lower air flow rates. If the particle size is smaller than 105 µm, the presented technique can be transferred to any kind of single-stage spray dryer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Encapsulation represents one feasible approach of preparing powdered natural rubber. Herein, we demonstrated the preparation of polymethyl methacrylate-grafted natural rubber (PMMA-g-NR) powders through emulsion polymerization followed by spray drying and investigated its impact reinforcement effect after blending with polylactic acid (PLA). The effects of feeding order, initiator concentration (CHPO/TEPA), monomer concentration (MMA) and reaction time on the grafting efficiency and yield were investigated. 1H-NMR and FTIR analyses confirmed the formation of PMMA-g-NR powder with high grafting efficiency (∼85%). TEM observations revealed the core-shell structure of the composite powder particles. DSC and TGA analyses proved that the PMMA-g-NR powder possessed improved thermal properties compared to neat NR. Impact strength of PLA/PMMA-g-NR blends were improved by 4.5-fold by the spray-dried composite powder prepared using 25 phr MMA and 1 phr CHPO/TEPA with 5 hours reaction time. The enhanced mechanical properties were attributed to the microstructures and high surface areas of PMMA-g-NR powder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feasible utilization of superheated steam spray drying at different inlet temperatures (160–200 °C) and feed rates (3–15 mL/min) to produce instant coffee and sodium copper chlorophyllin (natural green colorant) powders was assessed. Yield, physical properties and morphology of the steam-dried powder were determined and compared with those of the air-dried one. Superheated steam spray drying might not be a proper method for producing coffee powder as at all test conditions coffee extract adhered and dried on the wall of the chamber. Superheated steam spray drying, on the other hand, has the potential to produce the color powder with smaller particle size, higher bulk density and more wrinkle surfaces, resulting in the superior solubility. Mean diameter (D[4,3]), bulk density and solubility time of the steam-dried powder were 15.53–15.97 µm, 0.67–0.68 g/cm3 and 192–226 s, while those of the air-dried powder were 29.03–31.02 µm, 0.34–0.35 g/cm3 and 244–283 s, respectively. In terms of yield and color, both of the powders and of the reconstituted solutions, no significant differences among the air-dried and steam-dried powders were observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]