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Internal benchmarking is the process of comparing the performance of one entity with the performance of comparison entities. Assessments of the various entities of the criminal justice system, such as police officers, judges, correctional facilities, and neighborhoods, often involve the construction of benchmarks with which to compare their relative performance. However, the typically made comparisons do not adequately account for the underlying differences in these entities. This article presents a general method, based on propensity scoring and doubly robust estimation, for constructing benchmarks for assessing the performance of entities within the criminal justice system while properly accounting for potentially confounding differences among the entities. The article demonstrates the method on an assessment of police performance in Cincinnati. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented for this issue which has articles on topics such as institutional legitimacy in the Latino Immigrant experience in Nashville, Tennessee, the challenges of Hispanic immigration in the small towns of Hazleton, Pennsylvania and St. James, Minnesota, and variation in patterns of immigration and violence in Los Angeles, California and Chicago, Illinois neighborhoods.

In this article, the authors present an overview of the relationship between immigrant households and crime and violence, drawing on sociological and public health literature. They present a critique of popular culture perspectives on immigrant families and youth violence, showing that crime and violence outcomes are if anything better for youth in immigrant families than one would expect given the social disadvantages that many immigrant households find themselves living in. They examine the extent to which exposure to violence among immigrant youth is comparably lower than among nonimmigrants living in similar social contexts and the extent to which social control and social learning frameworks can account for the apparent lower prevalence of violence exposure among immigrant youth. Their analyses show a persistent lower rate of violence exposure for immigrant youth compared to similarly situated nonimmigrant youth—and that these differences are not meaningfully understood by observed social control or social learning mechanisms. The authors focus then on the apparent paradox of why youth living in immigrant households in relative disadvantage have lower violence exposure compared to nonimmigrants living in similar social contexts. The answers, they argue, can be viewed from an examination of the effects that living in poverty and underclass neighborhoods for generations has on nonimmigrants in American cities. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Despite drastic and severe fiscal cuts in services to the homeless, their need continues to remain very high. Men are a particularly vulnerable group among the homeless and continue to struggle with substance abuse, mental illness, and physical health issues. When faced with these struggles, men are often reluctant to ask for help. The results indicate that the men surveyed are not likely to seek help for their physical and psychological struggles. We examined other risk factors to homeless men including amount of alcohol and drug use, length of homelessness, gender role conflict and susceptibility to committing a violent act. Limitations to the study are presented and discussed as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the progression of violent and nonviolent criminal activity remains a matter of theoretical debate. In the present study, the authors build on criminological theory and assess the extent to which the progression of violent and nonviolent criminal behaviors follows different trajectories. The authors rely on semiparametric mixture models to examine these comorbidities of offending in a longitudinal sample of delinquent adolescents. The results suggest that the trajectories of violent and nonviolent criminal offending follow similar paths over time and that membership in the chronic violent and nonviolent offender groups are associated with overlapping sets of risk factors. However, the results also indicate that at the individual level, membership in a particular nonviolent offending group does not share high concordance with membership in a particular violent offender group. These findings raise questions about the adequacy of general theories of crime progression and suggest the need to continue investigating behavioral theories that discriminate between different forms of offending. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common diagnosis in children and adults. Human albinism is an uncommon genetic condition associated with visual impairment that may affect behavior. To determine if there is a relationship between albinism and ADHD, the prevalence of ADHD was examined among 78 children (age range, 4-18 years) and among 44 adults (age range, 19-79 years) with ocular or oculocutaneous albinism. ADHD was diagnosed in the pediatric population using a combination of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition) criteria, Conners' Parent Rating Scale, and physician observation. Adults were diagnosed using the Utah criteria for ADHD as confirmed by physician history and interview. Seventeen children (22.7% [17 of 751) (3 children with existing diagnoses of pervasive developmental disorder were identified but were not included in the data analysis) and 3 adults (6.8%) met the criteria for ADHD. The combined hyperactivity and impulsivity subtype of ADHD was most common, accounting for 50% of the diagnoses. Binocular best-corrected visual acuity and genetic type of albinism were not found to correlate with a diagnosis of ADHD. The prevalence of ADHD among children and adults with albinism is more frequent than that reported among the general population and is not related to binocular best-corrected visual acuity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current research details interviews with 50 victims and 50 defendants who participated in a specialized criminal domestic violence court in Lexington County, South Carolina. These victims and defendants indicated satisfaction with their court experiences, thought the process allowed them to voice their views, felt they were treated with respect, and were generally satisfied with the outcome of their cases. Court observations and interviews with court personnel confirmed that this court has successfully incorporated victims and defendants into the decision-making process while also providing a fair system to address the issue of violence against women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Explanations for the increase in youth homicide in the mid-1980s and early 1990s focus predominantly on crack cocaine markets and related firearms effects. This study examines whether weakened social controls contributed to the escalation of youth homicide, independent of drug market effects. Specifically, the authors consider how city-level changes in social and economic disadvantage contributed to increases in race-specific youth homicide victimization. They find that structural factors played an important role in race- and age-specific youth homicide rates, independent of others factors, including drug arrests. City-level increases in social and economic disadvantage were positively associated with increases in Black teenage and young adult homicide rates and White teenage homicide rates. The implications of these findings for theories of homicide are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study reports results from an evaluation of the experimental Rio Hondo driving under the influence (DUI) court of Los Angeles County, California. Interviews and official record checks with 284 research participants who were randomly assigned to a DUI court or a traditional criminal court were assessed at baseline and at 24-month follow-up. The interviews assessed the impact of the DUI court on self-reported drunk driving behavior, the completion of treatment, time spent in jail, alcohol use, and stressful life events. Official record checks assessed the impact of the DUI court on subsequent arrests for driving under the influence and other drinking-related behaviors. Few differences on any outcomes were observed between participants in the experimental DUI court and those assigned to the traditional court. The results suggest that the DUI court model had little additional therapeutic or public safety benefit over the traditional court process. The implication of these findings for the popularity of specialized courts for treating social problems is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A limited amount of research has examined the relationship between characteristics of police organizations and policing styles. In particular, few studies have examined the link between organizational structures and police officer arrest decisions. Wilson's (1968) pioneering case study of police organizations suggested that individual police behavior is a function of departmental goals that occur within the broader political climate of a community. Wilson suggested that agencies could be classified into three typologies: the watchman style, the legalistic style, and the service style. The present study examines the influence of organizational characteristics associated with these styles on individual officers' arrest rates using nationally representative data from large police agencies. Findings suggest that police officer arrest decisions are partially explained by variations in police organizational structures. The implications of these findings for contemporary organizational explanations of police behavior are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using a national survey of U.S. residents this study examines racial, socioeconomic, and community explanations for the trust of local police. We hypothesize that the construct of social capital offers a nexus for explaining racial differences in attitudes toward the police. We measure social capital as a construct by aggregating together measures that assess the degree of trust and civic engagement in communities. The results indicate that depleted levels of perceived community social capital contribute to higher levels of distrust of local police. Social capital, however, partially mediates the relative distrust of Blacks toward the police. These findings suggest only partial support for a social capital explanation of Blacks' distrust in the police. The implications of these findings for police reform efforts to mend minority relations in urban cities are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study builds on existing criminological theories and examines the role of life satisfaction and self-control in explaining youth violence. Using data from a stratified cluster sample of 5,414 public high school students who responded to the South Carolina Youth Risk Behavior Survey, the study examines the relationship between adolescents `perceptions of life satisfaction, behavioral risky acts, and self-reported acts of violence. Analyses indicate that higher levels of life satisfaction are associated with lower violence. Participation in work and involvement in health-related risk-taking behaviors pertaining to sex, drugs, and alcohol are also associated with increased violence. The implications of these findings for criminological theory and for school-based violence prevention programs are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research indicates that gender is one of the strongest correlates of juvenile delinquency. Additionally, a growing body of literature suggests that the association with delinquent peers is an important predictor of delinquent behavior Although a few studies have examined how delinquent peers condition the gender-delinquency relationship, the authors extend this body of literature by using longitudinal data from a sample of adolescents to explore the extent to which internal and external constraints condition the relationship between gender delinquent peers, and delinquent behavior Findings indicate that delinquent peer association is an important predictor of delinquency generally, but the effect varies across gender Specifically, delinquent peer associations are a better predictor of delinquency among boys compared to girls. In addition, the effect of delinquent peers on delinquency varies according to the level of internal and external constraints. Future research directions for unraveling the role of gender in youthful offending are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between the mid-1980s and early 1990s, there was an unprecedented growth in youth homicides. Numerous studies note the importance of measures of concentrated disadvantage in the social production of adult homicide. However,few studies have examined the relationship between these social ecological factors and homicides in which youth are both the perpetrators and victims. This research examines the impact of structural indicators of concentrated disadvantage on city-level rates of youth-on-youth homicide. Results indicate that concentrated disadvantage is associated with youth-on-youth homicide rates in large U.S. cities over time. The rise in these structural indicators of disadvantage is also associated with the increase in youth-on-youth homicide rates in U.S. cities in the early 1990s. The theoretical significance of these findings for substantive theories of youth violence and their social policy ramifications are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The behavior of officers and suspects during encounters is influenced by the actions, comments, and demeanor of the other actor The present study looks at the interactive context of police-citizen encounters that result in the use of force. The results of the study show that police-citizen encounters are not only interactive but also asymmetrical with respect to authority. Police use-of-force interactions with civilians are more likely to involve greater levels of force by the police relative to the level of suspect resistance when a suspect appears to have less authority relative to the police officer During an encounter, police and citizens interpret and decide how to respond to each other This interpretive process can shape the outcome of an encounter and is an important link to the understanding of police behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, the authors argue for the importance of a contextualized examination of racial profiling. Although the study of racial profiling has only begun, existing studies have typically examined this phenomenon at the state level and based on total population information gathered from high-patrol agencies. The authors argue that racial profiling is best understood within the spatial context of local areas rather than large geographical areas. The purpose of this article is to explore some theoretical avenues to investigating racial profiling within the community context by linking racial profiling to theoretical perspectives that highlight community-level processes. That is, the authors apply theories such as social disorganization, urban disadvantage/deprivation, and Sampson's community development and spatial diffusion arguments to the incident of racial profiling. The authors then illustrate the utility of exploring these linkages by providing information on crimes and structural dimensions in Miami-Dade County neighborhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, much attention has been devoted to developing appropriate analytical methods to model criminal careers. Largely ignored in this methodological debate is the study of how the criminal behavior patterns of active offenders are related to individual characteristics. This article presents an analysis of the postrelease offending patterns of two cohorts of male youth released by the California Youth Authority in 1981 to 1982 and 1986 to 1987. The focus of the analysis is the frequency of arrest during the first three years following release. Negative binomial models are used to examine the relationship between a variety of factors that have been linked theoretic,ally and empirically to the frequency of offending. Results suggest that measures of individual and geographic characteristics can be used to predict the average arrest frequencies and their variation among paroled youthful offenders. These findings suggest that there may be useful distinctions to be made among offending populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Delinquency referrals to family courts in the state of Hawaii were analyzed to examine whether ethnic disparity existed in juvenile court processing. Drawing on conflict theory, it was hypothesized that socially disadvantaged ethnic groups (Hawaiian, Filipino, and Samoan) would experience more severe outcomes than White and East Asian youth with similar backgrounds and legal histories. The findings show that Hawaiian and Samoan youth experienced different treatment compared to White youth. Although the ethnic effects diminished when additional extralegal and legal factors were included, it was found that Hawaiian and Samoan youth were significantly more likely than White youth to receive more severe court outcomes. The implications of this research for understanding the general issue of ethnic disparity in an increasingly diverse juvenile justice system are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, sharp declines in violent crime rates have been recorded across major American cities. During this time period, many police departments have shifted from a traditional reactive form of policing to a community-oriented approach. It is unclear whether these changes have any causal relationship with the control or reduction in violent crime. To examine this issue, this study used the Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics survey, the FBI's Uniform Crime Reports, and city-level census data to examine the economic and political determinants of robbery and homicide rates in 164 American cities. Findings indicate that community policing had little effect on the control or the decline in violent crime. Proactive policing strategies related to arrest had an inverse effect on violent crime measures and were related to rcductions in violent crime over time. Implications of these findings for criminal justice policy are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses a study which investigated the social psychological processes underlying computer-supported group discussion in natural computer-mediated contexts. Influence of computer-mediated communication on decision-making; Relationships between communication and interpersonal perception; Predictions based on social identity theory regarding group polarization and group cohesion.

Although there is an abundance of research examining the influence of structural conditions on total homicides, less is known about the differential influence of structural conditions on homicides disaggregated by Type. Justifiable homicide by civilians represents one type of homicide that has received little attention in the literature, particularly at the macro level. Given the debate about the role of guns in cases of self-defense, it is clear that this category of homicide is important to study for theoretical and practical reasons. The authors provide an empirical assessment of these issues using data from 188 U.S. cities with populations of more than 100,000. The findings indicate that cities with higher rates of violence, with more divorced men, and located in states with less restrictive gun laws on concealable firearms have higher rates of justifiable homicide. In addition, as cities increase the level of police per capita, justfiable homicide rates are significantly lowered. The implications of these findings for theory and policy are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents information on a study which examined the temporal relationship between police killings of civilians and criminal homicide in the United States. Review of related literature; Description of the conceptual framework; Methodology; Results and discussion.

While the issue of discretion has been widely studied at the level of arrest and adjudication, few studies have examined discretion within the prison setting. The majority of studies that have examined discretion in the correctional environment focus on the decision making of guards. Few studies, however, have been able to empirically examine what hap pens to inmates once they are charged with an institutional misconduct. This study builds on this area of research by examining the correlates of decision making in disciplinary hearings within juvenile institutions. The results indicate, after controlling for race and charge type, that the age of the offender and extent of prior violent criminality are significant corre lates of prisoners who receive the most severe sanctions. The findings are consistent with the larger body of research on discretion at other stages of the criminal justice system in noting the importance of prior criminality and the age of the offender. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mortality data were gathered from California Vital Statistics for more than 4,000 youth paroled by the California Youth Authority during the 1980s. Exposure periods (time at risk of death), were about 11 years and 6 years for the two samples. Known deaths for two cohorts totaled 181 for the 3,995 male offenders in the two samples, including 109 for the 1,998 males in the 1981-1982 sample and 72 for the 1,997 males in the 1986-1987 sample. Homicide was the prevailing cause for both samples. Of particular note is the fact that the numbers of deaths due to causes other than homicide are roughly proportional to the length of the exposure periods for the two samples while the numbers of homicides are roughly equal despite the very different lengths of time at risk. A higher probability of death by murder was observed for Black youth, those from Los Angeles, those with a history of gang involvement and institutional violence, and those with a history of drug arrests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two competing hypotheses concerning the nature of inter-modal development are outlined. The first sees the development proceeding from a state of discrete, independent sensory systems towards integration and synthesis between modalities. This is contrasted with a second viewpoint in which the early responsiveness of the organism is seen as a-modal and the developmental sequence as one of increasing sensory differentiation. A number of studies which have investigated auditory-visual co-ordination in young human infants, are reviewed. It is concluded that the data support the notion of ontogenetic development being a process of integration between sensory systems that are initially relatively independent. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article presents an inaugural speech from John B. Macdonald, president of the International Association for Dental Research (IADR), delivered at a general session in San Francisco, California on March 21, 1968, in which he discussed dental and science education.

The article discusses the pathogenesis of mixed anaerobic infections of mucous membranes in the mouth. The author details clinical and laboratory observations of necrotic infections characterized by a mixed flora. These infections are classified into two groups, one involving gangrenous spreading lesions of skin and the other involving mucous membranes.

The article reports on the relationship of indigenous bacteria to periodontal disease. The microorganisms present in the mouth are capable of inciting anaerobic infections which are comparable to periodontal disease. A study was conducted using guinea pigs with the bacterial populations of spirochetes, fusobacterium, vibrios, spirilla, bacteroides species, streptococci, and diphtheroids. The combination of bacteria bacteroides melaninogenicus and diphtheroid created periodontal disease.

Presented is a bacteriologic survey of gingival scrapings from the periodontal infections of inoculated guinea pigs as well as anaerobic cultivation. The data for this study was taken from the results of anaerobic cultures which were based on 35 cases of gingival or periodontal disease examined during a three year period (1946-1949). Earlier findings from this laboratory were added and they dealt with the results of direct examination of guinea pig inoculation of gingival scrapings.

The article discusses a study which looked at the amount of beta hemolytic streptococci that healthy adults have on the labial gingiva of their lower teeth. Previous research that had been completed regarding the amount of beta hemolytic streptococci that people have on their teeth is discussed. The percentage of people that the study found had beta hemolytic streptococci is mentioned.

A 29-week premature infant with severe central hypoventilation secondary to Prader-Willi syndrome required mechanical ventilation until 55 days of age. This disorder must be considered in the differential diagnosis of a premature infant who does not have primary lung disease but has significant hypotonia because the respiratory failure may require prolonged supportive care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article on the documentation of mutation in ROBO3 gene in patients with horizontal gaze palsy with progressive scoliosis.

Traditionally explanations of police use of force have relied on a racial threat perspective. Tests of this perspective, however, typically offer a single indicator of threat (the relative size of the black population) and fail to adequately take into account the complex relationship between racial threat and police use of force. Drawing on racial threat, social disorganization, and police use of force literature, this study hypothesizes that macro-level patterns in police use of force are embedded in the racial and structural composition of cities and the organizational climate of local politics and police departments. The present study examines these relationships using official police use of force data collected in 73 large U.S. cities. Structural equation analyses suggest that structural indicators associated with racial threat and social disorganization/disadvantage impact police use of force indirectly through the influence of police organizational factors. On the other hand, the political climate and the level of social disorganization in urban areas have a direct bearing on the rates of police use of force. The implications of these findings for research and theory on police use of force are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on research that examined periodontal disease in rice rats. The authors conducted various experiments with the contents of the periodontium in order to determine if the tissues taken from rice rats would be able to produce anaerobic infections in the subcutaneous tissues of guinea pigs. Their findings indicated that enterococci may play an important role in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease in rice rats.