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Introduction: Though the effects of fog and friction on decision-making are frequently simulated in military settings, they are less frequently extended to non-military and non-governmental MENA spaces. This article provides a description and evaluation of a disaster simulation rooted in the real-world event of the August 4, 2020 Lebanese port explosion. The aim of the simulation is to prompt student learning of the decision-making dynamics of CSOs amidst fog and friction in democratizing MENA spaces. Background: A brief overview of the Lebanon-CSO landscape is provided. As part of their ruling strategy, sectarian elites engineer fog and friction to co-opt and fragment CSOs. This complex power sharing milieu creates dilemmas for CSOs. The Intervention: The simulation was designed for an entire classroom of students to experience the fog and friction in decision-making that CSOs encounter in MENA conditions of limited resources and urgent humanitarian need. Methods and Limitations: Student learning, framed by Bloom's taxonomy of levels of intellectual behavior, was assessed using qualitative entry and exit classroom surveys based on three iterations of the simulation. Qualitative interpretive content analysis was used to categorize survey responses. The sample is not statistically significant given the small class sizes at the College. The study serves as an initial exploration for assessing the promising pedagogical benefits of the Lebanon port explosion simulation. Results: Before the simulation, students had knowledge and understanding of CSOs, democratization, and the Lebanese context. After the simulation, student surveys yielded results that evidenced higher- ordered learning. Students discovered the challenge of applying their knowledge of Lebanese CSOs amidst fog. Next, the panel stress- testing and critical reflection essay exercises prompted an analysis and evaluation of CSOs as weak or fraught vehicles for democratization in the region. In sum, fog and friction prompted students to experience and learn how CSOs may subvert democratization in the MENA despite intentions to "do good." Discussion: The Lebanon port explosion survey data indicate the value of simulations as "experience vehicles" that may push students to higher orders of abstracted thinking about CSOs in the MENA. Conclusion: Coupled with historical knowledge of co-optation and fragmentation strategies of elites vis-à-vis CSOs in Lebanon, the classroom simulation experience provided a low-cost and high-reward learning opportunity for students to grapple with the constraints and consequences of fog and friction on CSO decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although several factors influence Hispanic Latina/o/x degree attainment, less is known regarding student-to-faculty ratio at Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSI) in Florida. We examined publicly available data for HSI (n = 14) and non-HSI (n = 88) degree attainment among Hispanic Latina/o/x students in Florida. Pearson correlations and regression analyses indicated statistically significant correlations between student-to-faculty ratio and Hispanic Latino/a/x students who earned bachelor's degrees. Implications for hiring and promotion are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides an overview of different clinical rotation styles and organizational strategies for postgraduate psychiatry training in general hospital psychiatry units (GHPUs) in India. The article highlights the challenges faced in providing high-quality training due to limitations in infrastructure, workforce, and resources. Two fundamentally distinct approaches commonly adopted in GHPUs are discussed: a multiunit system with inter-unit clinical rotation and a nonunit system with time-based clinical rotation. The article examines the merits and demerits of each approach and emphasizes the importance of setting up an organization that prioritizes clinical care and training while utilizing resources effectively. [Extracted from the article]

School districts are traditionally subject to a variety of state regulations on educational inputs. Absent regulations, policymakers fear that districts will make inappropriate decisions. However, it is also possible that regulations hinder schools from optimizing student learning. This article tests the salience of these hypotheses by estimating the impact of the Texas District of Innovation statute, which allows districts to opt out of regulations on inputs like teacher certification and class sizes. Using web-scraped implementation data, I document widespread exemptions and variation in regulatory preferences. However, staggered difference-in-differences analyses demonstrate a limited impact of deregulation within 4 years, suggesting that deregulation alone is a relatively weak lever for spurring innovation and changing the state of education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite huge investments in the educational sector, many countries in Africa have not fared well in the education indices. This study examined the effect of teaching equipment and teachers' effort on learning outcomes in 744 Nigerian primary schools using Stochastic Frontier and Ordinary Least Square regression. The mean technical efficiency was 0.43 which showed most of the surveyed schools were technically inefficient. Also, 42.8% of public primary schools operate below 20% efficiency level as against 12.3% in private primary schools. Factors influencing efficiency include school ownership type, visits from the Local Government Education Authority Student-Teacher ratio, and school hygiene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Instructor performance plays a critical role in fostering student learning. Unlike the postsecondary level, many states in the United States, have substantially regulated class size in the p-12 education system with the aim of enhancing quality learning. Thus, the purpose of this research paper is to examine the correlation between instructor evaluations and class size in tertiary institutions as the findings can inform regulatory decisions regarding class sizes in postsecondary facilities. The study reviewed 97-course evaluations garnered in the Fall of 2019 from a Midwest University. The feedback of students, undertaking physical, and virtual classes, was considered regarding teachers' performance. Different course evaluations included in the study were adjunct faculty, full-time faculty, graduate level, and undergraduate level course assessments. The research findings depicted a negative correlation between class size and instructor evaluation, positing that teachers teach the same way in smaller classes as they do in larger classes. Nonetheless, the study results showed that the sizes of conventional virtual classes had a lower correlation with course performances compared to traditional face-to-face classes. In the latter, there was more engagement between teachers and students, as the latter appeared to be more active than in online classes. With the technological effect that Covid-19 has brought forth in online learning, population sizes of online classes have changed. Therefore, considering the data used for the research was collected preCovid-19, it is essential that future studies pay considerable focus on the quality of evaluation of virtual classes to help with directing of school budget allocations toward online learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The American Board of Surgery awards board certification after successful completion of both the Qualifying Exam and Certifying Exam. Although multiple studies have evaluated board performance at the resident level, fewer studies have evaluated board performance at the program level. Methods: Program pass rates, available through the American Board of Surgery, for 2019-2021 were compared to program information through the American Medical Association Fellowship and Residency Electronic Interactive Database Access (FREIDA). Results: A significant positive correlation of Certifying Exam performance to residency length, resident class size, and number of total physician faculty within the program was seen. Greater average hours of didactics per week had a significant positive correlation to improved Qualifying Exam performance but not Certifying Exam. Programs with higher percentages of residents graduating from a United States MD program, compared to international or DO schools, were associated with improved performances. It also appears that more established programs performed better than younger programs <20 years old. Programs in the West and Midwest performed significantly better on the Qualifying Exam than programs in the South and Northeast. Conclusion: Board certification serves as the capstone for surgeons after completing general surgery residency. Multiple program factors demonstrate a significant correlation to board performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Student motivation is a critical predictor of academic achievement, engagement, and success in higher education. Motivating students is a crucial aspect of effective teaching. Statement of the Problem: Although there is a wealth of research on student motivation, practical guidance for putting theory into practice in challenging teaching environments (i.e., large-format introductory courses) is lacking. We discuss a first step toward motivating students: understanding how motivated they are and using that information to inform teaching. Literature Review: Anxiety, impeded motivation, and high student-to-teacher ratio are all challenges associated with teaching foundational introductory courses, such as statistics. The Expectancy–Value–Cost model of motivation provides theoretical background to assist with these courses. We discuss the implementation and use of motivation assessments as a teaching tool. Teaching Implications: Motivation assessments are feasible and useful while teaching large-format introductory courses. Instructor reflections lend insights as to how to use these assessments to improve pedagogy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Principal preparation programs face the unique challenge of preparing social justice leaders who are equipped to dismantle the many inequities in K-12 schools. In 2017 California's credential requirements for school administrators (e.g., principals) changed significantly with the adoption of new state standards for administrators and the addition of a new high-stakes administrator performance assessment (the California Administrator Performance Assessment, or CalAPA). Accordingly, principal preparation programs throughout California had to respond to this change. The purpose of this paper is to share faculty and student perceptions of one principal preparation program's revision to equip candidates to be social justice leaders; to align to new state leadership standards (the CAPE); and to prepare candidates for a high-stakes, state-mandated performance assessment (the CalAPA). Data for this study included student focus groups and faculty interviews as students and faculty shared their perceptions of and experiences with the new program and the CalAPA performance assessment. Several implications for principal preparation programs were found: the need for a comprehensive curriculum with an explicit social justice focus, the benefits of the cohort model, the value of field based assignments, the need for supportive instructional practices, and the challenges and benefits of state-mandated performance assessments such as the CalAPA. The process of program revision and adaptation to a new state-mandated, high-stakes administrator performance assessment may be relevant to other programs seeking to prepare social justice leaders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using PISA 2012 data, we conducted multilevel modeling analyses to explore how student–teacher relationships (STRs) affected mathematics motivation across EU countries. We compared this relationship across high and low achievers and explored how sex, economic, social, and cultural status (ESCS), ability grouping, class size, and teacher intentions moderated this relationship. Results show that positive STR was associated with higher motivation. High-ability students, boys, and high ESCS students had higher motivation, but we found no statistically significant interactions between STR and low or high ability. Class size, ability grouping, and teacher intentions had no statistically significant effects on mathematics motivation. Overall, our findings suggest that positive perceptions of STR can positively impact student motivation in mathematics and that this effect is consistent across different demographic groups. Thus, general trends around STR and motivation also apply to high-achieving populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classroom teaching tact is a kind of sensitive, rapid and accurate judgment and response ability of teachers in the face of complex classroom teaching situations. The implementation of the new curriculum reform requires teachers to have a higher level of teaching tact. Based on the self-designed questionnaire, this study investigated 200 primary school students in Hunan Normal University, explored the main influencing factors of their classroom teaching tact, and verified the rationality, reliability and validity of the questionnaire structure. It is found that the differences of gender and major have no influence on the level of classroom teaching tact of primary school students on post internship, while the differences of professional identity, personality, teaching class size, teaching reflection and post job training will bring the differences of classroom teaching tact level of primary school students on post internship. The primary school students who have high degree of professional identity, outgoing personality, small class size, good teaching reflection and more job-related classroom teaching and training have higher level of classroom teaching wit. But at the same time, we should also consider the interaction of various factors and do a holistic and dialectical thinking on the analysis of the factors that affect the level of classroom teaching tact of primary school students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Universities in Pakistan offer Chinese language courses to prepare students for ample employment-related opportunities in Pak-China projects, Chinese university scholarships, learner exchanges and mobility programmes. This article provides an interpretive policy analysis, focused on comparing the interpretations of policymakers and foreign language students concerning the aims and implementation of a mandatory Chinese language learning policy introduced at a major public engineering university in Pakistan. The findings reveal that while most aims stated in the policy artefacts match the stakeholders' interpretations of the policy aims, the students' interpretations differed slightly regarding policy implementation, mainly concerning the medium of instruction and class size, affecting student motivation and levels of learning. The article discusses to what extent such a policy entails implementation challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[1] article is timely in its address of growing challenges across universities: class sizes are increasing; students are under-engaged; and organizations want more "work ready" hires. This year, 32 articles were considered for the award; per the award description, these were the manuscripts accepted for publication in I JME i from last year, 2021. For the award selection, each of these 32 articles was additionally critiqued separately by three award reviewers, defined as individuals identified by me, the Roethlisberger Award Chair, as involved in MOBTS as conference attendees, conference presenters, journal readers, and/or journal reviewers. [Extracted from the article]

Overall, in Sri Lankan public schools, the student–teacher ratio is very low. The number of teachers is considerably greater than the number of classes; sometimes the former is double or more than double the latter. In a school in which all the teachers are individually deployed in each class, many teachers have to remain idle. Thus, every day a certain number of teachers remain idle. This situation points to two issues. Firstly, in Sri Lankan public schools, resources are underutilized and hence costs are not minimized. Secondly, since there is an excess of teachers in schools, a formal and logical method is required to determine the optimal number of teachers. This article tries to develop a formula to determine the required number of teachers for a school, and thereby to find ways to minimize costs when employing teachers. Primary data on classes, teachers and subjects offered with respect to 40 public schools in the North Central Province were collected. When empirical data on the number of teachers in sampled schools were compared with calculated teacher requirements in terms of the developed formula, it was found that school authorities are underutilizing teachers. The article concludes that (a) based on the developed formula to determine the required number of teachers, many public schools have an excess of teachers and hence current transfer policy for school teachers is not logical, (b) teacher requirement can be decided according to the developed formula and (c) by adopting one teacher-two subjects-one school and one teacher-one subject-more schools models, government authorities can minimize costs further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: School leaders rely on a number of collaborative policy tools to address fiscal and governance issues. While prior research has examined the dynamics and implications of research-practice and public-private partnerships, this study addresses a third form of collaboration: interdistrict cooperative agreements. Method: We develop a unique data set to study the formation of interdistrict agreements formed among 333 public school districts in the state of Iowa from 2008 through 2017. Aimed at reducing costs and improving student outcomes, these agreements collectively reflect an intergovernmental network that develops through predominantly bilateral agreements. We examine the factors and mechanisms that can facilitate and hinder interdistrict collaboration through a stochastic actor-oriented model for analyzing panels of network observations. Findings: We find both transitivity and popularity to be positively associated with the inclination to form cooperative relationships. Further, school districts are more likely to collaborate with districts that have a: (1) greater number of enrolled students; (2) smaller percentage of students that receive free or reduced price lunch; (3) higher student-to-teacher ratio; and (4) lower average teacher salary. Propinquity and homophily effects are present as well: between any two given school districts, the likelihood of collaboration improves as geographical distance and the absolute difference in districtlevel measures decreases. Implications: Understanding the antecedents of education network formation enables examinations of how network characteristics can reduce the cost of providing education or improve student outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose using Stochastic Frontier Analysis to estimate pupils' academic underachievement. We model underachievement as the gap between expected achievement and actual achievement, not due to a learning disability. Our data are a panel for 2,228 Belgian pupils observed over 6 years of primary education. We found that the average underachievement gap is 23.5%. That is, the average pupil does not exploit about one fourth of their potential. Gifted pupils appear to underachieve as much as non-gifted pupils. We also found that class size is a determinant of underachievement. The association between class size and underachievement is non-monotonic, with an underachievement minimum at a class size of about 20 pupils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past 30 years, the scientific community has been increasingly challenged to provide the next generation of researchers with training in responsible conduct of research (RCR). Although RCR courses, workshops, and seminars are now routinely taught internationally, there is little uniformity in goals, content, pedagogy, duration, class size, or methods of assessment. The result is a mixed picture of effectiveness. In this manuscript, we describe goals, rationales, and features for a course tested and revised through well over 100 iterations. Based on our experience and that of others with whom we have shared this model, we propose this course as one that RCR instructors might readily and successfully adopt or adapt. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goals of this study were (a) to assess the unique contributions of curiosity and demographics to the teacher–student relationship and (b) to identify the most common barriers teachers experience when attempting to build positive relationships with students. A sample of 518 public school teachers from across the United States completed an online survey. The results show that curiosity and grade level predict teacher–student relationships. Students' negative behavior, time constraints, large class sizes, family issues, and truancy were among the most common barriers to positive teacher–student relationships. The discussion includes theoretical and practical implications for educators and school leaders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite a growing body of turnover literature, much remains unknown about the factors predicting career transitional behaviors of school principals. To bridge this gap, we examined variations in principal, school, and district characteristics influencing administrator leaver and mover behaviors, using Hierarchical Generalized Linear Modeling. Our findings revealed that class size, support staff, parental involvement, teacher incentives, unionization, and many other district-level policies offset turnover, thereby contributing to retention. Furthermore, predictors of principal mover behavior differed from those of principal leaver behavior, suggesting that different forms of exit paths may need different policy tools to improve retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The management and coordination of classroom teaching continues to be a challenge, particularly as enrollment trends suggest that class sizes are growing. In the past, many faculty have divided their large classes into smaller groups to incorporate experiential exercises. In this article, we discuss the challenges of managing an experiential exercise featuring a large number of teams in a virtual setting. These challenges include (a) coordinating class communication with a large number of teams, (b) managing teams and facilitating team communication and trust, (c) managing virtual team performance and instructor feedback throughout the experiential exercise, and (d) managing and evaluating student engagement. We also provide practical suggestions for management educators on how to address each challenge based on insight gleaned from our years of experience using virtual teams in large classes. Finally, we highlight avenues for future research in the area of virtual teams and large class size teaching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Higher education classes have increased in size at a time of significant resource restrictions for universities. At the same time, employers are looking for graduates with relevant competencies and skills. This poses two key challenges: (1) how to design an experiential curriculum that produces significant skill development and (2) how to ensure that this program is scalable and effective in a large class context. In this case study, we describe the curriculum of a postgraduate experiential learning curriculum focused on leadership development, and report its effectiveness in developing leadership competencies in different-sized large classes. This case study demonstrates that effective large class experiential learning and leadership skills development is possible. We found comparable effectiveness across different-sized classes of up to 130 students. These results were achieved by combining experiential learning, intentional change theory, dedicated and experienced faculty coaches, feedback and coaching in small peer groups, and periodic self- and peer-evaluations. We observed that class size may differentially affect the effectiveness of experiential learning for leadership competency development at different stages of a course. Practical implications for course design and delivery are discussed, with a focus on the curriculum design elements that help make large class experiential learning impactful and manageable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Student attendance is both a critical input and intermediate output of the education production function. However, the malleable classroom-level determinants of student attendance are poorly understood. We estimate the causal effect of class size, class composition, and observable teacher qualifications on student attendance by leveraging the random classroom assignments made by Tennessee's Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) Project class size experiment. A 10-student increase in class size increases the probability of being chronically absent by about 3 percentage points (21%). For Black students, random assignment to a Black teacher reduces the probability of chronic absence by 3.1 percentage points (26%). However, naive mediation analyses suggest that attendance is not a mechanism through which class size and same-race teachers improve student achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University class size is a frequently debated topic among stakeholders given its relation to student achievement, teaching and learning, program evaluation, and education economics. However, the extant literature in both K–12 and higher education contexts regarding class size is equivocal, with some citing evidence of an adverse effect on student achievement for larger class sizes and others suggesting minimal effect. This study aims to explore the relationship between class size and student achievement, as measured by course grades, in the core undergraduate program at Temple University, a large, state-related university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A cross-classified multilevel model was employed consisting of 14 variables—6 student level and 8 class-level—and drawing from a robust sample size of 172,516 grades awarded to 32,766 students in 8,049 classes offered across 14 terms. Results suggest that, after controlling for instructor experience, the effect of class size is not uniform and is, in fact, quite variable when accounting for student race, gender, and academic discipline within the same model. We discuss the possible reasons for these variable results with implications for program policy and classroom practice. Finally, we discuss the limitations of the present study and how future research might resolve those limitations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This qualitative study delved into 15 Iranian middle school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers' perceptions, practices, and challenges of differentiation for gifted students. To this end, a set of data sources including interviews, observation notes, and documents were used. Results of interview transcriptions exhibited that the rural EFL teachers primarily held negative or indifferent views of differentiating instruction for gifted students, and that their actual differentiation practices for gifted students left far more to be desired. In addition, a host of barriers to differentiation practices were cited by the teachers, including time, energy, and class size as the most impactful. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Given increasing class sizes and desires to keep costs down, many medical schools are developing regional clinical campuses. We found our regional campus system to be very successful in allowing class size expansion, inspiring a workforce for the state, and concurrently allowing our students to individualize their experience. We desire to articulate our experience, with a review of the relevant evidence, with the goal of assisting other medical schools in their efforts to develop regional medical campuses. Methods: We conducted a narrative literature review to identify considerations for developing regional campuses, taking into consideration our experiences in the process. A medical librarian undertook a literature search for the purposes of this narrative review. Results: Of the 61 articles identified, 14 were included for full-text review. Five facets on branch campus development were identified: relationships, infrastructure, curriculum, recruitment, and accreditation. Within each of these facets we provide further details based on findings from the literature complemented by our experience. Conclusions: Launching a regional campus requires building relationships with clinical partners, ensuring an infrastructure that supports student need and accreditation, comparable curriculum with the same objectives and assessment measures, and aspects of the experience that inspire a student desire to learn in that setting. We share our experience in building successful branch campuses, which have added significantly to our large public school of medicine and its service to our state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a census of empirical studies on the scholarship of teaching published in Teaching of Psychology, Psychology Learning and Teaching, and Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology over the past decade. All articles from each issue were coded for characteristics identifying the teaching context in which the research was conducted, focusing on institution type using Carnegie classifications and average class size. The majority of studies on the scholarship of teaching and learning in psychology were carried out in smaller classes (less than 40 students/class) in settings characterized as Master's or Doctoral institutions. These data suggest an underrepresentation of studies from 2-year Associate's colleges, as well as from larger enrollment classrooms. Implications are discussed for conducting research in the diverse classroom settings representative of psychology instruction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author uses a spatial econometric framework to examine the determinants of teacher salaries in the United States, including union activity in the teachers' own and in neighboring districts, teacher salaries in nearby districts, and other school district characteristics such as size and student-teacher ratios.Using the 1999-2000 Schools and Staffing Survey as well as the School District Demographic System and Bureau of Labor Statistics data sets, he finds that union activity (measured by the legal status of collective bargaining and teacher union membership density) increases salaries for experienced teachers by as much as 18 to 28%; it increases salaries for beginning teachers, however, by considerably less. Results also confirm that salaries for experienced and beginning teachers are positively affected by the salaries of teachers in nearby districts. A one-percent increase in the distance-weighted average of teachers salaries in nearby districts increases salaries in a given district by 0.52% for experienced teachers and 0.66% for beginning teachers. Studies that ignore such spatial dependence are likely to be mis-specified and may lead to misleading conclusions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calculus is an essential intellectual gateway and initiation in the education of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) students. In this study, graded online computer homework was compared with graded handwritten homework in second-semester calculus for STEM students. Previous calculus studies excluded STEM students or compared graded online computer homework with ungraded uncollected handwritten homework. Two large sections and two small sections of Calculus II were studied using a quasi-experimental design. Students were given the same lecture by the same instructor for each class. Students were not aware of the type of homework to be assigned when they registered. Online homework sections used WebAssign, which is one of the most widely used textbook and homework systems. The analysis indicates that there was no significant difference in performance between handwritten and online homework. Assessment questions that required graphical answers provided the greatest contrast between handwritten and online homework and were separately evaluated. Controls were included for entering math scores and a socioeconomic indicator. This study does not find any significant difference due to homework type. As a secondary question, the effect of class size is examined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small class size is often used as an indicator of quality in higher education, and some research suggests that instructors in smaller classes more often use activities that are learner-centered and that involve physical and mental activity on the part of learners, such as group work, simulations, and case studies. However, we have little information on how instructors change their pedagogical practice when they teach in large- versus small-class settings. In this study, we examine alignment between intended and enacted teaching strategies, or initial plans and specific ways in which instructors reported altering their teaching in the context of a university policy shift to smaller classes. Furthermore, we examine instructional challenges in this shift to call attention to professional development needs of small-class teaching and to best leverage the benefits of such activities for student performance and retention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines state-to-state variations in the legality of bargaining over class size in public schools, to determine, first, whether these variations in the legal scope of bargaining bear any relationship to actual class sizes and, second, whether these variations are indirectly associated with teachers' salaries. Using a model of the quality of education to analyze data from the 1977 Census of Governments on 4,851 independent school districts, the author concludes that restrictions on class-size bargaining are associated with both larger student-teacher ratios and higher teachers' salaries. He also finds that the availability of voluntary arbitration and the limited right to strike are related to lower student-teacher ratios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the effects of teachers' organizations and collective organizations on salaries and class size in the U.S. The relevance of class size to the problems of financing education is discussed. Three systematic analyses related to the question of the effects of collective negotiations on the salaries of teachers are analyzed. An assessment of the basic salary model that argues that mean teacher salary is a function of median family income is presented. The article also covers expectations on the sign of the association between state aid and salaries.

This paper recounts a large class teaching process designed to encourage student critique, debate, and engagement. It focuses on an example of one in-class, small group exercise of negotiating ownership claims on a capital good and its output. The communal outcomes that students themselves negotiate contradict their prior taken-for-granted belief in the "rightness" of the capitalist mode of production and offer the class an opportunity to reflect on principles of fairness in resource distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study uses data from a comprehensive database of U.S. early childhood education program evaluations published between 1960 and 2007 to evaluate the relationship between class size, child–teacher ratio, and program effect sizes for cognitive, achievement, and socioemotional outcomes. Both class size and child–teacher ratio showed nonlinear relationships with cognitive and achievement effect sizes. For child–teacher ratios 7.5:1 and lower, the reduction of this ratio by one child per teacher predicted an effect size of 0.22 standard deviations greater. For class sizes 15 and smaller, one child fewer predicted an effect size of 0.10 standard deviations larger. No discernible relationship was found for larger class sizes and child–teacher ratios. Results were less clear for socioemotional outcomes due to a small sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior work has defined the Educational-Industrial Complex (EIC) as an interlocking set of public and private institutions which operate mainly to serve children and taxpayers, but also in part as budget maximizers. We test hypotheses about EIC growth using (mainly) cross-sectional data from Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) nations. Findings indicate that, as per capita wealth and unionization grow, nations spend relatively more on education and schools have a higher staff to student ratio (lower class size). Time series data indicate that cross-nationally, class size falls over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Overlooked in higher education student retention policies is the effect of class size on student achievement. Decreasing constant-dollar legislative appropriations and growing undergraduate enrollments will continue to strain instructional budgets. One obvious administrator response is to increase class sizes, which raises concerns of negative effects on minority student achievement. Reported are findings that class size does exercise negative effects on the academic performance of Hispanic students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Class size reduction (CSR) is an enduring school reform undertaken in an effort to improve academic achievement and has been widely encouraged in the United States. Supporters of CSR often cite the positive contemporaneous and carryover effects of Project STAR. Much has been discussed regarding the robustness of the contemporaneous effects but not regarding that of the carryover effects. Purpose: This article checks the robustness of the carryover effects of STAR's small classes. Setting: STAR was undertaken in 75-79 schools in Tennessee. Participants: Each year in the experimental period, 6,000-7,000 students in grades K-3 participated in the experiment, for a total of 12,000 students during the entire period. Intervention: As students initially entered STAR schools, they were (arguably) randomly assigned to small classes with 13-17 students, regular classes with 22-25 students without teacher aides, and regular classes with 22-25 students with teacher aides. The experiment was performed from 1985 through 1989, but information on STAR students continued to be collected thereafter. Research Design: STAR is a randomized controlled field experiment. Data Analysis: In this article, STAR schools are divided into "effective" schools and "ineffective" schools. Effective schools are defined as schools where the test scores of students in small classes were statistically significantly higher than those of students in regular classes at the 5 % level in both math and reading. By contrast, ineffective schools are defined as schools where, the test scores of students in small classes were not statistically significantly higher than those of students in regular classes at the 5% level in either math or reading. Separately for effective schools, schools other than effective schools, and ineffective schools, the academic achievement of students is regressed on variables indicating small class assignment, along with student characteristics and school-by-entry wave fixed effects. Findings: The carryover effects of CSR are not robust; they are driven mostly by effective schools, which account for at most a quarter of STAR schools. During this investigation, it is revealed that, in contrast to the protocol of randomization, observable student characteristics in these schools are not randomly distributed between small and regular classes. They are instead distributed in such a way as to increase the academic achievement of students in small classes and decrease that of students in regular classes. Recommendations: Caution is recommended when citing the positive carryover effects of STAR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of student response systems is becoming more prevalent in higher level education. Evidence on the effectiveness of this technology can be an important resource for tutors seeking to engage with learners and raise the quality of learning experiences. Student response systems have been found to increase student engagement and participation in the classroom, yet few studies examine why this is so. This research seeks to explore the effects of student response systems on student participation in large classes. The methods used included both quantitative and qualitative data. A pre-test/mid-test/post-test design (quantitative approach) was deployed to examine the effects of a classroom response system on interactivity. Students involved in a final year undergraduate business course took part in investigating the use of student response systems from the student perspective. Qualitative data were collected to identify the strengths and weaknesses of using a classroom response system to enhance classroom interaction through semi-structured interviews. This research builds on previous studies by investigating why students become more participatory, interactive and engaged during learning sessions which utilise student response systems. Implications for teaching practice are discussed, and avenues for future research on student response systems and student engagement in large class scenarios are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Background/Context: The effects of class size on student achievement have gained considerable attention in education research and policy, especially over the last 30 years. Perhaps the best evidence about the effects of class size thus far has been produced from analyses of Project STAR data, a large-scale experiment where students and teachers were randomly assigned to smaller or larger classes within schools. Researchers have also analyzed observational data to examine the effects of class size, but the results have been mixed. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study: It is generally difficult to draw causal inferences about class size effects with observational data because of the omitted variables problem. This shortcoming can be overcome with instrumental variables (IV) methods that are designed to facilitate causal inferences. The present study uses IV methods to examine the effects of class size on reading achievement using data from the 2001 fourth-grade sample of the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) in Greece. We took advantage of Greece's nationwide rule about maximum class size in elementary schools to construct IV estimates of class size. Population: PIRLS was designed to monitor children's achievement levels in fourth grade worldwide. We used reading achievement data from 2001 in Greece. The sample was a national probability sample of fourth graders. The use of appropriate weights helped us make projections to the fourth-grade student population in Greece in 2001. Research Design: The research design was secondary analysis. We examined whether class size predicts reading achievement for fourth graders in Greece net of student, teacher/classroom, and school characteristics. We used multilevel models to capture the dependency in the data (i.e., students nested within schools). We also used instrumental variables methods to facilitate causal inferences about class size effects. Conclusions: We investigated the effects of class size on reading achievement for fourth graders in Greece in 2001 using rich data from PIRLS. The results produced from the multilevel and the IV analyses were overall similar. Generally, the results indicated a positive association between class size and achievement. However, the association was typically statistically insignificant, especially when teacher/classroom and school variables were taken into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Implementing research-based curricula and instruction in inclusion-oriented schools is helped or hindered by having coherent models of service delivery accounting for the full range of student diversity. The current investigation offers data from 174 participants in 32 schools, analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation, and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). The findings offer replication of special education service delivery data from an earlier study, new descriptive data, and HLM analyses that identify special educator school density (the number of special educator full-time equivalents to total school population) and individual special educators’ Individualized Education Program (IEP) caseload size as variables predictive of special educators’ ratings of the conduciveness of their working conditions to providing effective special education for students on IEPs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Does reduced class size cause higher academic achievement for both Black and other students in reading, mathematics, listening, and word recognition skills? Do Black students benefit more than other students from reduced class size? Does the magnitude of the minority advantages vary significantly across schools? This article addresses the causal questions via analysis of experimental data from Tennessee’s Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio study where students and teachers are randomly assigned to small or regular class type. Causal inference is based on a three-level multivariate simultaneous equation model (SM) where the class type as an instrumental variable (IV) and class size as an endogenous regressor interact with a Black student indicator. The randomized IV causes class size to vary which, by hypothesis, influences academic achievement overall and moderates a disparity in academic achievement between Black and other students. Within each subpopulation characterized by the ethnicity, the effect of reduced class size on academic achievement is the average causal effect. The difference in the average causal effects between the race ethnic groups yields the causal disparity in academic achievement. The SM efficiently handles ignorable missing data with a general missing pattern and is estimated by maximum likelihood. This approach extends Rubin’s causal model to a three-level SM with cross-level causal interaction effects, requiring intact schools and no interference between classrooms as a modified Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption. The results show that, for Black students, reduced class size causes higher academic achievement in the four domains each year from kindergarten to third grade, while for other students, it improves the four outcomes except for first-grade listening in kindergarten and first grade only. Evidence shows that Black students benefit more than others from reduced class size in first-, second-, and third-grade academic achievement. This article does not find evidence that the causal minority disparities are heterogeneous across schools in any given year. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the impact of class size on the academic achievement of students. It informs that there are many problems of oversized classes including lack of discipline in the class, disturbances to both students and teachers and reduction in the teacher-student contact for supervision. It states that class size reduction can be done by building more schools, constructing additional classrooms and modifying attendance boundaries.

The article presents discussion of music education and its inclusivity. It is asserted that music programs should not be an elitist or exclusive subculture within schools but should be made to reach a majority of the student population. Suggestions on ways to promote more student inclusion are then given, such as developing alternative classes and curricula which appeal to students more than classical ensembles, shrinking class sizes to increase teacher-student engagement opportunities, and offering classes in popular instruments such as guitar.

Previous research on the effect of class size on student ratings of instruction has primarily investigated the effect of class size on the favorableness of these ratings rather than its effect on their reliability (dependability). A few studies have used "generalizability theory" to demonstrate the relative effect of class size on the dependability of student ratings of instruction. The purpose of the present study was to test the validity of the findings of these studies in a different cultural setting using a different student ratings questionnaire. Using a random-effect analysis of variance to estimate the variance components for a design in which students were nested within classes and crossed with items, it was found that the variance component for class size was appreciably larger than that for items. At least 20 students were needed to obtain a generalizability coefficient for relative decisions of .70 or more. Increasing the number of students has a greater effect on generalizability coefficients than increasing the number of items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backround: This article builds on three years of qualitative research on Wisconsin's Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) program, a class size reduction policy in Wisconsin. Objective: In this article, we take a practice-oriented perspective on assessment, examining how assessments in schools that participated in a class size reduction program intersected with forces of accountability. The goal of this article is to broaden the understanding of what it means for schools and teachers to be held accountable for student learning and to discuss how different accountability frameworks affect instructional practices in classrooms. Setting: The research took place in nine elementary schools across South and Central Wisconsin. Research design: Data for the qualitative case studies were generated through multiple methods, including ethnographic observations, interviews, administration of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS), document and artifact collection, and analyses of school-level standardized test scores. Results: The current political and educational context oriented our focus to an intersection of issues: the implementation of class size reduction, instructional practice, assessment, and accountability. We identify three aspects of assessment practices that affect this intersection: alignment, audience, and action. Conclusions: We found that coherent and collaborative assessment practices were more likely to take place in schools where there were explicit connections through assessments to varied communities of interest: district, school, teachers, students, and families. In supportive assessment systems, teachers had tools that they understood and that they. could use to improve their practice to meet the needs of their students. In contrast, assessment in lower quality classrooms took place in disjointed systems that focused primarily on summative rather than formative assessment. A focus on accountability without attention to the quality of instruction and the quality of assessment resources is inherently flawed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports on an Irish study that examines the teaching of large, introductory-level sociology courses at a research-intensive university. The study’s aim was to ameliorate some of the problems associated with large classes by applying key lessons from the U.S. literature to an Irish setting. Overall, the initiative was successful; attendance improved, student evaluations were positive, and the numbers of students continuing with sociology increased. The study illustrates that these lessons can be applied successfully in countries with a broadly similar sociology curriculum and suggests that there is scope to extend what Howard (2010) calls “the teaching and learning movement in sociology” beyond the United States. The results indicate that simple changes lead to gains in student learning. There is therefore a value in sociologists exploring the transferability of other techniques that may be applicable to the Irish classroom. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A study is reported that investigates the goals underlying undergraduate students’ engagement in their major classes, nonmajor classes, and in extracurricular activities. The qualitative study employs both focus groups and goal-mapping exercises. The results suggest that students tend to focus on utilitarian, attribute-level considerations mainly related to credentialing for purposes of employment. The results are considered from the perspectives of judgment and decision making, learning models, and the emerging service marketing perspective. These model considerations underscore an argument for moving toward models of education delivery focusing on value co-creation instead of the current emphasis on providing value to students. A series of recommendations are offered to help facilitate faculty efforts to increase course engagement, particularly in large-section course offerings. However, the authors ultimately conclude that student engagement with their course-related experiences will best be served in models of value co-creation by a focus on more than intellectual maturity in education. Specifically, an argument is presented for also targeting moral and motivational maturity. The practical and research implications of the study are presented and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article addresses three questions: Does reduced class size cause higher academic achievement in reading, mathematics, listening, and word recognition skills? If it does, how large are these effects? Does the magnitude of such effects vary significantly across schools? The authors analyze data from Tennessee’s Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio study (STAR) of 1985, where students and teachers are randomly assigned to a small or regular class. The authors propose a three-level multivariate simultaneous equation model with an instrumental variable (IV) and estimation via maximum likelihood (ML) to analyze the data under an assumption of data missing at random (MAR). The IV, random assignment of students to a small or regular class, reduces class size which, by hypothesis, improves academic achievement in these domains. The authors extend Rubin’s Causal Model (RCM) by involving a modified Stable Unit Treatment Value Assumption (SUTVA), requiring no interference between classrooms and intact schools. The method accommodates data with a general missing pattern and extracts full information for analysis from the STAR data. The authors investigate both homogenous and heterogenous causal effects of class size on academic achievement scores across schools. The results show that reducing class size improves reading, mathematics, listening, and word recognition test scores from kindergarten to third grade, although the effects appear relatively small in second grade. The authors find no evidence that the causal effects vary across schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors use nationally representative survey data and a research design that relies on contemporaneous within-student and within-teacher comparisons across two academic subjects to estimate how class size affects certain non-cognitive skills in middle school. Their results indicate that smaller eighth-grade classes are associated with improvements in several measures of school engagement, with effect sizes ranging from .05 to .09 and smaller effects persisting 2 years later. Patterns of selection on observed traits and falsification exercises suggest that these results accurately identify (or possibly understate) the causal effects of smaller classes. Given the estimated earnings impact of these non-cognitive skills, the implied internal rate of return from an eighth-grade class-size reduction is 4.6% overall, but 7.9% in urban schools. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Thus far researchers have focused on computing average differences in student achievement between smaller and larger classes. In this study, the author focus on the distribution of the small class effects at the school level and compute the inconsistency of the small class effects across schools. The author use data from Project STAR to estimate small class effects for each school on mathematics and reading scores from kindergarten through third grade. Then, all school estimates were combined to calculate an overall weighted average. The results revealed that a large proportion of the school-specific small class effects are positive, while a smaller proportion of the estimates are negative. Although students benefit considerably from being in small classes in many schools, in other schools being in small classes is either not beneficial or is a disadvantage. Small class effects were inconsistent and varied significantly across schools in all grades indicating a small class by school interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]