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This article provides a 24-year update on the 10 standardized tests used most frequently with children and youth by school psychologists. Data were acquired from 64 countries through an international survey, with one respondent from each country. The informants were solicited due to their expertise in the area of assessment. The data from the current 2013 survey are described and discussed as well as contrasted with the 1989 survey data. The 2013 survey data led to the following rank order of tests based on data from the 64 countries: the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Ravens Progressive Matrices, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of Intelligence, Child Behavior Checklist, Bender–Gestalt Test, Child and Adult Apperception Tests, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Draw-a-Person Test, Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales. Survey data from advanced, developing, and emerging counties also are compared and discussed. Results are discussed in the broader context of international test development and use.

This cross-national research examined temperament style preferences among children in three sub-Saharan African countries (i.e., Nigeria, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and possible differences between them on four bipolar temperament styles: extroverted–introverted, practical–imaginative, thinking–feeling, and organized–flexible. Children in these three countries overwhelmingly favor practical to imaginative styles as well as organized to flexible styles. They also generally favor feeling to thinking styles. Children’s preferences for extroverted and introverted styles are more balanced. Differences between countries and by gender are discussed. Implications for school psychology practice as well as viewing these four bipolar qualities as etic traits also are discussed.

The development and validation of the Brazilian Temperament Scale for Students (BTSS) are examined through the use of data from 1,258 children and adolescents, ages 10 through 21 ( M = 15.0, SD = 2.1, 56% females). Three psychometric properties of BTSS are reported: its internal structure (e.g., validity), its reliability, and cut points to best distinguish between the bipolar styles for each of the scale’s four constructs (extroversion–introversion, practical–imaginative, thinking–feeling, and organized–flexible styles). Rasch analyses were used to estimate item intensity and students latent score parameters. The use of construct maps to help establish norms is described. The results of exploratory factor analysis using varimax rotation confirm the four scales’ intended bipolar factors are composed of items that theoretically represent the desired constructs. The confirmatory factor analysis for a four-factor structure generally displays good fit indexes. Infit and outfit values reach acceptable ranges (i.e., from 0.68 to 1.32). Results are interpreted using cut points.

The effects of musical career disruption are an increasingly important, yet under-researched, area within music education. This article highlights psychological issues that can negatively affect an operatic career. Existing work has examined the effects of redundancy for opera choristers and confirmed the importance of a flexible approach to identity formation for career longevity. Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), this study investigates the effects of career disruption by focussing on the consequences of physical disabilities for one professional opera singer called Joe. Music and musical narratives are utilized as key elements to investigate various aspects of Joe’s music identity. Internal conflicts that can result from a perceived lack of autonomy over musical issues and the effects of bodily malfunction on a vocal identity are discussed as being crucial. Findings also highlight the importance for music educators to help young artists develop a balanced relationship with music and a sustainable identity within music.

The Polish Temperament Styles Questionnaire (PTSQ), derived from Student Style Questionnaire (SSQ) was developed to measure four bipolar temperament styles: extroverted versus introverted, practical versus imaginative, thinking versus feeling, and organized versus flexible. The study focuses on factorial validity and measurement invariance (configural, metric, and scalar) across gender and age groups using data from 1,022 students ages 8 to19. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supports the four factor model, and multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA) supports measurement invariance for both age and gender groups.

Measures of adaptive behaviors provide an important tool in the repertoire of clinical and school/educational psychologists. Measures that assess adaptive behaviors typically have been built in Western cultures and developed in light of behaviors common to them. Nevertheless, these measures are used elsewhere despite a paucity of data that examine their cross-national transportability. The issue of test transportability of such measures is important because they are used in cultures that differ from those in which they initially were developed as well as with immigrants. This present article describes the Romanian and Taiwan adaptation process of the U.S.–developed Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Second Edition (ABAS-II) Parent Form for ages 5 to 21. Steps taken to help ensure a valid translation and cultural adaptation process are described. Data from more than 3,000 parents who completed the ABAS-II are examined across these three test versions, focusing on score differences, internal consistency, intercorrelations, and factor structure equivalence. Data from the three versions display considerable similarity. Score differences are infrequent between the three versions yet display some differences mainly at lower ages. Scale reliabilities are high and comparable for all the three versions. Correlation patterns are sufficiently similar between the three versions. Confirmatory factor analyses show a similar fit for all three versions.

This paper presents an in-depth, qualitative investigation into the impact of job loss for seven opera choristers. The paper focuses on their perception of this loss and how this perception influences the experience of career transition and subsequent redefinition of the self. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis is used to highlight the individual nature of dealing with loss and transition. Discussion centres on three themes which best capture the psychological process involved in the renegotiation of self for the participants. Analysis shows that a key issue in adapting to career transition is re-defining what it means to be a singer without the validation of full-time employment. The Organismic Valuing Theory of growth after adversity (Joseph & Linley, 2005) is used as a framework within which to discuss individual fluctuations between searching to develop new areas of the self and restoring the established self. The study concludes that singers are unique in the employment market because of their relationship to their embodied voice. For the seven participants, the experience of career disruption is determined by their ability to re-evaluate the role of singing as a primary agent of self-formation.

The use of individually administered measures of intelligence and other cognitive abilities requires clinicians to monitor a client’s test behaviors, given the need for a client to be engaged fully, attentive, and cooperative during the testing process. The use of standardized and norm-referenced measures of test-taking behaviors facilitates this important clinician-centered evaluation process. Research on children’s test-taking behaviors identifies Avoidance, Inattentiveness, and Uncooperative Mood as being counterproductive to performance on tests of cognitive abilities. Two prior studies examines the influence of these three test-taking behaviors on WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV, Spanish) full-scale IQs of Hispanic children and youth. The first, with English-speaking Hispanic children and youth, finds their test-taking behaviors to be low and to account for approximately 30% of the variance in their full-scale IQs. The second, with Hispanic children and youth who were acquiring English, finds their test-taking behaviors to be average and to account for approximately 9% of variance in their full-scale IQs on the WISC-IV Spanish. The current study extends this research by examining the impact of the above-mentioned test-taking behaviors on four domain scores (i.e., verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed) obtained by Hispanic children and youth who constitute part of the standardization sample of WISC-IV Spanish. The GATSB (Guide to the Assessment of Test Session Behavior) total score accounts for 7% of the variance on perceptual reasoning and working memory. Collectively, and the three test-taking behaviors account for a modest amount of variance on perceptual reasoning, with Avoidance accounting for most of this variance. Furthermore, the three test-taking behaviors account for a significant amount of variance on working memory, with Inattentiveness accounting for most of this variance. The three test-taking behaviors do not influence performance on verbal comprehension and processing speed. Age also accounts for considerable variance on the four WISC-IV Spanish domains.

Age, gender, and cross-national differences of children ages 9 through 16 in Pakistan ( n = 463) and the United States ( n = 500) are examined on four bipolar temperament styles: Extroversion-introversion, practical-imaginative, thinking-feeling, and organized-flexible. In general, Pakistani children prefer extroverted over introverted, practical over imaginative, and organized over flexible styles. Although their preference for thinking and feeling styles is balanced, gender differences are significant. Males generally prefer a thinking style and females generally prefer a feeling style. Gender and age differences are found on practical-imaginative and organized-flexible styles. Cross-national differences are found on practical-imaginative and organized-flexible styles. In contrast to children in the US, children in Pakistan are more likely to prefer practical and organized styles.

Age, gender, and cross-national differences of children ages 8- through 16-years-old in India ( n = 400) and the United States of America ( n = 3,200) are examined on four bipolar temperament styles: extroversion-introversion, practical-imaginative, thinking-feeling, and organized-flexible styles. In general, Indian children prefer extroverted to introverted, practical to imaginative, feeling to thinking, and organized to flexible styles. Gender differences among Indian children are significant only on extroversion-introversion. Age differences are found on thinking-feeling and organized-flexible styles. Cross-national differences are found on only one of the four bipolar styles: practical-imaginative. In contrast to children in the United States of America, those in India are more likely to prefer practical styles. Sample limitations (e.g. non-representativeness and small size relative to the population) limit the generalization of these data.

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) provides a framework for describing behaviors by viewing them from three broad and different perspectives: (1) physiologic, physical, and psychological functions; (2) a person’s engagement in functional life activities; and (3) their participation in social settings. The ICF Framework aligns well with current efforts in school psychology to adopt population-based models of service delivery, reflect public health models of service delivery, promote mental health, and prevent disorders or problem behaviors. Essential features of the ICF together with implications important to service delivery in general and psychoeducational assessment in particular are described.

Age, gender and cross-national differences of children ages 8 through 16 in Greece ( n = 400) and the United States ( n = 5,400) are examined on four temperament styles: extroversion-introversion, practical-imaginative, thinking-feeling and organized-flexible styles. In general, Greek children prefer extroverted to introverted styles and organized to flexible styles. Their preferences for practical-imaginative and thinking-feeling styles are more balanced. Gender differences are found on thinking-feeling and organized-flexible styles. Age differences are found on practical-imaginative and organized-flexible styles. In contrast to children in the US, those in Greece are more likely to favour extroverted and practical styles. Gender differences appear with both national samples: girls are more likely to favour a feeling style and boys to favour a thinking style.

Implications of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) on the development and use of tests in school settings are enumerated. We predict increased demand for behavioural assessments that consider a person’s activities, participation and person-environment interactions, including measures that: (a) address contextual features; (b) rely on third-party respondents; (c) depend on observational approaches; (d) comprise batteries of tests developed simultaneously or co-normed and (e) emphasize process and progress monitoring. We review some tests from the United States that respond to each emerging demand and describe the international implications of these demands. We close by describing the implications of the ICF model and its associated changes in testing practices for service delivery and student outcomes.

The structure of temperament styles was investigated using Rasch analysis methods with data from 397 (46% males) Zimbabwean early adolescents. The students completed the Student Styles Questionnaire (SSQ), a 69 item children's self-report measure of temperament styles that uses a forced choice item format. Each item was scored as a dichotomous Rasch scale variable. Principal component analysis of the standardized residuals yielded unidimensional latent temperament variables for extroversion-introversion (EI), practical-imaginative (PM), thinking-feeling (TF), and organized-flexible (OL) styles. Higher endorsements were found for extroversion (E) than introversion (I) styles, for practical (P) than imaginative (M) styles, for feeling (F) than thinking (T) styles, and for organized (O) than flexible (L) styles. TF style indicators seemingly were targeted more appropriately to the Zimbabwean adolescents than were EI, OL, and PM styles. Rasch modelling methods appear to have merit when constructing and using interval scale measures of temperament styles from forced choice data.

Temperament styles of 4,628 South Korean children, ages 9—17, are described in reference to possible gender and age differences and compared with those of 3,200 US age peers in the light of Jung’s theory of temperament as modified by Myers and Briggs, one that highlights four bipolar qualities: extroversion—introversion, practical—imaginative, thinking—feeling and organized—flexible styles. It was found that South Korean children strongly prefer extroverted to introverted, imaginative to practical, feeling to thinking and flexible to organized styles. In contrast to South Korean males, South Korean females are more likely to prefer extroverted, feeling and organized styles. Age differences are seen on all four styles, with children generally expressing a greater preference for introverted, practical, feeling and flexible styles with age. In contrast to US children, South Korean children are more likely to express preferences for extroverted, imaginative, feeling and flexible styles. These preferences also are more frequent in South Korean than US males and females as well as all four age groups. Findings and implications of this study are discussed.

The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities has promulgated various models of adaptive behavior, including its 1992 model that highlighted 10 adaptive skills and its 2002 model that highlighted three conceptual domains. The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System—II (ABAS-II) was designed to be consistent with these models. Previous studies using ABAS-II data have provided stronger support for a one-factor model of adaptive behavior and weaker support for a three-factor model.This study extends this review by examining the factor structure of the construct of adaptive behavior as measured by the ABAS-II Teacher Form, ages 5 to 21, for males and females from two age groups by addressing the following four issues for males and females: whether (a) the skill areas in the ABAS-II Teacher Form, ages 5 to 21, display the same pattern of factor loadings, (b) the skill areas display the same factor loadings, (c) the intercepts of the observed skill areas are equal, and (d) the skill areas measure the corresponding factors with the same accuracy. The finding of invariance across males and females helps ensure the scale’s factor structure is similar for the two groups. The ABAS-II Teacher Form was found to display a similar one-factor structure for males and females ages 5 to 12, 13 to 21, and 5 to 21.

The concepts of intelligence and methods to assess it constitute important contributions to psychology and have had a profound impact on school psychology practice. While the perspectives and practices of North American and European psychologists toward the construct and assessment of intelligence generally are well known, the views held by psychologists in the People’s Republic of China are less well known. This research describes the views of Chinese psychologists about intelligence and compares them with previously expressed summaries obtained from American psychologists in 1921 and 1986. The results indicate that Chinese psychologists view intelligence as an important construct that includes a large and robust set of attributes, including some that are not commonly identified by psychologists in the United States.

Research on children’s counterproductive test behavior supports a three-factor model for behaviors: inattentiveness, avoidance, and uncooperative mood. In this study, test behaviors measured by the Guide to the Assessment of Test Session Behaviors (GATSB) are rated on a sample of 110 Hispanic Spanish-speaking children included in the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—IV (WISC-IV) Spanish standardization to further understand the relationship of test behavior to test performance in Spanish-speaking children tested in their native language. GATSB scores generally are within the average range. Correlations between WISC-IV Spanish Full-Scale IQ and GATSB Total Score are significant for the total group, females and males, and ages 13-16 but not for ages 6-8 or 9-12. The amount of variance accounted for by the GATSB score is substantially less than in prior studies of Hispanic children tested in English with the WISC-III. Possible reasons for these discrepant findings are discussed.

Four bipolar temperament qualities (i.e. extroversion— introversion, practical—imaginative, thinking—feeling and organized— flexible) of 800 South African children, ages 9—10, 11—12, 13—14 and 15—17, first are described and then compared to temperament qualities of 800 US children of the same ages. South African children do not differ in their preferences for extroversion—introversion and more frequently prefer practical to imaginative, feeling to thinking and organized to flexible styles. In contrast to South African boys, South African girls are more likely to prefer extroverted and feeling styles. Two bipolar temperament styles display age changes: practical—imaginative and organized—flexible styles. South African and US children do differ on all four temperament styles. Compared to US children, South African children are more likely to prefer introverted, practical, feeling and organized styles; these differences generally were found between boys and girls from the two countries. Age difference appears on two bipolar temperament qualities between the two countries thinking—feeling and organized—flexible styles.

Measurement of temperament is an important endeavor with international appeal; however, cross-national invariance (i.e., equivalence of test scores across countries as established by empirical comparisons) of temperament tests has not been established in published research. This study examines the cross-national invariance of school-aged children's temperament styles as measured by the Student Styles Questionnaire (SSQ). Development of the SSQ was based on Jung's theory of temperament as augmented by Myers and Briggs. A four bipolar dimension model provided an excellent fit for Australian, Chinese, Costa Rican, Philippine, United States, and Zimbabwean samples and modest fit for Gaza (Palestinian) and Nigerian samples. This study provides partial support for the conclusion that the structure of school-age children's temperament as measured by the SSQ transcends differences in languages and cultures.

Purpose. Assess effectiveness of an intervention to improve fruit and vegetable consumption in economically disadvantaged young adults. Design. Randomized treatment-control, pre-post design. Setting. Ten states. Subjects. Young adults (n = 2024, ages 18–24) were recruited from noncollege venues; 1255 (62%) completed assessment interviews at baseline and at 4 and 12 months. Intervention. Treatment participants received a series of mailed materials and two educational calls in 6 months. Controls received a mailed pamphlet. Measures. Assessment calls determined two measures of fruit and vegetable intakes, demographics and stage of change at baseline, 4 and 12 months, plus treatment participants' decisional balance, processes, and self-efficacy. Analysis. Repeated measure analysis of variance, intent-to-treat, χ2, and logistic regression. Results. At follow-up, participants in the experimental group had higher intakes of fruit and vegetables than controls (perceived daily intakes of 4.90 vs. 4.60 servings per day, F = 3.49, p < .05 and 4.31 vs. 3.92 servings/day via 5-A-Day Screener, F = 4.78, p < .01) and greater progression to action or maintenance stages (66% progress in fruit for intervention vs. 55% progress in fruit for controls; 47% vs. 32% progress for vegetables, p = .0080 and .0001, respectively). Lower education, non-White ethnicity, male gender, living with children, and experimental group assignment predicted attrition (X26df = 288, p < .001, Cox R2 = .132). Conclusions. Tailored educational messages and research-extension partnerships are advantageous for improving fruit and vegetable intakes of young adults.

Temperament styles of 400 Palestinian children living in Gaza are described, examined for possible gender and age differences, and compared with those of 3,200 US children in light of Jung’s theory of temperament as modified by Myers and Briggs. The results show that Palestinian children generally prefer practical to imaginative, feeling to thinking and organized to flexible styles. Differences in their preferences for extroversion and introversion styles are not significant. In contrast to females, males are more likely to prefer thinking and flexible styles. Gender differences are not significant on extroversion-introversion and practical-imaginative styles. Age differences are seen on all styles. In contrast to US children, Palestinian children tend to express higher preferences for introversion, practical, feeling and organized styles.

Current theories of leadership are reviewed. Eleven leadership measures, six for children and youth and five for adults, are reviewed in the context of these theories and with psychometric standards for test use. In general, the measures are normed inadequately and lack information about reliability and validity. The use of short subscales embedded within other scales, which themselves often are inadequate, should be avoided. Currently, we lack the assessment technology to measure leadership adequately in children and youth. Leadership measures for adults are more promising, especially the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire, the Supervisory Behavior Description Questionnaire, and the Campbell Leadership Index.

Bias in testing has been of interest to psychologists and other test users since the origin of testing. New or revised tests often are subject to analyses that help examine the degree of bias in reference to group membership based on gender, language use, and race/ethnicity. The pervasive use of intelligence test data when making critical and, at times, life-changing decisions warrants the need by test developers and test users to examine possible test bias on new and recently revised intelligence tests. This study investigates factorial invariance and criterion-related validity of the Woodcock-Johnson III for African American and Caucasian American students. Data from this study suggest that although their mean scores differ, Woodcock-Johnson III scores have comparable meaning for both groups.

Temperament styles of 600 Zimbabwe children are described and compared to those of 3,200 U.S. children. Gender and age differences are described for children in Zimbabwe and compared to U.S. children. Results indicate that Zimbabwe children generally prefer extroverted to introverted styles, practical to imaginative styles, feeling to thinking styles, and organized to flexible styles. Gender differences were found on one style: in contrast to males, females are more likely to prefer extroverted styles. Age differences are seen on extroversion-introversion, thinking-feeling, and organized-flexible styles. In contrast to U.S. children, those in Zimbabwe tend to express higher preferences for practical, feeling, and organized styles. Implications for practice are discussed.

Preferences for four bipolar temperament qualities (i.e. extroversion-introversion, practical-imaginative, thinking-feeling and organized-flexible styles) of 400 Chinese children, ages 9, 11, 13 and 15, first are described and then compared to temperament qualities of 3,539 US children of the same ages. Chinese children more frequently prefer extroversion to introversion styles, practical to imaginative styles, thinking to feeling styles and organized to flexible styles. In contrast to Chinese boys, Chinese girls are more likely to prefer practical and feeling styles. All four bipolar temperament styles display some age changes, with practical-imaginative and organized-flexible styles displaying the most changes. Although Chinese and US children did not differ on extroversion-introversion styles, they differ on three temperament styles. Compared to US children, Chinese children are more likely to prefer practical, thinking and organized styles; these differences were found within boys and girls from the two countries. Temperament preferences displayed by Chinese and US children may reflect qualities important to values prominent in either a collectivist or individualist society.

The spinal cord is an integral component of the spinal column and is prone to physical injury during trauma or more long-term pathological insults. The development of computational models to simulate the cord-column interaction during trauma is important in developing a proper understanding of the injury mechanism. Such models would be invaluable in seeking both preventive strategies that reduce the propensity for injury and identifying specific treatment regimes. However, these developments are hampered by the limited information available on the structural and mechanical properties of this soft tissue owing to the difficulty in handling this material in a cadaveric situation. The purpose of the present paper is to report the rapid deterioration in the quality of the tissues once excised, which provides a further challenge to the successful elucidation of the structural properties of the tissue. In particular, the tangent modulus of the tissue is seen to increase sharply over a period of 72 h.

S chools began providing services for gifted and talented (GT) students in the 1860s (DeLeon & VandenBox, 1985). However, GT programs in public schools did not become common in the United States (U.S.) until about 100 years later. Terman’s (1925) scholarship helped establish standards for GT programs when he identified intelligence as an important, perhaps the most important, marker of gifted students, and he suggested they should score among the top 2% on nationally standardized intelligence tests. These standards for identification continue in many locations. For example, 73% of school districts rely on standardized measures of cognitive abilities when identifying GT students (Heward, 2000). GT programs are intended for students who display exceptional qualities, whose needs are not sufficiently served in regular education programs, and are likely to benefit from special education and related services. Although GT programs presumably are intended to meet students’ needs, support for the programs is highly dependent on whether they meet local, state, and national needs. The federal government highlighted the importance of educating GT children following the Soviet Union’s launch of its first satellite in 1957. Congress passed and the President implemented the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) in an effort to educate exceptional students for the purpose of closing the gap between the Soviet Union and U.S. in science and technology. Prior to the Act’s ratification, only six states had legislation addressing the needs of GT students. With NDEA funding, services for GT students reached an all time high and were found in all states (DeLeon & VandenBox, 1985).

Four temperament qualities and their origins are described together with the influence of temperament styles on teaching and learning styles. Teachers are encouraged to provide opportunities for students to utilize their strengths, to overcome weaknesses, to encourage positive behaviors, to promote an understanding of themselves and others, and to identify vocational interests. A method to assess temperament-based learning styles in students is described.

Relationships between temperament and vocational interests are examined for a large, nationally stratified sample of children ages 8 through 17 years. Reliable relationships between temperament and vocational interests are observable in children as young as 8 to 10 years. Those with extroverted styles are interested in being a rock star. Those with introverted, intuitive, and feeling styles are interested in being a writer. Those with thinking styles are interested in being a mechanic. Those with feeling styles are interested in being a counselor. Those with flexible styles are interested in being a jet pilot. Age, gender, and racial-ethnic differences also are examined.

The Portage Guide to Early Intervention, a program in which teachers instruct mothers in their homes in an effort to help promote the development of young children with developmental delays, is used widely (e.g. in more than 60 countries). Anecdotal and empirical evidence pertaining to the effects of the Portage Guide was reviewed, indicating generally favourable reports by parents and professionals. Empirical evidence was available from few studies. In addition, small sample sizes, brief duration of interventions, lack of control groups, restricted dependent measures and lack of follow-up studies precluded an appropriate evaluation of the Portage Guide's effects. Research that overcomes these and other methodological problems is needed. Lacking suitable evidence, professionals are encouraged to be conservative when discussing the Portage Guide's beneficial effects.

Biggs' (1987) Learning Process Questionnaire (LPQ) is a widely acknowledged measure of student approaches to learning. However, its utility in predicting actual school achievement and in multi-cultural contexts is unknown. This study investigated the validity of Biggs' LPQ and its underlying theory in predicting academic achievement in Zimbabwean multiracial schools. Three hundred and seventy-six Zimbabwean black (157) and white (219) students (mean age = 12.3 years; SD = .7) attending six racially integrated schools took part in the study. Students who reportedly used a surface approach to learning achieved lower levels of academic achievement compared to those who reportedly used deep and achieving approaches. Compared to white students, black students who reported higher use of a deep approach had lower academic grades. Students who reported a higher use of a surface strategy and taught by female teachers displayed significantly lower academic achievement than those who reported use of deep approaches. Support was found for the LPQ and its underlying theory. They appear to have some potential as research tool for use in Zimbabwean multiracial schools.

An estimated 150 million children are learning disabled within the world. Children with learning disabilities constitute the largest handicapping condition as well as the largest number of underserved or unserved students. Despite their widespread nature, few countries formally recognize learning disabilities as a handicapping condition or provide services to students who exhibit them. Methods that improve identification and intervention require a solid scientific foundation, one that will be strengthened by the research involvement of school psychologists and others in various countries. This article summarizes research concerning the cognitive qualities associated with the identification and remediation of learning disabilities, principally in reading, spelling and mathematics, as described through current literature from the United States and Canada. Professionals from other countries are encouraged to contribute to our literature on this pervasive and underserved disorder through research conducted in their countries.

Learning style preferences of 1,554 students identified as gifted and nongifted students, ages 8 to 17, were measured using the Student Styles Questionnaire (SSQ). Students identified as gifted and nongifted students did not differ significantly on extroverted-introverted, organlzed-flexible, and thinking-feeling styles. Students identified as gifted displayed a stronger preference for imagnative styles, while nongifted children displayed a stronger preference for practical styles. Gender differences were significant. Boys displayed a stronger preference for flexible and thinking styles while girls displayed a stronger preference for organized and feeling styles. Two gifted-by-gendcr interactions also were significant. Compared with boys identified as gifted, girls identified as gifted were more likely to prefer imaginative styles. Furthermore, although boys generally expressed a stronger preference for thinking than feeling, nongifted boys expressed a stronger preference for thinking than did boys identified as gifted.

State-local tax policies to encourage growth and development have been roundly criticized as detrimental to social welfare. In response, recent proposals have included delimiting the ability of states and localities to fashion tax policies. Not only are such proposals unworkable, but they fail to harness the creative energy and ideas of development practitioners because they act competitively to foster growth and development. The authors propose an alternative basis on which to fashion state-local taxation of business—that is, the so-called benefit principle—which aligns business taxes with costs of government services received by business entities.

This article reports on a study of the preferences in learning styles for 214 students, aged 10–17, with visual impairments and their sighted peers. Students with or without visual impairments did not differ in their frequency for preferences for either an extroverted or introverted style. However, in contrast to their sighted peers, students with visual impairments more frequently preferred practical, thinking, or organized styles. Also in contrast with their sighted peers, boys with visual impairments tended to prefer extroverted styles and girls with visual impairments tended to prefer introverted styles. Visually impaired students aged 10–15 generally displayed a preference for thinking styles, and those older than 15 preferred feeling styles. Those aged 10–12 generally preferred more organized styles, whereas those older than 15 generally preferred more flexible styles.

Guidelines for the preparation of school psychologists are described. The guidelines have been approved by the International School Psychology Association. The guidelines emphasize six goals commonly found in the preparation of school psychologists internationally: acquisition of core psychological knowledge, development of professional decision-making abilities, acquisition of research and statistical skills, enhancement of interpersonal skills, knowledge of ethics and establishment of professional values. The basis for these goals is described. An example of a professional preparation program based on these goals is provided.

This code of ethics was prepared by the International School Psychology Association's (ISPA's) Standards and Practices Committee and approved by ISPA's General Assembly in August 1990. The Committee was guided by the belief that school psychologists are expected to exemplify the profession's values and principles. These include transcending narrow personal, social and cultural values and attitudes; adopting positions that benefit professional-client relationships; and acting in ways that are consistent with the best interests of children and youths, educators, parents, institutions, the community and the profession. This statement addresses issues important to professional responsibilities, confidentiality, professional growth, professional limitations, professional relationships, assessment and research.

A semistructured questionnaire was used to collect data on the practice of school psychology in 12 East and Southern African countries: Botswana, Eriteria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The survey sought to capture consumer perspectives as to the status of school psychology in reference to the following: regulations for school psychology practice, qualification of school psychologists, work settings, public awareness, utilization and need, and research on psychological test use and development. Respondents were 42 special education leaders working in universities ( n = 13), special education institutions ( n = 18), and schools with special education facilities ( n = 11). The need for school psychology services was endorsed in ali 12 countries. Although differences among countries were apparent, the special education experts reported that the availability, regulation, and utilization of school psychology services in the 12 countries to be generally low. Respondents in countries with some formal recognition and regulation of professional school psychology (Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe) tended to report greater public awareness and utilization of school psychologists and higher involvement in test development. Findings are discussed within the context of the potential for the development of school psychology services in sub-Saharan African countries.

Guidelines that define the specialty of school psychology are described. The guidelines have been approved by the International School Psychology Association. The guidelines discuss the academic preparation, professional membership and the nature of their services. They include assessment, intervention, consultation, organizational and program development, supervision and research. Issues important to the efficient and effective delivery of services, public policy and ethics ai e also discussed.

The effectiveness of the Portage Program, a home-based prescriptive-teaching secondary-prevention program based on behavioral principles and designed to promote development in infant and children who display general cognitive and related disabilities, was examined over a five year period. The progress of 396 children with handicapping conditions who reside in the Gaza Strip was followed. Children in the three lowest levels of ability made little change in their rates of development while those in the two highest levels displayed decrements in their rates of development. Additional empirical studies on the Portage Program are warranted to determine the types of children and the environmental conditions associated with its effects.

Studies establishing the validity of a test used with persons from different ethnic groups are necessary for understanding the extent to which the test adequately and consistently reflects the qualities it is designed to measure. The present study examined the construct and content validity of the Student Styles Questionnaire (SSQ) for three racial-ethnic groups (i.e., African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Anglo Americans). The SSQ is a temperament measure for students aged 8 through 17. Comparative construct validity results indicate that a high degree of factor similarity exists across racial-ethnic groups; factor similarity is less strong when Hispanic Americans living in New York and Texas are compared. Differential item functioning studies reveal similar response patterns for Hispanic Americans when compared to both African Americans and Anglo Americans; however, differences occur on 25% of items when African and Anglo Americans are compared.

Coping is thought to be a major component in the relationship between the experience of stress and health. Currently, the most popular method for measuring coping is the quantitative, methods-foci approach which was developed by Lazarus and his colleagues (Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer, Coyne, & Lazarus, 1980). Through a critical review of studies using this approach, and by drawing on qualitative data from a study of stress, coping and health among headteachers, this paper argues that these widely-used measures need refining. Qualitative data show that the efficacy of coping actions and the adequacy of external resources are two pivotal variables in the coping process, both of which are completely overlooked in quantitative coping checklists. More broadly, it is argued that alternative methodologies must be considered if we are to better understand the role of coping in the stress/health relationship.

Qualitative research methods were used to study families who had made or were in the process of making the decision to use a feeding tube to meet the nutrition needs of their child with a disability. Data were gathered over a 2-year period through interviews with eight families. Family decision making in the context of quality of life was examined using a theoretical family systems model. Descriptive themes and issues emerged from the data that led to a greater understanding of what families face in making this decision for their child. The data can help families and professionals work in partnership before a child becomes severely malnourished or medically compromised as a result of inadequate nutrition. The themes and issues are discussed and implications for future interventions and research are presented.

The possibility of construct bias was investigated with the Guide to the Assessment of Test Session Behavior for the WISC-III and WIAT (GATSB). Specifically, the study examined whether the three constructs measured by the GATSB (i.e., Avoidance, Inattentiveness, and Uncooperative Mood) share the same factor structure across demographic groups that vary in gender, race-ethnicity (Anglo, African-American, Hispanic), and SES (high, middle, low). Children (N = 969) ranged between the ages of 6 and 16 years and comprised the GATSB's standardization and validity-study samples. Coefficients of factorial congruence/similarity were sufficiently high to warrant the conclusion that the GATSB's three constructs are comparable (i.e., share the same factor structure) for children who differ by gender, race-ethnicity, and SES. The current findings align with previous bias studies conducted with the GATSB (Glutting, Oakland, & Konold, 1994; Nandakumar, Glutting, & Oakland, 1993) and indicate that Anglo examiners can place considerable confidence in using this instrument to measure the test-taking behaviors of children who differ by gender and SES as well as those who are Anglo, African-American, and Hispanic.

School psychology in Venezuela is examined on the 25th anniversary of the founding of the Venezuelan Society of School Psychology (SOVEPSE) by tracing the development of psychology in Venezuela and the emergence of the specialty of school psychology. Important strides made during the last 38 years by psychology, and during the last 25 years by school psychology, can form the foundation on which further developments are built. Suggestions are offered that may be relevant to realizing the tremendous potential for school psychology in Venezuela. These include enhancing an indigenous science ofpsychology in Venezuela, further promoting professionalism in school psychology, passing legislation that mandates school psychology services and reinforcing school psychology's commitment to work as partners with educators to resolve important national problems. This paper is written, in part, to recognize this important milestone reached by SOVEPSE.

Associations between selected family and child rearing factors and intelligence among children aged 4 to 6 years living in urban areas of Taiyuan, China, are described. Intelligence was tested by means of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence. Family information was acquired through the use of a parent questionnaire. Intelligence was significantly related to parent education, parent occupation, child caretakers and location of education.

This study examines intelligence among Brazilian students on two levels: conceptual and test-related. Data was collected on 214 students ranging in age from 5 to 11. The study found that intelligence correlates significantly with socioeconomic status, achievement, grade repetition, family size and health and school absences. Among the 24 variables examined, the three that measure intelligence form a distinct factor. Support exists for a construct of intelligence that is separate from other variables reflecting social class and other family qualities. Both intelligence and SES variables have a substantial influence on achievement, suggesting that parent qualities exert at least as strong an influence on achievement as does intelligence. However, the interpretations of these results also should consider that the existing literature on intelligence among Brazilian children is meagre and the measures used in the research were developed in the US and UK, which differ considerably from Brazil with regard to linguistic, economic, cultural and educational variables, and cultural traditions.