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SOUTH-WEST TANNA GRAMMAR OUTLINE AND VOCABULARY. 1 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Location 1 1.2. External relations 3 1.3. Data and organisation 3 1.4. Abbreviations 4 2. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 5 2.1. Consonants 5 2.2. Vowels 7 2.3. Phonotactics 8 2.4. Stress 10 3. MORPHOLOGY 11 3.1. Verbs 11 3.1.1. Verbal affixes (declarative mode) 12 3.1.2. Verbal affixes (interrogative mode) 23 3.1.3. Verbal affixes (imperative mode) 23 3.1.4. Summary 24 3.2. Nominals 25 3.2.1. Pronouns 25 3.2.2. Directly possessed nouns 27 3.2.3. Other nouns 28 3.2.4. Derivational morphology 29 3.3. Modifiers 31 3.3.1. General modifiers 31 3.3.2. Verbal modifiers 31 3.3.3. Nominal modifiers 32 3.3.4. Quantifiers 32 3.3.5. Grammatical number markers 32 3.3.6. Demonstratives 33 3.4. Adjectives 33 4. SYNTAX 34 4.1. Phrases 34 4.1.1. Verb phrases 34 4.1.2. Noun phrases 35 4.1.3. Location phrases 36 4.1.4. Time phrases 39 4.1.5. Dative phrases 40 4.1.6. Benefactive phrases 40 4.1.7. Instrumental phrases 40 4.1.8. Causative phrases 41 4.1.9. Case-markers: Summary 41 4.2. Noun phrase expansions 41 4.2.1. Coordination 41 4.2.2. Relativisation 42 4.2.3. Complex location phrases 43 4.2.4. Possession 43 4.3. Clauses 47 4.3.1. Verbless clauses 47 4.3.2. Verbal clauses 48 4.4. Sentences 53 4.4.1. Simple sentences 53 4.4.2. Complex sentences 56 5. TEXTS 58 5.1. Nɨvaru 58 5.2. Mwig 61 6. VOCABULARY 63 6.1. South-west Tanna vocabulary 63 6.2. English finder list 77Map 2Notes 88Bibliography 91

PL-509, Contents v 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The islands of Southern Vanuatu 1 1.2 The languages of Southern Vanuatu 4 1.2.1 Futuna-Aniwa 4 1.2.2 Erromango 4 1.2.3 Tanna 5 1.2.4 Aneityum 5 1.3 Previous research 5 1.4 Organisation 6 1.5 Phonological systems and orthographies 6 1.5.1 Consonants 7 1.5.2 Vowels, phonotactics and stress 8 1.5.3 Orthography 9 1.5.4 Proto Oceanic and Proto Southern Oceanic 9 1.6 Conventions and abbreviations 10 1.7 Acknowledgements 12 2 Consonants 13 2.1 Overview of Proto Southern Vanuatu phonology 13 2.2 Labials 14 2.2.1 Labial nasals 14 2.2.2 Labial stops 17 2.2.3 Other labials 22 2.2.4 Summary 28 2.3 Velars 29 2.3.1 Velar nasal 29 2.3.2 Velar obstruents 30 2.4 Liquids and Proto Oceanic *R 39 2.4.1 Proto Oceanic *R 39 2.4.2 Proto Erromango 40 2.4.3 Anejom̃ 44 2.4.4 Proto Tanna 45 2.4.5 Proto Oceanic *dr 47 2.4.6 Proto Southern Vanuatu 48 2.5 Other coronals 49 2.5.1 Coronal nasals and *y 49 2.5.2 Coronal stops in non-palatalising environments 52 2.5.3 Coronal sibilants 59 2.6 Summary 74 3 Vowels 75 3.1 Anejom̃ 76 3.1.1 The POc high vowels 76 3.1.2 POc vowel sequences 78 3.1.3 POc mid vowels 79 3.1.4 POc *a 80 3.1.5 Summary 82 3.2 Proto Erromango 82 3.2.1 The POc and PEr high vowels 83 3.2.2 POc vowel sequences 86 3.2.3 The POc and PEr mid vowels 86 3.2.4 POc and PEr *a 88 3.2.5 Proto Erromango *a 90 3.2.6 Summary 91 3.3 Proto Tanna 91 3.3.1 Some preliminary is sues 92 3.3.2 The POc high vowels 94 3.3.3 POc vowel sequences 95 3.3.4 The POc mid vowels 96 3.3.5 POc *a and PTn *a and *ə 97 3.3.6 Summary 99 3.4 Proto Southern Vanuatu 99 4 Morpheme structure, stress, and rule order 101 4.1 Changes in canonical forms 101 4.1.1 Final consonants 101 4.1.2 Final vowels 103 4.1.3 Medial vowel deletion: a first approximation 105 4.2 Verb-initial vowels 106 4.2.1 Productivity of accretion 106 4.2.2 The accreted vowel 108 4.3 Article accretion and reduction 109 4.3.1 Dissimilation and the Article Reduction rule 110 4.3.2 Retention of the vowel of the article 1 12 4.3.3 *q-initial nouns 114 4.4 Medial vowel deletion, article reduction and stress 1 14 4.4.1 Medial vowel deletion in verbs 1 14 4.4.2 Medial vowel deletion in nouns 116 4.4.3 Proto Southern Vanuatu stress 117 4.5 Rule ordering and 'incipient vowel deletion' 117 4.6 Retention of POc *q 120 5 Nominal morphosyntax 122 5.1 Pronominal forms 122 5.1.1 Focal pronouns 123 5.1.2 Objective pronouns 124 5.1.3 Possessive pronouns 125 5.1.4 Number suffixes and morphophonemics 127 5.1.5 POc and PSV pronominal forms 128 5.2 Nominal morphology 129 5.2.1 Accretions to nouns 129 5.2.2 Nominal affixation 131 5.3 Possessive marking 132 5.3.1 Direct constructions and the construct suffix 133 5.3.2 Indirect constructions 133 5.4 Prepositions 136 5.4.1 The general oblique preposition 136 5.4.2 Other prepositions 137 5.5 Demonstratives and other modifiers 138 5.5.1 Demonstratives 138 5.5.2 Numerals 139 5.6 Noun phrase structure 141 6 Verbal morphosyntax 143 6.1 Verbal derivation 143 6.1.1 Verb-initial *a- 143 6.1.2 Other derivational prefixes 145 6.2 Subject, tense-aspect and negation 146 6.2.1 Proto Tanna 147 6.2.2 Anejom̃ 149 6.2.3 Proto Erromango 150 6.2.4 Proto Southern Vanuatu 156 6.3 Other verbal affixes and particles 157 6.3.1 Transitive suffixes 157 6.3.2 Directional suffixes 159 6.3.3 Other postposed particles 160 7 Clause- and sentence-level morphosyntax 162 7.1 Basic clause structure 162 7.1.1 Verbal clauses: core arguments 162 7.1.2 Verbal clauses: peripheral arguments 167 7.1.3 Subject and object marking 168 7.1.4 Imperative clauses 169 7.1.5 Verbless clauses 170 7.2 Noun phrase expansions 171 7.2.1 Coordination 171 7.2.2 NPs with possessive constituents 172 7.2.3 Relative clauses 173 7.3 Interrogative sentences 174 7.4 Clause coordination 176 7.4.1 Coordinating conjunctions 176 7.4.2 Echo-subject 177 7.5 Complex clauses 178 7.5.1 The quotative verb and subordinating conjunctions 178 7.5.2 Other subordinate conjunctions 179 8 The history of the Southern Vanuatu languages 182 8.1 The Southern Vanuatu family 182 8.2 Internal subgrouping 184 8.2.1 Erromango subgroup 185 8.2.2 Tanna subgroup 186 8.2.3 Anejom subgroup 187 8.2.4 Inter-subgroup relations 188 8.3 External relationships 188 8.3.1 Proto Southern Melanesian 188 8.3.2 The South Efate language 189 8.3.3 Proto Southern Oceanic 190 8.4 The Polynesian connection 190 8.5 Origin and dispersal of Southern Vanuatu languages 195 8.5.1 Settlement and dispersal 195 8.5.2 Culture and contact 196 8.6 Summary 200AppendicesI Sound correspondences 201II Proto Southern Vanuatu lexical reconstructions 204III English Index of lexical and grammatical reconstructions 303IV Other reconstructions 313 References 317

Contents vList of maps xi Preface xii

CHAPTER 4: URA GRAMMAR SKETCH AND VOCABULARY. 148 1. PHONOLOGY 148 2. MORPHOLOGY 149 2.1. Focal pronouns 149 2.2. Nouns 150 2.3. Deictics 150 2.4. Numerals and quantifiers 150 2.5. Adjectives 151 2.6. Prepositions 151 2.7. Verbs 152 3. SYNTAX 154 3.1. Phrase structure 154 3.2. Sentences 157 4. TEXTS 161 4.1. The Boy and the Coconuts 161 4.2. The Prodigal Son 164 5. VOCABULARY 168 5.1. Ura-English 168 5.2. English-Ura 176Notes 183

PL-510, Contents vPreface vi Toktok i go fas viiiHow to use this dictionary x Organisation of the dictionary x Spelling and pronunciation x Format of entries xi Borrowed words xiv Conventions and abbreviations xiv References xviHao blong yusum diksonari ia xvii Ol pat blong diksonari ia xvii Ol leta mo ol saon blong olgeta xvii Hao mitufala i eksplenem mining blong ol toktok xviii Ol toktok we i kam long nara lanwis xx Sam spesel mak mo sam sotfala toktok xxi Ol buk we mitufala i tokbaot xxiiiAnejom̃-English-Bislama 1Tables and diagrams / Ol pija mo ol tebol 280English-Anejom̃ finderlist 286Lis blong Bislama-Anejom̃ 365

CHAPTER 2: SIE GRAMMAR OUTLINE. 11 0. INTRODUCTION 11 0.1. Sie dialects 11 0.2. Genesis of the present study 11 1. SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY OUTLINE 12 1.1. The phonemes 12 1.2. Allophones 15 1.3. Contrast 17 1.4. Phonotactics 20 1.5. Stress 21 1.6. Morphophonemics 22 1.7. Orthography 22 2. VERBAL MORPHOLOGY AND THE VERB PHRASE 23 2.1. Verb morphology 23 2.2. Verb phrase structure 36 3. NOMINAL MORPHOLOGY AND THE NOUN PHRASE 36 3.1. Nouns 36 3.2. Pronouns 37 3.3. Demonstratives 39 3.4. Numerals and quantifiers 40 3.5. Adjectives 41 3.6. Possession 43 3.7. Noun phrase structure 47 4. OTHER PHRASES 49 4.1. Prepositions 49 4.2. Locative phrases 51 4.3. Temporal phrases 53 4.4. Other phrases 54 4.5. Intensive enclitics 56 5. CLAUSES 56 5.1. Verbless clauses 57 5.2. Verbal clauses 57 6. SENTENCES 60 6.1. Noun phrase expansions 60 6.2. Sentence-types 61 6.3. Complex sentences 64 6.4. Sentence introducers 69 7. TEXTS 69 7.1. Narai and Numpwat 69 7.2. John Williams 70Notes 72

Contents iii

Contents vAcknowledgements xi Abbreviations xii

CHAPTER 6: SORUNG. 191 1. PHONOLOGY 191 2. GRAMMAR 191 3. VOCABULARY 192

C-55, General Introduction iiiLenakel to English 1Introduction 3Lenakel to English Dictionary 7-110English Index 111IntroductionEnglish to Lenakel Dictionary 114-167

Contents iiiTable of Contents iiiEditor's Foreword vThe Contributors vii

CHAPTER 1: THE LANGUAGES OF ERROMANGO. 1 1. THE ERROMANGAN LANGUAGES AT EUROPEAN CONTACT 1 1.1. Depopulation 1 1.2. Languages 3 1.3. Location 5 2. CHANGES IN THE LINGUISTIC SITUATION 7 3. THE PRESENT STUDY 9Notes 9Map 1: Vanuatu 2Map 2: Erromangan languages: mid-nineteenth century 6

AUSTRONESIAN 'LOANWORDS' (?) IN TRANS-NEW GUINEA PHYLUM VOCABULARY. 165 0. INTRODUCTION 165 1. McELHANON AND VOORHOEVE 1970 165 2. OTHER STUDIES 172 3. EXPLANATION(S) 173 4. CONCLUSION 174NOTES 177BIBLIOGRAPHY 179

CHAPTER 5: UTAHA. 184 1. PHONOLOGY 184 2. GRAMMAR 185 3. VOCABULARY 187 3.1. Utaha-English 187 3.2. English-Utaha 189 4. TEXT 190

ANEJOM GRAMMAR SKETCH. 93 0. INTRODUCTION 93 1. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOGRAPHY 95 1.1. Consonants 95 1.2. Vowels 97 1.3. Phonotactics 98 1.4. Orthography 99 1.5. Stress 99 2. BASES 100 2.1. Pronouns 100 2.2. Nouns 102 2.2.1. Derivation 102 2.2.2. Pluralisation 103 2.2.3. Compound nouns 104 2.3. Verbs 106 2.3.1. Classes of verbs 106 2.3.2. Verb roots 108 2.3.3. Formation 109 2.3.4. Prefixes 110 2.3.5. Suffixes 110 2.4. Adjectives 112 2.5. Adjuncts 113 2.5.1. Indefinite adjuncts 113 2.5.2. Modifiers 113 2.5.3. Deictics 113 3. PHRASE STRUCTURE 116 3.1. Verb phrases 116 3.1.1. Subject/tense/mood particles 116 3.1.2. Tense and aspect 119 3.1.3. Negation 121 3.1.4. Adverbial particles 121 3.1.5. Verb phrase structure 122 3.2. Noun phrases 122 3.2.1. Simple noun phrases 122 3.2.2. Possessive phrases 123 3.2.3. Noun phrase structure 126 3.3. Other phrases 126 3.3.1. Locative phrases 127 3.3.2. Temporal phrases 129 3.3.3. Other prepositional phrases 130 4. CLAUSE STRUCTURE 131 4.1. Verbless clauses 131 4.2. Basic verbal clause structure 132 4.2.1. Intransitive clauses 132 4.2.2. Transitive clauses 133 4.3. Expanded clauses 134 5. SENTENCE STRUCTURE 135 5.1. Simple sentences 135 5.1.1. Statements 135 5.1.2. Commands 135 5.1.3. Questions 136 5.2. Complex sentences 138 5.2.1. Coordinate clauses 138 5.2.2. Subordination 140 5.3. Locative sentences 142 5.4. Subject-marking in discourse 144 6. TEXT 145Index of grammatical morphemes 149Notes 152Bibliography 154

CHAPTER 7: PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON PROTO-ERROMANGAN. 193 0. INTRODUCTION 193 1. PHONOLOGY 194 1.1. Consonants 195 1.2. Vowels 200 2. RECONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES 201 3. GRAMMAR 202 3.1. Sentence 202 3.2. Verb phrase and verb morphology 203 3.3. Noun phrase and nominal morphology 205 3.4. Possessive morphology 206 3.5. Prepositions 206 3.6. Other 207 4. LEXICON 207 5. ENGLISH INDEX OF RECONSTRUCTIONS 215Notes 219

C-133, Contents iiiTable of Contents iiiEditor's Foreword vThe Contributors viiCOMPARATIVE-HISTORICAL STUDIES 1{Robert BLUST} 1-46The linguistic position of the Western Islands, Papua New Guinea{Ann CHOWNING} 47-60POc *mata: how many words, how many meanings?{Tom DUTTON} 61-82Lau'una: another Austronesian remnant on the south-east coast of Papua{Paul GERAGHTY} 83-91Problems with Proto Central Pacific{John LYNCH} 93-110Proto Oceanic possessive-marking{Meredith OSMOND} 111-132Proto Oceanic terms for fishing and hunting implements{Andrew PAWLEY} 133-162Proto Oceanic terms for reef and shoreline invertebrates{Malcolm ROSS} 163-221Reconstructing food plant terms and associated terminologies in Proto Oceanic{Robin HOOPER} 223-241Type and instance nominalisations in Tokelauan{Wassissi KONYI} 243-247L’accent du mot en Nengone (langue de Maré, Nouvelle-Calédonie){Bill PALMER} 249-270Notes on mood and aspect in Simbo (Mandeghusu, Solomon Islands){Fa'afo PAT} 271-292Transitive constructions in Hula{Melenaite TAUMOEFOLAU} 293-304Nominal possessive classification in Tongan{Darrell TRYON} 305-318Mae-Morae and the languages of Epi (Vanuatu)SOCIOLINGUISTIC AND PIDGIN/CREOLE STUDIES 319{Bill CAMDEN} 319-351The transitive verbs using long in Bislama{Nicholas FARACLAS} 353-365New developments in literacy in Papua New Guinea languages{Greg FOX} 367-373Difficulties in translation and publication in the languages of Vanuatu{Helen FOX} 375-382An honorific sub-dialect used among Big Nambas women{Ernest W. LEE} 383-401On prepositions in Solomon Islands Pijin{Heather LOTHERINGTON} 403-414Starting from somewhere: a case for the use of Melanesian Pidgin in school-based literacy education in Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands{Ross MCKERRAS} 415-420Borrowings in Uripiv{Gillian SANKOFF} 421-450The Oceanic substrate in Melanesian Pidgin/Creole revisited: a tribute to Roger Keesing{Craig VOLKER} 451-462Variation in Nalik grammar{D.S. WALSH and Richard LEONA} 463-474Ihan manu ate Raga ‘Names of birds belonging to Raga’: an emic classification of the birds of North Pentecost{Afamasaga Malia Malaki Williams} 475-481Pacific Island language groups in the development of Pacific Island language nests in Aotearoa{Deanne WILSON} 483-499Kava on the marae in Aotearoa

PL-517, Contents vList of maps xi Preface xii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 The languages of Vanuatu 1 1.1.1 Language numbers 1 1.1.2 Populations 4 1.1.3 Maps 6 1.1.4 Writing systems 8 1.2 Bibliographical information 10 1.2.1 Inclusions and exclusions 10 1.2.2 Organisation 11 1.2.3 Placenames and language names 13 1.3 Current state of knowledge: a summary 14 1.3.1 Language list 14 1.3.2 Relationships of Vanuatu languages 19 2 General and comparative studies 21 2.1 Surveys, collections and bibliographies 21 2.1.1 Surveys 21 2.1.2 Collections 23 2.1.3 Bibliographies 24 2.2 Social aspects of language 25 2.2.1 Language and society 25 2.2.2 Language policy 26 2.2.3 Language and education 27 2.2.4 English and French in Vanuatu 28 2.3 Historical-comparative studies 29 2.3.1 Early or peripheral studies 29 2.3.2 Classification and subgrouping 29 2.3.3 Language and culture-history 31 2.3.4 Phonological and morphophonemic reconstruction 32 2.3.5 Grammatical reconstruction and change 33 2.3.6 Lexical reconstruction 33 2.4 Typological-comparative studies 34 3 Vernacular languages 35 3.1 Torres Islands 35 3.1.1 Hiw 36 3.1.2 Loh 36 3.1.3 Summary 36 3.2 Banks Islands 37 3.2.1 Ureparapara 37 (a) Lehali 38 (b) Lehalurup 39 3.2.2 Mwotlav 39 3.2.3 Vera'a 40 3.2.4 Vurës 40 3.2.5 Mota 40 3.2.6 Nume 42 3.2.7 Lakona 42 3.2.8 South Gaua 42 3.2.9 Merlav 43 3.2.10 Summary 43 3.3 Espiritu Santo and Malo 43 3.3.1 Tamambo 46 3.3.2 Tutuba 47 3.3.3 Mafea 47 3.3.4 Shark Bay 47 3.3.5 Sakao 48 3.3.6 Tolomako 49 3.3.7 Cape Cumberland 49 (a) Vunapu 50 (b) Piamatsina 50 (c) Valpei 50 (d) Nokuku 50 (e) Tasmate 51 3.3.8 Wusi 51 3.3.9 Southwest Santo 51 (a) Akei 52 (b) Wailapa 52 (c) Tangoa 52 (d) Araki 53 3.3.10 Central Santo 53 (a) Merei-Tiale 54 (b) Okula 54 (c) Other varieties (Navele, Tiai) 55 3.3.11 Mores 55 3.3.12 Kiai 55 3.3.13 South-Central Santo 56 (a) Morouas 56 (b) Amblong 56 (c) Narango 56 3.3.14 Southeast Santo 56 (a) Butmas-Tur 57 (b) Polonombauk 57 (c) Tambotalo 57 3.3.15 Moribund and extinct languages (Aore) 57 3.3.16 Summary 58 3.3.17 Immigrant languages 58 3.4 Ambae 59 3.4.1 Duidui 59 3.4.2 Northeast Ambai 61 3.4.3 Summary 61 3.5 Maewo 62 3.5.1 Sun̄wadia 62 3.5.2 Sun̄wadaga 62 3.5.3 Baetora 63 3.5.4 Moribund and extinct languages (South Maewo) 63 3.5.5 Summary 63 3.5.6 Immigrant languages 63 3.6 Pentecost 64 3.6.1 Raga 64 3.6.2 Apma 66 3.6.3 Seke 66 3.6.4 Sa 67 3.6.5 Summary 67 3.7 Malakula 67 3.7.1 Lendamboi 71 3.7.2 Ninde 73 3.7.3 Sinesip 74 3.7.4 Naha'ai 74 3.7.5 Nasvang 75 3.7.6 Axamb 75 3.7.7 Avok 75 3.7.8 Maskelynes 75 3.7.9 Port Sandwich 76 3.7.10 Nisvai 77 3.7.11 BanamBay 77 3.7.12 Aulua 77 3.7.13 Unua-Pangkumu 78 3.7.14 Navava 79 3.7.15 Nevwervwer 79 3.7.16 Dirak 80 3.7.17 Northeast Malakula 80 3.7.18 Vao 82 3.7.19 Mpotovoro 82 3.7.20 Vovo 82 3.7.21 Malua Bay 82 3.7.22 V'ënen Taut 82 3.7.23 Larëvat 83 3.7.24 Neve'ei 83 3.7.25 Moribund and extinct languages 84 (1) Nasarian 84 (2) Aveteian 84 (3) Nāti 85 (4) Navwien 85 (5) Sörsörian 86 (6) Mbwenelang 86 (7) Surua Hole 86 (8) Bangsa' 86 (9) Umbrul 86 (10) Niviar 87 (11) Nivat 87 (12) Naman 87 (13) Lombal 88 (14) Tape 88 (15) Matanvat 89 3.7.26 Summary 89 3.7.27 Immigrant languages 90 3.8 Ambrym 92 3.8.1 Southeast Ambrym 92 3.8.2 South Ambrym 93 (a) Dakaka 93 (b) Port Vato 94 3.8.3 West Ambrym 94 3.8.4 North Ambrym 96 3.8.5 Moribund and extinct languages (Orkon) 96 3.8.6 Summary 97 3.9 Paama and Lopevi 97 3.9.1 Paamese 97 3.9.2 Summary 99 3.10 Epi 100 3.10.1 Lewo 100 3.10.2 Lamen 103 3.10.3 Bierebo 103 3.10.4 Baki 103 3.10.5 Mkir 104 3.10.6 Moribund and extinct languages 105 (1) Bieria 105 (2) Ianigi 105 (3) Iakanaga 105 (4) Livara 106 (5) Revaliu 106 3.10.7 Summary 106 3.10.8 Immigrant languages 106 (1) Paamese 106 (2) Nakanamanga and Namakir 107 (3) East Malakula 107 3.11 Efate and the Shepherd Islands 107 3.11.1 Ifira-Mele 109 3.11.2 South Efate 111 3.11.3 Nakanamanga 112 3.11.4 Namakir 115 3.11.5 Emae 116 3.11.6 Summary 117 3.11.7 Immigrant languages 118 (1) Tanna languages (Blacksands) 118 (2) Southeast Ambrym (Mele-Maat) 118 (3) Bislama (Saama) 118 (4) Kiribati (Forari) 118 3.12 Erromango 118 3.12.1 Erromangan (incl. Sorug/Sye and Enyau/Yocu) 120 3.12.2 Moribund and extinct languages 123 (1) Ura (incl. Uravat and Novulamleg) 124 (2) Utaha 125 3.12.3 Summary 125 3.13 Tanna 125 3.13.1 North Tanna 127 3.13.2 Lenakel 127 3.13.3 Whitesands 128 3.13.4 Southwest Tanna 129 3.13.5 Kwamera 129 3.13.6 Summary 131 3.13.7 Immigrant languages 132 3.14 Futuna and Aniwa 132 3.14.1 Futuna-Aniwa 132 3.14.2 Summary 135 3.15 Aneityum 135 3.15.1 Anejom̃ 135 3.15.2 Summary 137 3.15.3 Immigrant languages (Futuna-Aniwa) 138 4 Bislama 139 4.1 Reference 139 4.2 Pedagogical materials 140 4.3 Descriptive phonology and grammar 141 4.4 Sociolinguistic works 142 4.5 Historical works 143 4.6 Theoretical works 146 4.7 Significant publications in Bislama 146 Bibliography 148 Appendix: research guidelines 172 Index 179

B-55, Contents iiiCHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. GENERAL 1 1.2. AIM AND ORGANISATION 2 1.3. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 2 1.4. ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 3CHAPTER 2: PHONOLOGY 7 2.0. INTRODUCTION 7 2.1. CONSONANTS 8 2.1.1. Obstruents 8 2.1.2. Sonorants 9 2.2. VOWELS 11 2.2.1. Central Vowels 11 2.2.2. High Vowels 11 2.2.3. Mid Vowels 13 2.2.4. Vowel Clusters 14 2.3. MORPHOPHONEMIC RULES 15 2.3.1. Rules Relating to [ɨ] 15 2.3.2. Rules Relating to Other Vowels 16 2.3.3. Rules Relating to Consonants 17 2.4. ACCENT 18 2.4.1. Stress 18 2.4.2. Intonation 21CHAPTER 3: MORPHOLOGY 23 3.0. INTRODUCTION 23 3.1. FREE MORPHEMES 23 3.1.1. Nouns 23 3.1.1.1. Classes of Nouns 23 3.1.1.2. Formation 25 3.1.1.3. Number 28 3.1.2. Verbs 29 3.1.2.1. Classes of Verbs 29 3.1.2.2. Formation 32 3.1.3. Adjectives 33 3.1.3.1. Classes of Adjectives 33 3.1.3.2. Number 34 3.1.4. Adjuncts 35 3.1.4.1. Verbal Adjuncts 35 3.1.4.2. Descriptive Adjuncts 35 3.1.4.3. Grammatical Number Markers 37 3.1.4.4. Quantifiers 38 3.1.4.5. Demonstrative Adjuncts 40 3.1.5. Interjections 42 3.2. VERBAL AFFIXES AND CLITICS 42 3.2.1. Intentional Prefix 43 3.2.2. Future Prefix 43 3.2.3. Person Prefixes 45 3.2.4. Tense/Aspect Prefixes 47 3.2.5. Continuative Prefix 52 3.2.6. Interrogative Prefix 53 3.2.7. Number Prefixes 54 3.2.7.1. Singular 54 3.2.7.2. Dual 54 3.2.7.3. Trial and Plural 55 3.2.7.4. Deletion of Number Prefixes: the Impersonal Construction 58 3.2.8. Reciprocal/Reflexive Suffix 59 3.2.9. Associative Suffix 60 3.2.10. Directional Suffixes 60 3.2.10.1. Personal Directionals 61 3.2.10.2. Specific Directionals 62 3.2.10.3. General Directionals 63 3.2.10.4. Combinations of Directionals 63 3.2.11. The Negative Postclitic 64 3.2.12. The Transitive Postclitic 65 3.3. NOMINAL AFFIXES 67 3.4. PREPOSITIONS 68 3.4.1. The Preposition /le/ 68 3.4.2. The Preposition /to/ 69 3.4.3. The Preposition /kam/ 71 3.4.4. The Preposition /taha/ 72CHAPTER 4: SIMPLE SENTENCE STRUCTURE 73 4.0. INTRODUCTION 73 4.1. PHRASES 74 4.1.1. The Simple Noun Phrase 74 4.1.2. The Simple Locative Phrase 75 4.1.3. The Simple Possessive Phrase 77 4.1.3.1. Inalienable Possessive Phrases 78 4.1.3.2. Alienable Possessive Phrases 80 4.1.3.3. Semi-Alienable Possessive Phrases 84 4.1.3.4. Irregularities 86 4.1.4. The Simple Verb Phrase 87 4.1.5. The Simple Temporal Phrase 88 4.2. SIMPLE SENTENCES 89 4.2.1. Sentence-Nucleus 90 4.2.2. Sentence-Periphery 92 4.2.3. Imperatives 94 4.2.4. Questions 96 4.2.5. Verbless Sentences 99CHAPTER 5: COMPLEX SENTENCES 101 5.0. INTRODUCTION 101 5.1. NP EXPANSIONS 101 5.1.1. Co-ordination 101 5.1.2. Relativisation 105 5.1.3. Complex Temporal and Locative Phrases 108 5.1.3.1. Complex Temporal Phrases 108 5.1.3.2. Complex Locative Phrases 109 5.1.4. Complementation 110 5.1.4.1. Subject Complements 110 5.1.4.2. Object Complements 112 5.1.4.3. Deletion of Complementiser 113 5.2. OTHER TYPES OF EXPANSIONS 113 5.2.1. Co-ordinate Sentences 113 5.2.1.1. Connections: kani and m- 113 5.2.1.2. Adversative Connection: merou 115 5.2.1.3. Reason: merou-in-ka 116 5.2.1.4. Alternation: ua 116 5.2.1.5. Repeated Action: the Verb aroatis 117 5.2.1.6. Purpose: mamwa 117 5.2.2. Conditional Sentences 118 5.2.3. Comparative Sentences 119 5.3. PRONOMINALISATION AND OTHER FEATURES OF DISCOURSE 120 5.3.1. Pronominalisation 120 5.3.2. Other Features of Discourse 121CHAPTER 6: TEXTS 123 6.1. MWATIKTÍK AND TERAMSUMAS 123 6.2. NAU 131Bibliography 134Map vii

Contents v

PL-507, Contents vAcknowledgements xi Abbreviations xii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 History, geography and demography of Aneityum 1 1.2 History of the Anejom language 4 1.3 Previous research and publications 7 1.4 The present study 8 1.4.1 Overview of Anejom grammar 8 1.4.1.1 Phonology and orthography 8 1.4.1.2 Major word classes 9 1.4.1.3 Phrase types 10 1.4.2 Conventions and abbreviations 11 2 Phonology 13 2.1 Overview 13 2.2 Consonants 14 2.2.1 Stops and the affricate 14 2.2.2 Fricatives 15 2.2.3 Nasals 16 2.2.4 Liquids 16 2.2.5 Semivowels 16 2.3 Vowels 17 2.3.1 Behaviour of the high vowels 18 2.3.2 Behaviour of the mid vowels 18 2.3.3 Behaviour of the front vowels 19 2.3.4 Behaviour of the low vowel 19 2.4 Phonotactics 19 2.4.1 Syllable and word structure 19 2.4.2 Distribution of vowels 21 2.4.3 Distribution of consonants 21 2.4.4 Gemination 23 2.4.5 A note on /f/ 24 2.5 Stress 24 2.6 Orthography 27 2.7 Morphophonemics 28 2.7.1 Prothesis of /i/ 28 2.7.2 Epenthesis of /r/ 29 2.7.3 Consonant-cluster simplification 29 2.7.4 Vowel harmony 31 2.8 The history of the Anejom phonemes 31 2.8.1 Consonants 31 2.8.2 Vowels 33 3 Nominal morphology and the noun phrase 36 3.1 Pronouns 36 3.1.1 Personal pronouns 36 3.1.1.1 Focal pronouns 36 3.1.1.2 Object pronouns 38 3.1.2 Interrogative pronouns 39 3.1.3 Demonstrative pronouns 40 3.2 Classes of nouns 42 3.2.1 Temporal nouns 42 3.2.2 Locative nouns 43 3.2.3 Personal nouns 43 3.2.4 Obligatorily possessed nouns 44 3.2.5 Optionally possessed nouns 44 3.2.6 Animate and inanimate nouns 45 3.3 Nominal derivation and inflection 46 3.3.1 Derivational morphology 46 3.3.2 The prefix n-/in- 48 3.3.3 Prefixes marking number 50 3.3.3.1 Plurality 50 3.3.3.2 Collectivity 51 3.3.4 Other nominal prefixes 52 3.3.5 Morphophonemics of nominal prefixes 52 3.3.6 The suffix -mii 53 3.4 The noun phrase 53 3.4.1. Overview of NP structure 53 3.4.2 Nominal pre-modification 54 3.4.3 Nominal post-modification 54 3.4.4 The coordinate noun phrase 57 3.5 Noun phrases with possessive constituents 57 3.5.1 Direct possession 57 3.5.2 Indirect possession 59 3.5.2.1 Food possession 59 3.5.2.2 Drink possession 60 3.5.2.3 Juice possession 60 3.5.2.4 Customary possession 61 3.5.2.5 Passive/subordinate possession 61 3.5.2.6 General possession 63 3.6 Nominalisation 63 3.7 A note on placenames 64 4 Verb morphology and the verb phrase 66 4.1 Subclasses of verbs 66 4.1.1 Major subclasses based on transitivity 67 4.1.2 Subclasses of intransitive verbs 69 4.1.2.1 Quantifiers 69 4.1.2.2 Pseudo-transitive verbs 70 4.1.3 Subclasses of transitive verbs 70 4.1.3.1 Reflexive verbs 71 4.1.3.2 Possessive verbs 71 4.1.3.3 Ditransitive verbs 72 4.1.3.4 Impersonal verbs 73 4.1.4 Two unusual verbs 73 4.1.4.1 The existential verb yek 73 4.1.4.2 The reflexive/reciprocal verb isp̃a- 75 4.2 Verb morphology 76 4.2.1 Derivational morphology 76 4.2.1.1 Initial vowels 76 4.2.1.2 Other derivational prefixes 79 4.2.2 Inflectional prefixes 80 4.2.3 Reduplication 82 4.2.4 Transitive and object suffixes 84 4.2.5 Directional/locational suffixes 85 4.2.6 Plurality 88 4.3 Subject-tense-aspect marking 89 4.3.1 The Nineteenth-century system 91 4.3.2 The modern system 92 4.3.2.1 Singular forms 93 4.3.2.2 Non-singular forms 94 4.3.2.3 Vowel assimilation 94 4.3.3 Trends 95 4.3.4 The echo-subject enclitic m- 96 4.4 Other Pre verbal particles 96 4.4.1 Aspect-mood markers 97 4.4.2 Adverbials₁ 101 4.4.3 Negative 101 4.4.4 Adverbials₂ 102 4.4.5 Morphophonemics of preverbal particles 103 4.5 Postverbal particles 103 5 Compounding 105 5.1 Nominal compounds 106 5.1.1 Structure 106 5.1.2 Morphophonemics 109 5.2 Verbal compounds 110 5.2.1 Structure 110 5.2.2 Morphophonemics 111 5.3 Fossilised compounds 112 6 Simple sentences 114 6.1 Basic clause structure: core arguments 114 6.1.1 Verbal clauses 114 6.1.2 Topicalisation 116 6.1.3 Other variations in phrase order 117 6.1.4 Verbless clauses 118 6.2 Structure of peripheral phrases 119 6.2.1 Case markers 119 6.2.2 Time and place phrases 121 6.2.2.1 Unmarked time and place phrases 121 6.2.2.2 Marked time and place phrases 123 6.2.3 Goal phrases 125 6.2.4 Beneficiaries and recipients 127 6.2.4.1 Unmarked indirect object 127 6.2.4.2 Marking of dative 128 6.2.4.3 Marking of benefactive 129 6.2.5 Other peripheral phrases 130 6.2.6 Case-markers: summary 131 6.3 The syntax of peripheral phrases 132 6.4 Interrogative clauses 133 6.4.1 Polar questions 133 6.4.2 Content questions 134 6.5 Imperative clauses 136 6.6 Alan clauses 138 7 Coordination and verb serialisation 140 7.1 Simple clause chaining 141 7.2 Conjunctions 143 7.2.1 The alternative conjunction ka 143 7.2.2 The adversative conjunctions jai and jam 144 7.3 The conjunctive aspect markers am and par 145 7.4 The echo-subject proclitic m- 148 7.4.1 Same-subject marking 148 7.4.2 Amen + m-: continuous aspect 150 7.5 Verb serialisation 150 7.6 Choice of conjoining strategies 152 7.6.1 Different subjects 152 7.6.2 Same subject 153 8 Subordination 155 8.1 Relative clauses 155 8.2 Locative clauses 156 8.3 Temporal clauses 157 8.4 Conditional clauses 159 8.5 Complements and quotative clauses 161 8.5.1 The quotative verb ika 161 8.5.2 Object complements 163 8.5.3 Subject complements 164 8.6 Other adverbial clauses 164 8.6.1 Purpose clauses 164 8.6.2 Reason clauses 165 9 Illustrative texts 166 9.1 Nismocop and Prawn 166 9.2 The early Aneityumese Christians 169 9.3 Laws about sharing fruit 176References 178

General Introduction iii

Contents vPreface vi Toktok i go fas viiiHow to use this dictionary x Organisation of the dictionary x Spelling and pronunciation x Format of entries xi Borrowed words xiv Conventions and abbreviations xiv References xviHao blong yusum diksonari ia xvii Ol pat blong diksonari ia xvii Ol leta mo ol saon blong olgeta xvii Hao mitufala i eksplenem mining blong ol toktok xviii Ol toktok we i kam long nara lanwis xx Sam spesel mak mo sam sotfala toktok xxi Ol buk we mitufala i tokbaot xxiii

CHAPTER 3: SIE VOCABULARY. 75 0. INTRODUCTION 75 0.1. Orthography 75 0.2. Abbreviations and conventions 76 1. SIE-ENGLISH 78 2. ENGLISH-SIE 115