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Irrigation practices that conserve water use have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions but may adversely affect turfgrass appearance. The purpose of this study was to identify irrigation practices and N fertilizers that will decrease carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4,), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions while evaluating turfgrass color and quality. In both years, supplemental rainfall (SRF) soil moisture content was higher than business as usual (BAU) irrigation and syringing (SYR). Higher soil moisture led to increased fluxes in both soil CO2 and soil N2O. In 2017, the SRF fluxed lower soil CO2 as soil moisture reached levels that restricted respiration. Soil moisture was also an important predictor of soil N2O flux with BAU and SRF having higher soil N2O fluxes. SRF produced the greenest turf from May to July, whereas SRY and SRF produced the greenest turf from August to October in 2016. Both BAU and SRF had the greenest turf in 2017. BAU had the highest turfgrass quality ratings in 2016 followed by SRF and SRY, respectively, whereas in 2017 SRF and SRY had higher turfgrass quality ratings. When adopting water conservation practices to reduce GHG emissions, soil moisture content and site-specific rainfall should be closely monitored to prevent overwatering.

The determination of water requirements for crops holds a crucial role in optimizing irrigation and enhancing agricultural productivity. However, identifying these needs remains a significant challenge due to the variety of factors influencing this decision, such as meteorological conditions, soil structure, and the phenological stages of each crop. In this study, we propose the design and development of a dedicated web-based irrigation advisory platform for arboriculture named ‘Soqia-Advice’. This platform will provide services to farmers, advisors, and decision-makers. The proposed methodology is based on four main steps: (1) need assessments; (2) definition of functionalities to fulfill these needs; (3) design of the overall architecture and the conceptual data model; and (4) implementation of key features of the module dedicated to farmers. The prototype of the “Farmer” module was tested on a farm in Azrou city, Morocco, as a case study. Seven-day weather forecasts were seamlessly integrated using the Weatherbit API. Additionally, the irrigation schedule was accurately displayed, ensuring efficient water management. Functionality tests were conducted on each menu to ensure the seamless and reliable operation of all planned features. The results were rigorously assessed to ensure that each feature aligned with the identified needs.

Knowledge of how certain crops respond to water stress is one of the prerequisites for choosing the best variety and best management practices to maximize crop water productivity (WPc). The selection of a more efficient protocol for managing irrigation depths throughout the cultivation cycle and in the maturation process at the end of the growth period for each sugarcane variety can maximize bioethanol productivity and WPc for bioethanol, sugar and biomass, in addition to the total energy captured by the sugarcane canopy in the form of dry biomass. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of four irrigation depths and four water deficit intensities on the maturation phase for eight sugarcane varieties under drip irrigation, analyzing the responses related to WPc for bioethanol, sugar and biomass. These experiments were conducted at the University of São Paulo. The plots were positioned in three randomized blocks, and the treatments were distributed in a factorial scheme (4 × 8 × 4). The treatments involved eight commercial varieties of sugarcane and included four water replacement levels and four water deficits of increasing intensity in the final phase of the crop season. It was found that for each variety of sugarcane, there was an optimal combination of irrigation management strategies throughout the cycle and during the maturation process. The RB966928 variety resulted in the best industrial bioethanol yield (68.7 L·Mg−1), WPc for bioethanol (0.97 L·m−3) and WPc for sugar (1.71 kg·m−3). The energy of the aerial parts partitioned as sugar had a direct positive correlation with the availability of water in the soil for all varieties. The RB931011 variety showed the greatest potential for converting water into shoots with an energy of 1.58 GJ·ha−1·mm−1, while the NCo376 variety had the lowest potential at 1.32 GJ·ha−1·mm−1. The productivity of first-generation bioethanol had the highest values per unit of planted area for the greatest water volumes applied and transpired by each variety; this justifies keeping soil moisture at field capacity until harvesting time only for WR100 water replacement level with a maximum ethanol potential of 13.27 m3·ha−1.

In the contemporary agricultural landscape, agriculture faces four pressing demands: competitiveness, ensuring food security for a growing population, environmental sustainability, and providing farmers with acceptable living conditions. To meet this global challenge, digital technologies represent a major avenue for innovation and development towards modernized digital agriculture. In this context, irrigation advisory platforms have proven to be transformational tools for both farmers and policymakers, offering insights into the appropriate crop water requirements. This article presents a benchmarking analysis of around 20 professional irrigation advisory platforms. The methodology involves selecting 20 platforms based on accessibility ensuring geographical characteristic diversity. Our findings highlight key criteria shaping the ecosystem of such platforms, including the services offered and their objectives, the types of covered crops, the target users, the form, as well as the source, the availability of the platform, and the variety of data utilized. Lastly, we discuss the main conclusions drawn from our analysis and provide insights into the challenges and future perspectives of irrigation advisory platforms in enhancing agricultural practices and sustainability.

Ongoing investments in irrigation technologies highlight the need to accurately estimate the longevity and magnitude of water savings at the watershed level to avoid the paradox of irrigation efficiency. This paradox arises when irrigation pumping exceeds crop water demand, leading to excess water that is not recovered by the watershed. Comprehensive water accounting from farm to watershed scales is challenging due to spatial variability and inadequate socio-hydrological data. We hypothesize that water savings are short term, as prior studies show rapid recharge responses to surface changes. Precise estimation of these time scales and water savings can aid water managers making decisions. In this study, we examined water savings at three 65-hectare sites in Nebraska with diverse soil textures, management practices, and groundwater depths. Surface geophysics effectively identified in-field variability in soil water content and water flux. A one-dimensional model showed an average 80% agreement with chloride mass balance estimates of deep drainage. Our findings indicate that groundwater response times are short and water savings are modest (1–3 years; 50–900 mm over 10 years) following a 120 mm/year reduction in pumping. However, sandy soils with shallow groundwater show minimal potential for water savings, suggesting limited effectiveness of irrigation efficiency programs in such regions.

While the advantageous effects of using magnetic and electromagnetic treatment (ET) of brackish and saline waters on soil salinity reduction in the root zone were largely reported, more studies are needed to answer questions about the soil salt leaching efficiency and the effect of the duration of the exposure to ET. For this aim, pot experiments were conducted using an Aqua-4DR physical water treatment device. The first experiment included two trials. The first trial considered five concentrations: C0:1.0; C1:4.5; C2:9; C3:13.5; and C4:18 dS m−1. The results revealed that the volume and the salt concentrations of the drained waters were significantly higher under irrigation with ET saline waters than those provided by untreated waters. The drained fraction of water varied from 20 to 26% under irrigation with untreated water and increased from 33 to 56% under irrigation with electro-magnetized water, indicating an improvement in the salt leaching. The second trial was carried out with different irrigation doses. The results showed that the higher the dose, the more obvious and significant the ET effect. The different treatment durations of water exposure revealed that the volume and salinity of drained water significantly increase as the ET duration increases. An increase in the ET duration also induces an increase in the soil water content of around 2.5%. Based on the experimental findings, we may conclude that the ET of saline water can reduce the adverse effect of salinity on the top soil, but these leached salts are carried away in depth and there is no concentration limit of water to the effect of the ET.

This study was conducted to predict the grain yield of a maize crop from easy-to-measure growth parameters and select the best treatment combinations of biochar, inorganic fertilizer, and irrigation for the maize grain yield and water use efficiency (WUE) using the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) technique. Two rates of biochar (0 and 20 t ha−1) and fertilizer (0 and 300 kg ha−1) were applied to the soil, with maize crop planted, and subjected to deficit irrigation at 60, 80, and 100% of full irrigation amounts (FIA). Maize growth parameters (number of leaves—NL, leaf area—LA, leaf area index—LAI, and plant height—PH) were measured weekly. The results showed that the developed principal component regression (PCR) from the easy-to-measure growth parameters were strong and moderate in predicting the maize yield and WUE, with coefficient of determination; r2 values of 0.92 and 0.56, respectively. Using the PCA technique, the integration of irrigation with the least amount of water (60% FAI) with biochar (20 t ha−1) and fertilizer (300 kg ha−1) produced the highest ranking on grain yield and water use efficiency. This optimization technique showed that with the adoption of the integrative approach, 40% of irrigation water could be saved for other agricultural purposes

Wheat landraces are locally adapted populations that are suitable for low-input agronomic management and constraining pedo-climatic conditions. The productivity of landraces under high-input and optimal conditions is usually lower than modern wheat varieties. The present study compared the response of Sicilian wheat landraces and modern varieties to organic management, including organic fertilization, and conventional management, including mineral fertilization and chemical weed control, under rainfed condition and supplementary irrigation in a field trial conducted on a xerofluvent soil in a semiarid Mediterranean climate. Modern varieties were on average more productive than landraces, although certain landraces achieved comparable yields, in particular under organic management. The increase in grain yield under conventional management in comparison with the organic management was higher for modern varieties than landraces. The loss of productivity in rainfed conditions was lower for landraces compared to modern varieties. The grain quality traits were similar between landraces and modern varieties and in both cases the conventional management led to an improvement of the traits. These findings highlight the resilience and adaptability of traditional wheat landraces to low-input agricultural systems and offer valuable insights into improving the sustainability and productivity of wheat production in Mediterranean environments.

In this in vitro study, we aimed to evaluate and compare the antibacterial efficacy of a novel erbium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet laser modality, shock wave enhanced emission of photoacoustic streaming (SWEEPS), ultrasonically activated irrigation (UAI), and single needle irrigation (SNI) against old bacterial biofilm. A two-week-old Enterococcus faecalis biofilm was cultivated on transversal dentinal discs made from the middle third of the roots of single-rooted, single-canal premolars. Biofilm growth was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). The dentine samples were randomly distributed into three experimental groups and one control group based on the irrigation protocol used: Group 1, SWEEPS; Group 2, UAI; and Group 3, SNI. The root canals were irrigated with a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution. Antibacterial efficacy was evaluated quantitatively through bacterial culture and qualitatively through CLSM and SEM. Both SWEEPS and UAI demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in Enterococcus faecalis colony-forming units (CFUs) (p < 0.001), while SNI did not show a statistically significant reduction (p = 0.553). No significant difference was observed between the efficacy of SWEEPS and UAI (p > 0.05). The SWEEPS and UAI techniques were equally effective in eliminating mature E. faecalis biofilm.

Green structures, such as green roofs or green façades, are great examples of climate change mitigation. Their impact is mainly focused on roofs in the area of overheating reduction. In this paper, initial measurement results of a green façade experimental test setup are provided. The green façade uses an innovative board from recycled materials with vegetation rooted directly on the board. The tested green façade is divided into three segments. These segments differ from each other in their watering regimes, which are crucial for cooling effectiveness. Watering operates with the assistance of gravity; water flows from the top gutter through the boards. In this paper, these three segments are compared to each other with respect to temperatures on the surface of a regular external thermal insulation composite system façade (ETICS) during two summer days. The green façade showed an impact on the temperature in the ventilated air gap, where the temperature is almost the same as the outdoor air temperature in the morning with direct solar radiation on the façade and lower than the outdoor air temperature in the afternoon. At the peaks, the surface temperatures within the air cavity surface are up to 8 °C lower than those on a new white ETICS coating. This demonstrates a cooling potential, although the surface temperatures are always higher than the outdoor air temperatures during daylight hours.

The forecasting of evapotranspiration (ET) in some water-stressed regions remains a major challenge due to the lack of reliable and sufficient historical datasets. For efficient water balance, ET remains the major component and its proper forecasting and quantifying is of the utmost importance. This study utilises the 18-year (2001 to 2018) MODIS ET obtained from a drought-affected irrigation scheme in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. This study conducts a teleconnection evaluation between the satellite-derived evapotranspiration (ET) time series and other related remotely sensed parameters such as the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI), Normalised Difference Drought Index (NDDI), and precipitation (P). This comparative analysis was performed by adopting the Mann–Kendall (MK) test, Sequential Mann–Kendall (SQ-MK) test, and Multiple Linear Regression methods. Additionally, the ET detailed time-series analysis with the Keiskamma River streamflow (SF) and monthly volumes of the Sandile Dam, which are water supply sources close to the study area, was performed using the Wavelet Analysis, Breaks for Additive Seasonal and Trend (BFAST), Theil–Sen statistic, and Correlation statistics. The MODIS-obtained ET was then forecasted using the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) for a period of 5 years and four modelling performance evaluations such as the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and the Pearson Correlation Coefficient (R) were used to evaluate the model performances. The results of this study proved that ET could be forecasted using these two time-series modeling tools; however, the ARIMA modelling technique achieved lesser values according to the four statistical modelling techniques employed with the RMSE for the ARIMA = 37.58, over the ANN = 44.18; the MAE for the ARIMA = 32.37, over the ANN = 35.88; the MAPE for the ARIMA = 17.26, over the ANN = 24.26; and for the R ARIMA = 0.94 with the ANN = 0.86. These results are interesting as they give hope to water managers at the irrigation scheme and equally serve as a tool to effectively manage the irrigation scheme.

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is the leading cause of surgical site infections (SSIs) and is capable of biofilm growth on implanted foreign devices. The use of surgical irrigation solutions has become a common strategy to combat bacterial contamination events that occur during surgery. Despite their antimicrobial activity, SSI rates remain consistent, suggesting that low-level contamination persists. In these cases, circulating neutrophils must traffic from the blood to contamination sites to aid in bacterial clearance. The influence of irrigation solutions on neutrophils’ ability to engage with bacteria has not been explored. The effects of three commonly used irrigation solutions: Xperience (sodium lauryl sulfate), Irrisept (chlorhexidine gluconate), and Betadine® (povidone-iodine) on nascent S. aureus biofilms alone and in the presence of human neutrophils were assessed at manufactured and diluted concentrations. All three solutions, at a 10% dilution, inhibited bacterial growth as demonstrated by culture assays and confocal video microscopy of bacterial aggregate formation. The effects of 10% dilutions of each of these solutions on neutrophil membrane integrity (by flow cytometry and propidium iodide staining) and motility (by confocal video microscopy of neutrophil track length) were investigated with differing outcomes for each irrigation solution. At this concentration only Irrisept preserved neutrophil membrane integrity and motility. Together, this study examines an overlooked aspect of surgical irrigation solutions by investigating their impact on innate immunity and highlights the feasibility of formulations wherein solution effectiveness is complemented by neutrophil function to reduce risks of infection.

This study examined the agricultural water resource shortage and abundant ditch water resources in the Yinbei region of Ningxia. The effects of ditch water and Yellow River irrigation on the saline–alkali characteristics of soil and paddy were investigated using field monitoring and indoor detection methods in Pingluo County, Ningxia (106°31′ E, 38°51′ N). In addition to monitoring ditch water, four treatment groups were established: direct ditch water irrigation (T1), mixed ditch water and Yellow River water irrigation (T2), alternate ditch water and Yellow River water irrigation (T3), and irrigation solely with Yellow River water (CK). The results show the following: (1) The salinity of ditch water samples collected from the experimental field during the rice growth period was less than 1.60 g/L, and the pH of the samples was lower than 8.62; thus, they were classified as mildly brackish water. The application of ditch water irrigation did not result in soil saline–alkali aggravation and the accumulation of excessive amounts of heavy metals in soils and paddies in Pingluo County, Ningxia. (2) The rice yields for the CK, T1, T2, and T3 treatments were 10,437.5, 8318.4, 9182.1, and 9016.2 kg/hm2, respectively. Compared with Yellow River irrigation, the rice yields for the T1, T2, and T3 treatments were 20.3, 12.1, and 13.6% lower than that of CK, respectively, with minimal differences observed among them. Hence, under the condition of a water resource shortage in the Yellow River region, ditch water can be appropriately applied for mixed or alternate irrigation to ensure food security. This research has revealed the influences of ditch water irrigation on the saline–alkali properties of soil and the heavy metal contents of paddies.

One of the oldest oilseed crops is sesame, which is mainly cultivated due to its valuable oleic/linolenic fatty acid ratio. The application of precise irrigation and fertilisation is crucial to ensure the continuity and productivity of sesame production, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. This study aimed to determine the effect of drip irrigation and nitrogen levels on sesame’s oil and fatty acid composition. For this purpose, four nitrogen doses (N0: 0 kg ha−1, N30: 30 kg ha−1, N60: 60 kg ha−1 and N90: 90 kg ha−1) and three different irrigation water levels (I50, I75 and I100, which correspond to 50, 75 and 100% evaporation levels from the evaporation of the Class A pan) were applied. The highest oleic acid content (43.06%) was obtained for the I75N90 treatment. In the case of linoleic fatty acid, the greatest value (43.66%) was for I50N0 treatment. The effects of irrigation and nitrogen doses on oleic acid and linoleic acid content were inverse of each other. An increase in applied irrigation water increased the linoleic acid content. However, it caused a decrease in oleic acid content. Increasing the nitrogen dose increased the oleic acid content and caused a decrease in linoleic acid content. Furthermore, this study showed that the I50N60 treatment (50% Epan and a rate of 60 kg N ha−1) is the most effective for achieving high grain and oil yields in sesame cultivation. The results obtained provide practical guidance for farmers in sesame cultivation.

This study addresses the need for sustainable and energy-efficient agricultural practices by integrating turbine systems into greenhouse irrigation setups that utilize water from storage basins or ponds. The purpose is to harness excess pressure to generate electricity, enhancing overall system efficiency. This study involves designing a scalable turbine system that adapts to different greenhouse sizes and water pressure conditions. Key methods include a novel 3D design and implementation of a turbine outlet, using CAD modeling and high-precision 3D printing, and the experimental characterization of the system’s power–pressure relationship and pressure losses. Results demonstrate that a single Banki-type turbine generates nearly 12 W at a maximum pressure of 1.4 bar, 0.98 m3/h of flow, pressure 92% loss performance, and 32% efficiency. Scalability tests in the study case reveal that up to eight turbines can be installed in series without dropping below the critical pressure threshold, that is, above 0.6–0.7 bar, the minimum pressure expected for adequate irrigation, and the turbines collectively produce around 60 W, considering the pressure losses with respect to production. These findings confirm the system’s potential to enhance sustainability and energy efficiency in greenhouse operations. This study lays a foundation for future research to optimize 3D-printed components, integrate renewable energy sources, and conduct long-term performance studies, aiming to further improve the system’s applicability and performance in agricultural settings.

Monitoring future irrigation water demand as a part of agricultural interventions is crucial to ensure food security. In this study, the impact of climate change on paddy cultivation in Brunei is investigated, focusing on the Wasan rice scheme. This research aims to project irrigation water requirement (IWR) and crop water requirement (CWR) or the main and off season using the WEAP-MABIA model. Historical data analysis over the past 30 years and future projections up to 2100 are employed to assess potential impacts. An ensemble of statistically downscaled climate models, based on seven CMIP6 GCMs under shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) (SSP245, SSP370, and SSP585), was utilised to project the IWR and CWR. Using downscaled CMIP6 data, three future periods were bias-corrected using quantile delta mapping (QDM) for 2020–2046 (near future), 2047–2073 (mid future), and 2074–2100 (far future). The WEAP-MABIA model utilises a dual crop coefficient approach to evaluate crop evapotranspiration (ETc), a critical factor in computing IWR. Results indicate that changes in future temperatures will lead to higher average ETc. Consequently, this results in elevated demands in irrigation water during the off season, and it is especially prominent in high-emission scenarios (SSP370 and SSP585). While the main season experiences a relatively stable or slightly increasing IWR trend, the off season consistently shows a decreasing trend in IWR. Moreover, the off season benefits from substantial rainfall increases, effectively reducing IWR despite the rise in both maximum and minimum temperatures. This study also highlights some recommendations for implementing possible improvements in irrigation management to address the effects of climate change on rice cultivation in the region. Future investigation should focus on enhancing crop yield predictions under climate change by integrating a dynamic crop growth model that adjusts for changing crop coefficient (Kc) values.

Microplastic (MP) pollution in agriculture is garnering growing concern due to its potential detrimental impact on soil properties and crop growth, particularly affecting staple food crops such as rice. Irrigation plays a crucial role in the migration of MPs. However, limited research has focused on how different irrigation modes affect the migration of MPs in paddy fields. To simulate real-world conditions, in this experiment, two different irrigation modes were set: shallow–frequent irrigation (FWI, I0) and controlled irrigation (CI, I1). The experiment also included treatments with and without duckweed (D0 and D1, respectively), as well as treatments with and without MPs (M0 and M1). This resulted in a total of eight treatments: I0M0D0, I0M0D1, I1M0D0, I1M0D1, I0M1D0, I0M1D1, I1M1D0, and I1M1D1. Our findings indicated that compared to CI, FWI significantly increased the MP concentration in the leakage but reduced the numbers of MPs in the first soil layer and adhered by duckweed. Notably, dry–wet cycles under CI induced soil cracking, and the MP concentrations in cracked areas were significantly higher than those of crack-free soil. Moreover, compared with the MP-free treatment, MP treatments significantly influenced rice root growth, such as enhancing the average root diameter by 13.44%, root volume by 46.87%, root surface area by 30.81%, and biomass aboveground by 26.13%, respectively. The abundance of some microorganisms was also significantly influenced by the relative mobility (RM) of MPs. Furthermore, the root length was positively correlated with Planctomycetota. Meanwhile, Actinobacteriota was negatively correlated with the root surface area, root volume, and branch number, and Bacteroidota was negatively correlated with the number of root tips. However, further research is needed to elucidate how MPs influence microorganisms and, in turn, affect rice root growth.

Almond cultivation has a long-standing tradition on the island of Majorca, traditionally practiced under rainfed conditions. Currently, new plantations are established with irrigation; however, due to present conditions and the impacts of climate change, water availability is limited. The Government of the Balearic Islands permits a maximum water supply of 3000 m3 ha−1 per year for almond cultivation. In this study, a 6-year field trial was conducted to investigate the adaptation of fourteen almond cultivars obtained from different research centers under deficit irrigation practices in the soil and climatic conditions of Majorca Island. The cultivars had a significant effect on trunk cross-sectional area TCSA, cumulative almond in-shell yield, cumulative kernel yield, yield efficiency, and shelling percentage. The ‘Marta’ and ‘Tarraco’ cultivars exhibited the highest TCSA values. Regarding cumulative almond in-shell yield, ‘Glorieta’ and ‘Constantí’ produced the highest yields, whereas the lowest yields were observed in ‘Mardía’ and ‘Tarraco’. In terms of shelling percentage, ‘Ferragnès’ exhibited the highest value. Kernel quality parameters were cultivar-specific. Additionally, oleic acid content was strongly negatively correlated with linoleic acid content. All cultivars exhibited an unsaturated fatty acid content exceeding 90%, with ‘Masbovera’ showing the highest value.

This study examines the impact of line spacing (X: 24 m, Y: 9 m, Z: 6.5 m) and orientation to tree lines on the growth, yield, and quality of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) in a temperate, irrigated agroforestry system (2 ha) in Szarvas, Hungary. Three sampling locations were distinguished between the east and west oriented tree lines: the north (N) side, middle (M) strip, and south (S) side of the tree lines. The highest red clovers were observed in the 6.5 m spacing (mean height 69.3 ± 7.2 cm), although yields were similar across 24 m, 9 m, and 6.5 m spacings (2.9 t ha−1, 2.3 t ha−1, and 2.7 t ha−1 dry matter, respectively). Orientation significantly influenced all forage quality parameters, with the north side showing earlier developmental stages and higher proportions of immature flowers (41–59%). Managing the spatial arrangement of red clover in agroforestry systems can help optimize forage quality by mitigating variations in plant maturity.

The utilization of treated wastewater can enhance the crops’ irrigation efficacy by offering an extra source of water and nutrients for agricultural purposes. This methodology helps alleviate the pressure on conventional water resources and can be a sustainable strategy to address the challenges of water scarcity. However, it is essential to ensure that wastewater is properly treated to meet quality and safety standards before its application to agricultural crops. This study focuses on exploring the reuse of wastewater from microalgae production and its impact on Pelargonium × hortorum growth during two seasons (autumn and spring). The established treatments were as follows: tap water (control 1); 100% IW—inlet wastewater (control 2); 100% OW—outlet from the reactor; 75% OW + 25% W—75% outlet from the reactor and 25% tap water; and 50% OW + 50%W—50% outlet from the reactor and 50% tap water. Irrigation with wastewater in autumn did not have a significant negative effect (p > 0.05) on plant height, plant diameter, leaf dry weight, roots, or total dry weight, and it was comparable to the control in all applied percentages. On the other hand, wastewater irrigation during spring had a meaningful positive (p < 0.05) impact on plant growth compared to the control. These wastewater resources have a high concentration of nutrients, making them a valuable source of essential and/or beneficial elements. The levels of nutrients such as NO3− range from 144.08 ppm to 82.10 ppm, PO43− ranges from 14.14 ppm to 7.11 ppm, and K+ ranges from 36.83 ppm to 29.71 ppm. Therefore, the obtained results support the viability and effectiveness of using wastewater after microalgae production in agriculture to reduce water demand, mitigate water pollution, and substitute chemical fertilizer input, contributing to more sustainable agricultural practices. These results, with more detailed evaluations, would be applicable to other related plant species and are even applicable to the commercial production sectors.

Selecting uniform and healthy seedlings is important to ensure that a certain level of production can be reliably achieved in a plant factory. The objectives of this study were to investigate the potential of non-destructive image analysis for predicting the leaf area and shoot fresh weight of lettuce and to determine the feasibility of using a simple image analysis to select robust seedlings that can produce a uniform and dependable yield of lettuce in a plant factory. To vary the range of the leaf area and shoot fresh weight of lettuce seedlings, we applied two- and three-day irrigation intervals during the period of seedling production and calculated the projected canopy size (PCS) from the top-view images of the lettuce seedlings, although there were no significant growth differences between the irrigation regimes. A high correlation was identified between the PCS and shoot fresh weight for the lettuce seedlings during the period of seedling production, with a coefficient of determination exceeding 0.8. Therefore, the lettuce seedlings were classified into four grades (A–D) based on their PCS values calculated at transplanting. In the early stages of cultivation after transplanting, there were differences in the lettuce growth among the four grades; however, at the harvest (28 days after transplanting), there was no significant difference in the lettuce yield between grades A–C, with the exception of grade D. The lettuce seedlings in grades A–C exhibited the anticipated yield (150 g/plant) at the harvest time. In the correlation between the PCS and leaf area or the shoot fresh weight of lettuce during the cultivation period after transplanting and the entire cultivation period, the R2 values were higher than 0.9, confirming that PCS can be used to predict lettuce growth with greater accuracy. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the PCS calculation from the top-view images, a straightforward image analysis technique, can be employed to non-destructively and accurately predict lettuce leaf area and shoot fresh weight, and the seedlings with the potential to yield above a certain level after transplanting can be objectively and accurately selected based on PCS.

Wastewater reuse is a proven strategy to mitigate water stress in drought-prone regions. However, this practice is still limited due to high implementation costs, regulatory hurdles, and limited public acceptance. In regions with low reclaim rates, a thorough evaluation of the potential for reuse is needed to support decision-making, focusing on opportunities that address both low-hanging fruit and high-leverage projects. This paper introduces a streamlined, data-centric methodology for assessing wastewater reuse potential, adaptable to various regional contexts. The methodology involves comprehensive data collection and processing to evaluate wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) capabilities and identify potential users, allowing the prioritisation of case studies based on demand alignment. Different treatment and distribution systems are analysed to match WWTP capabilities with user needs, considering volume, quality, and infrastructure requirements. Cost analysis incorporates capital expenditure (CAPEX), operational expenditure (OPEX) and unit costs using novel cost functions for treatment and distribution. Risk analysis adheres to WHO methodology to ensure safety and sustainability. A case study in the Lisbon and Oeste areas in Portugal validates this approach, revealing key insights into the potential and economic viability of water reuse. By comparing tariffs and costs associated with different reuse scenarios, this paper offers benchmarks for the economic feasibility of reuse projects.

Under the background of the worsening global food and water crisis, efficient agricultural practices have become increasingly important. This study investigated the impact of different irrigation and cultivation modes on rice growth parameters, gas exchange, rice yield components, and water footprints in Jiangsu, China. Four treatments were employed in a randomized complete block design with three replications: (i) transplanted rice with frequent shallow irrigation (T-FSI), (ii) transplanted rice with rain-catching and controlled irrigation (T-RCCI), (iii) direct-seeded rice with frequent shallow irrigation (D-FSI), (iv) and direct-seeded rice with rain-catching and controlled irrigation (D-RCCI). The results revealed that the D-RCCI treatment significantly improved growth and physiological parameters. The D-FSI treatment drastically increased rice yield whereas T-RCCI increased the stem bending resistance and reduced lodging risk. The water footprint analysis showed significant water savings by optimized management practices. Compared to T-FSI, the T-RCCI, D-FSI, and D-RCCI treatments reduced the blue-green water footprint by 33%, 25%, and 25%, respectively. Additionally, water production efficiency increased by 13%, 106%, and 154% for T-RCCI, D-FSI, and D-RCCI respectively. The water footprint per unit yield of T-RCCI, D-FSI, and D-RCCI treatments was significantly reduced by 12%, 5,3%, and 63% compared to T-FSI. Overall, D-RCCI is the optimal strategy for rice cultivation in Jiangsu province and similar climatic areas due to its positive impact on yield, water savings, and environmental benefits.

Nitrogen (N) fertilization plays a pivotal role in the nitrogen transport process and yield formation of field-grown Tibetan barley (Hordeum vulgare L., qingke in Chinese); however, little is known about its interaction with irrigation regimes. Here, we performed a control experiment to investigate the effects of irrigation regimes (primary irrigation and double irrigation, mentioned as W1 and W2) and N levels (0, 90, 120, and 150 kg ha−1, mentioned as N0, N9, N12, and N15) on the nitrogen accumulation, translocation, and utilization of Tibetan barley in the Tibetan Plateau during the spring barley seasons in 2022. The results showed that the highest yield (6242.28 kg ha−1) and aboveground biomass (12,354.13 kg ha−1 for anthesis; 15,827.9 kg ha−1 for maturity) were achieved in W2N15 as compared to other treatments. The maximum grain N accumulation (117.66 kg ha−1), the N translocation (54.16 kg ha−1), and the post-anthesis N accumulation (63.5 kg ha−1) were achieved in the W1N15 treatment. The N utilization efficiency increased with irrigation frequency and decreased with N application; however, the conclusion given by the N agronomic efficiency is contrary to this trend. The grain yield had significant positive correlations with the grain N accumulation (W1: r = 0.98; W2: r = 0.97) and N translocation (W1: r = 0.84; W2: r = 0.94), but significant negative correlations with the N harvest index (W1: r = −0.95; W2: r = −0.95) and N utilization efficiency (W1: r = −0.9; W2: r = −0.85). The path analysis revealed that the factors related to N utilization (β = 0.875) and the factors related to N translocation (β = −1.426) were the significant direct contributors towards grain yield. The influence of N application (total effect = 0.922) on the grain yield was much stronger than that of the irrigation regime (total effect = 0.324). Our findings can guide future efforts in designing sustainable water and N fertilizer management strategies for Tibetan barley in the Tibetan Plateau.

Brazil, a leading rice producer globally, faces challenges in systematically mapping its diverse rice fields due to varying cropping systems, climates, and planting calendars. Existing rice mapping methods often rely on complex techniques like deep learning or microwave imagery, posing limitations for large-scale mapping. This study proposes a novel approach utilizing Sentinel-2 spectral–temporal metrics (STMs) in conjunction with a random forest classifier for rice paddy mapping. By extracting diverse STMs and training both regional and global classifiers, we validated the method across independent areas. While regional models tended to overestimate rice areas, the global model effectively reduced discrepancies between our data and the reference maps, achieving an overall classifier accuracy exceeding 80%. Despite the need for further refinement to address confusion with other crops, STM exhibits promise for national-scale rice paddy mapping in Brazil.

Climate change is making water management increasingly difficult due to rising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall patterns, impacting crop water availability and irrigation needs. This study investigated the ability of machine learning and satellite remote sensing to monitor water status and physiology. The research focused on predicting different eco-physiological parameters in an irrigated peach orchard under Mediterranean conditions, utilizing multispectral reflectance data and machine learning algorithms (extreme gradient boosting, random forest, support vector regressor); ground data were acquired from 2021 to 2023 in the south of Italy. The random forest model outperformed in predicting net assimilation (R2 = 0.61), while the support vector machine performed best in predicting electron transport rate (R2 = 0.57), Fv/Fm ratio (R2 = 0.66) and stomatal conductance (R2 = 0.56). Random forest also proved to be the most effective in predicting stem water potential (R2 = 0.62). These findings highlighted the potential of integrating machine learning techniques with high-resolution satellite imagery to assist farmers in monitoring crop health and optimizing irrigation practices, thereby addressing the challenges determined by climate change.

Salt damage affects crop yields and wastes limited water resources. Implementing water-saving and salt-controlling strategies along with amendments can enhance crop productivity and support the development of salinized soils towards. In this study, we used “Jia Liang 0987” maize as the test material, and a two-factor split block design was executed to investigate the effects of synergistic management of irrigation volume (W1: 360 mm, W2: 450 mm, and W3: 540 mm) and amendments (T1: microbial agent 816.33 kg·hm−2, T2: humic acid 6122.45 kg·hm−2, T3: microsilica powder 612.25 kg·hm−2) on water, salt and soil indices, and growth characteristics. The combination of 450 mm of irrigation with humic acid (W2T2) or with microsilica powder (W2T3) significantly lowered the groundwater level by 0.24 m and 0.19 m, respectively. The soil mineralization was significantly reduced by 2.60 g/L and 1.75 g/L with W2T2 and 540 mm of irrigation combined with humic acid (W3T2), respectively. The soil moisture content increased with depth and over time, showing the greatest improvement with W2T2. This combination also showed optimal results for pH and total salt, organic matter, available phosphorus, quick-acting potassium, Cl−, and SO42− contents. W2T2 and W3T2 improved soil field capacity and HCO3− contents, and significantly increased total nitrogen and phosphorus content, improving the soil nutrient grade. W2T2 showed the greatest maize plant height (323.67 cm) and stem thickness (21.54 mm for diameter), enhancing above-ground dry biomass (72,985.49 kg·hm−2) and grain yield (14,646.57 kg·hm−2). Implementing water-saving and salt-controlling strategies with amendments effectively improved soil fertility and crop yield in salinized soils, and the amendments factor played a major role. In saline–alkali soils in the northwest of China, 450 mm of irrigation combined with humic acid is especially helpful for enhancing soil fertility and maize productivity.

Soil salinity is the major constraint for cropping system intensification in the coastal region of the Ganges Delta. Salts build up on the soil surface, as well as in the crop root zone, due to the capillary rise in underground brackish water, hampering the growth and development of crops and resulting in mortality and low yields. We studied, for three years (2020–2021 to 2022–2023), the effect of conservation agricultural practices (zero tillage planting, crop residue recycling, and crop rotations) on the major soil properties (soil salinity and organic carbon status), crop performance (yield and economics), and water footprint. Conservation agricultural practices significantly reduce soil salinity, build soil organic carbon, reduce water footprint, and increase the profitability of cropping systems compared to tillage-intensive conventional practices. Under conventional agriculture, the sole cropping of rice is more profitable than double and triple cropping systems.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play a crucial role in the resilience of plants subjected to water deficit. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of AMF from a semi-arid and humid ecosystem, applied as inocula (two monospecific and two consortia), and three irrigation doses (100%, 85%, and 70%) on tomato plant growth. A factorial experiment in a completely randomized design was used. Colonization with monospecific inocula (EH and ES) showed contrasting differences at 85% and 100% irrigation rates. With gradually increasing irrigation rates, colonization decreased with the CH consortium, while the CS consortium showed similar colonization levels at all three irrigation rates. AMF from humid environments (monospecific or in a consortium) did not affect equatorial diameter when the irrigation rate was reduced by 15%, while polar diameter was similar at all three irrigation rates. Inocula from the semi-arid ecosystem promoted the greatest equatorial and polar diameters at the 100% irrigation dose. The monospecific inoculum of C. etunicatum (ES) showed great potential to promote plant growth and development at the 100% irrigation dose and could be a biotechnological tool to improve tomato yield under conditions similar to those of this study.

This study investigated the performance of four different fertigation scheduling methods in greenhouse-grown, drip-fertigated Chinese chive (Allium tuberosum) cultivation. These methods were based on (1) the use of a timer (control), (2) accumulated radiation (AR), (3) estimated evapotranspiration (ET), and (4) measured soil moisture (SM), with fertilizer application proportional to the supplied water. These methods caused considerable variations in the amount of fertigation water (I), soil volumetric water content (θ), and bulk soil electrical conductivity, leading to variations in the harvested fresh weight (FW). The SM-based method maintained the target θ and achieved the highest irrigation water productivity (WP; the ratio of FW to ΣI), while the ET-based method led to insufficient I and FW loss. The AR-based method over-fertigated, but no FW loss was observed. Compared to the WP of the control, those of the SM-, ET-, and AR-based methods varied by +1%, −14%, and −57%, respectively. Different fertigation methods did not significantly affect leaf photosynthetic capacity, but under-fertigation caused a significant decline in stomatal conductance. Compared to the ET- and AR-based methods, the SM-based method seemed to have a lower risk of under-/over-fertigation because I in the SM-based method could be adjusted according to θ.

Sprinkler irrigation is widely used in agriculture because it allows for rational use of water. However, it can induce negative effects of soil erosion and of surface waterproofing. The scholars of these phenomena use the numerical integration of the equation of motion, but if there was an analytical solution, the study would be facilitated, and this solution could be used as software for regulating sprinklers. Therefore, in this study, the solution of the differential equation of the flight of droplets produced by sprinklers in the absence of wind was developed. The impossibility of an exact analytical solution to the ballistic problem due to the variability of the drag coefficient of the droplets is known; therefore, to find the integrals in closed form, the following were adopted: a new formula for the drag coefficient; a projection of the dynamic’s equation onto two local axes, one tangent and one normal to the trajectory and some linearization. To reduce the errors caused by the latter, the linearization coefficients and their calculation formulas were introduced through multiple non-linear regressions with respect to the jet angle and the initial droplet speed. The analytical modeling obtained, valid for jet angles from 10° to 40°, was compared to the exact numerical solution, showing, for the total travel distance, a high accuracy with a mean relative error MRE of 1.8% ± 1.4%. Even the comparison with the experimental data showed high accuracy with an MRE of 2.5% ±1.1%. These results make the analytical modeling capable of reliably calculating the travel distance, the flight time, the maximum trajectory height, the final fall angle and the ground impact speed. Since the proposed analytical modeling uses only elementary functions, it can be implemented in PLC programmable logic controllers, which could be useful for controlling water waste and erosive effects on the soil during sprinkler irrigation.

Climate change poses emerging threats to wheat growth in coming future. These threats need to be explored to ensure sustainable wheat production. To do this, the SALTMED model was calibrated using data from experiments conducted on different levels of irrigation and nitrogen doses. The performance of the SALTMED model was assessed based on values of the root mean square error (RMSE), normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), coefficient of determination (R2) and coefficient of residual mass (CRM) that ranged from 0.23–1.82, 0.09–0.17, 0.91–0.93 and −0.01–0.02, respectively for calibration and 0.31–1.89, 0.11–0.31, 0.87–0.90 and −0.02–0.01, respectively for validation. Projections for future climate scenarios for wheat growth indicated that by the end of the century, sowing dates advanced by nine days under the RCP4.5 scenario and eleven days under the RCP8.5 scenario, while harvesting dates shifted earlier by twenty-four days under RCP4.5 and twenty-eight days under RCP8.5. Consequently, the overall crop duration was shortened by fifteen days under RCP4.5 and eighteen days under RCP8.5. Further simulations revealed that the wheat yield was reduced by 14.2% under RCP4.5 and 21.0% under RCP8.5; the dry matter was reduced by 14.9% under RCP4.5 and 23.3% under RCP8.5; the irrigation amount was expected to increase by 14.9% under RCP4.5 and 18.0% under RCP8.5; and water productivity was expected to be reduced by 25.3% under RCP4.5 and 33.0% under RCP8.5 until the end of century. The hypothetical scenarios showed that adding an extra 20–40% more nitrogen can enhance wheat yield and dry matter by 10.2–23.0% and 11.5–24.6%, respectively, under RCP4.5, and by 12.0–23.4% and 12.9–29.6%, respectively, under RCP8.5. This study offers valuable insights into the effects of climate change on future wheat production so that effective contingency plans could be made by policymakers and adopted by stakeholders for higher wheat productivity.

More than half of global water use can be attributed to crop irrigation, and as the human population grows, so will the water requirements of agriculture. Improved irrigation will be critical to mitigating the impact of increased requirements. An ideal irrigation system is informed by measurements of water demand—a combination of water use and water status signals—and delivers water to plants based on this demand. In this review, examples of methods for monitoring water status are reviewed, along with details on stem and trunk water potential measurements. Then, methods for monitoring evapotranspiration (ET), or water use, are described. These methods are broken into coarse- and fine-scale categories, with a 10 m spatial resolution threshold between them. Fourteen crop ET technologies are presented, including examples of a successful estimation of ET in research and field settings, as well as limitations. The focus then shifts to water distribution technologies, with an emphasis on the challenges associated with the development of systems that achieve dynamic single plant resolution. Some attention is given to the process of choosing ET and water status sensing methods as well as water delivery system design given site characteristics and agronomic goals. This review concludes with a short discussion on the future directions of ET research and the importance of translating findings into useful tools for growers.

The soil NO3− concentration and N2O emissions plays a crucial role in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and minimizing greenhouse soil degradation concurrently. However, it is essential to understand the extent to which management practices and environmental factors influence the reduction in NO3− concentration and N2O emissions in greenhouse soils. Here, we conducted a meta-analysis, compiling a database of NO3− concentration and N2O emissions in response to either nitrogen or irrigation management in greenhouse vegetable-based systems in China. In summary, controlling the amount of total nitrogen application and irrigation water within specific ranges can effectively reduce both the greenhouse NO3− concentration and N2O emissions. Compared to chemical nitrogen management, the application of slow-release fertilizer could concurrently reduce the soil NO3− concentration and N2O emissions by 0.20 and 0.36 times, respectively. Positive relationships were observed between soil NO3− concentration and N2O emissions under conditions of higher soil organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), alkali-hydrolyzed nitrogen (AN), and pH, as well as a lower soil temperature (ST) and bulk weight (BW). Under conditions with a higher OC and pH, an appropriate nitrogen application rate is more effective in reducing N2O emissions. While increasing irrigation can reduce soil NO3− concentrations, it also raises the risk of significant NO3− leaching. Overall, nitrogen and irrigation management should be tailored to local soil physicochemical properties to concurrently regulate soil NO3− concentrations and N2O emissions in greenhouse environments.

Deficit irrigation (DI) strategies are becoming increasingly common in areas where water resources are limited. The application of moderate levels of DI can result in water savings with a small reduction in yield but with a higher quality of the product. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of applying a certain level of water deficit (40% water holding capacity) on the yield and quality of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), specifically the cultivar ‘Triunfo-70’. Bioactive compounds were investigated by applying an LC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics approach as an analytical tool for identifying novel markers associated with a water deficit in beans. The results showed that beans harvested 30 days after DI application experienced water stress, as indicated by the decrease in the leaf water potential and gas exchange values (stomatal conductance and photosynthesis). In addition, the number of pods per plant was significantly reduced by the DI treatment. The water deficit induced significant alterations in various bioactive compounds (including organic acids, polyphenols, hydroxybenzoic acids, lipids, and phospholipids) when compared to the control treatment. Additionally, twelve new biomarkers were identified in this study for the first time in the common bean under DI. These findings suggested that DI acted as an elicitor, increasing phenylpropanoid metabolism, while concurrently reducing the production of compounds associated with fatty acid metabolism. Additionally, new metabolites were tentatively identified in common beans. This study represents the successful application of the untargeted metabolomics approach to finding bioactive secondary metabolites in beans under different irrigation conditions.

Irrigation is an essential component of our food production system and a large user of freshwater. Pressure on irrigated agriculture is likely to increase with growing populations and climate uncertainty. Efforts to ensure sustainable water use in this sector have had mixed results. Some of these efforts have been used in the interest of political or financial gain. The situation is complicated by the vulnerability of irrigating farmers, locally within irrigation schemes and in the global agricultural supply chain. An opportunity exists in the form of increasing the accessibility of open-source remote sensing products and wireless sensor networks. Irrigating farmers can define and assess their irrigation performance at different spatial and temporal scales. A review of irrigation performance assessment approaches and the available products and sensors is presented. Potential implementations for sensing and monitoring, as well as irrigation performance, are presented. The possibilities at different time scales and the influence on performance of different groups within the irrigation scheme are discussed. The particular circumstances of specific irrigation schemes need to be assessed with a cost–benefit analysis. The implementation of irrigation performance analysis tools should be led by irrigating farmers, as it directly impacts this group.

A two-year experiment was conducted with a local maize hybrid under full (F) and deficit (D) drip irrigation and rainfed conditions (R) to estimate maize evapotranspiration in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). Three approaches, namely, A&P, SIMDualKc (SD), and vegetation index (VI), to estimate the actual crop coefficient (Kc act), the actual basal crop coefficient (Kcb act), and the actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc act), were applied with the dual crop coefficient method and remote sensing (RS) data for the first time. While Kcb act from all approaches matched FAO56 tabulated values, SD showed differences in comparison to A&P of up to 0.24 in D and R conditions, especially in the initial and mid-season stages. VI demonstrated very good performance in all treatments. In F, the obtained Kc act for all approaches during the initial and end stages were higher than the tabulated values, ranging from 0.71 to 0.87 for the Kc ini act and from 0.80 to 1.06 for the Kc end act, while the mid-season period showed very good agreement with the literature. The maize crop evapotranspiration range is 769–813 mm, 480–752 mm, and 332–618 mm for F, D, and R, respectively. The results confirmed the suitability of both approaches (SD and VI) to estimate maize crop evapotranspiration under F, with the VI approach demonstrating an advantage in calculating Kcb act, Kc act, and ETc act values under water stress conditions. The higher observed yields (67.6%) under irrigation conditions emphasize the need to transition from rainfed to irrigation-dependent agriculture in BiH, even for drought-resistant crops like maize.

This paper analyzes the events that originated an integrated water resources management (IWRM) model called Consorcio de Aguas de la Marina Baja (CAMB), in the province of Alicante (Spain), in 1978. The impact of tourism and population growth in the second half of the 20th century motivated the need for new management formulas seeking a balance between available resources and a greater need for water resources. The emergence of mass tourism in Benidorm at the end of the 1950s generated a great imbalance between the needs and availability of water resources. Also considering the effect of periods of severe drought, the solution to the deficit was found in the principles of institutional economics and circular water management. Water infrastructure and technology are elements of great importance in this model, allowing the exchange of natural water for reclaimed water, as a result of previous agreements between traditional irrigators and supply users of coastal populations. Its success has guaranteed the coexistence of traditional agriculture and the consolidated tourism activity, making possible the conservation of the cultural landscape. The historical and economic analysis of the model that led to the creation of CAMB can be applied to other regions facing similar challenges.

The sustainability of agricultural commodities produced in the Southern U.S. under irrigation is increasingly at risk due to erratic rainfall patterns, inadequate water supplies and compromised water quality. This study assessed the needs of crop growers in the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Southern Region. The purpose was to identify growers’ critical water resource management concerns to identify research priorities from the perspective of growers in this region. To obtain this information, a questionnaire was developed and distributed to growers throughout the Southern Region in 2020. The final sample included 111 crop (row and specialty) production growers from the Southern Region. Overall, respondents named the water available to irrigate as the greatest water resource management priority. Within all the water availability priorities asked, respondents’ first choice was declining water supply in the future. Declining water supply and the cost of irrigating presently were the next most frequently named water availability priorities. Growers named both increasing the efficiency of irrigation and development of farming practices to improve soil moisture retention as the primary and secondary focus of future irrigation research, respectively. These results will aid in strengthening existing and developing new initiatives for water research and Extension in this region.

Drought stress is a group of abiotic stresses that affects plant growth and yield production. A field experiment over two successive seasons (2021–2022 and 2022–2023) in sand soil was conducted to investigate the integration effect of deficit irrigation, soil amendment “hundzsoil”, and the spraying of proline on the water use efficiency (WUE), yield, and fruit quality of 8-year-old Crimson seedless table grapes. Four application rates of soil amendment (0, 2, 4, and 6 kg hundzsoil /vine) were added during the dormancy period, and four irrigation levels at 125, 100, 75, and 60% of the field capacity were applied just before flowering until harvest. Proline at two levels (0 and 500 ppm) was applied as a foliar spray. Parameters such as bud fertility, weight of 100 berries, juice volume, and cluster number were positively affected by irrigation at 75% FC along with applying hundzsoil at 2 and 4 kg/vine under proline spray in both seasons. Irrigation at the 125% FC level with a 6 kg hundzsoil application under proline spray resulted in the highest yield, berries number, cluster length, cluster weight, and total anthocyanin in both seasons. The TSS/acidity ratio was significantly and positively affected by deficit irrigation (60% FC level) under hundzsoil at a rate of 4 kg alongside proline spray. Reducing irrigation to 60% FC without hundzsoil and proline spray negatively affected numerous growth parameters and the yield. However, irrigation at 60% FC alongside 6 kg of hundzsoil and proline showed the highest IWUE in both seasons. Proline spray was a key factor in conserving water used for irrigation. This study recommends using deficit irrigation alongside hundzsoil application under proline spray as an adequate strategy for water use efficiency and improving the yield and fruit quality of Crimson seedless grapevines cultivated in sand soil.

Enhancing saline water productivity in arid regions is essential for sustainable agriculture. Adding biochar can improve the quantity and quality of tomato yield under higher levels of salinity and lower levels of irrigation. The experiment aimed to evaluate the effects of biochar on enhancing tomato fruit quality and yield under salinity and drought stress. The experiment combines two treatments for irrigation water quality (0.9 and 2.3 dS m−1), four irrigation levels (40, 60, 80, and 100%) of crop evapotranspiration (ETc), and the addition of 5% of biochar to treated soil (BC5%) and untreated soil (BC0%). The results showed that the decrease in the water quality and irrigation levels negatively impacted the yield and properties of tomato fruit, while 5% of biochar application positively improved the yield. Adding biochar decreased the tomato yield by 29.33% and 42.51% under lower-saline-irrigation water than the control, negatively affecting the fruit’s physical parameters and mineral content. In contrast, adding biochar and irrigating with saline water at 60% of ETc improved the firmness and quality characteristics of the fruit by 56.60%, 67.19, 99.75, and 73.57% for vitamin C (VC), total titratable acidity (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), and total sugars (TS), respectively, compared to the control, and also reduced the sodium content of the fruits under all irrigation levels compared to untreated plants by biochar. Generally, biochar with saline water under deficit irrigation with 80 and 60% of ETc could be an excellent strategy to enhance the qualitative characteristics of tomato fruits and save approximately 20–40% of the applied water.

Dams play a vital role as a primary water supply for irrigation in Jordan, necessitating an assessment of their water quality. This study aimed to evaluate the suitability of irrigation water in a key number of Jordanian dams, namely Al Kafrain, Al Waala, King Talal (KTD), Mujib, Shuaib, and Sharhabil. Monthly readings of major water parameters (EC, Cl−, SO42−, HCO3−, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) were recorded for seven years (2015–2021) for each dam. The assessment criteria included the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), soluble sodium percentage (SSP), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR), kelley ratio (KR), total hardness (TH), and water quality index (WQI) using both average (APL) and maximum permissible limits (MPL). Additionally, USSL, Wilcox, Doneen, Piper, and Gibbs diagrams were applied. The findings indicate that all the dams demonstrated suitability for irrigation based on the SAR, SSP, RSC, MAR, and KR values. The USSL diagrams showed most samples falling under C2S1 and C3S1, except KTD, which fell under C3S2. According to the Wilcox diagram, the water was either Excellent to Good or Good to Permissible, while the KTD water was classified as Permissible to Doubtful. Furthermore, the water chemistry was found to be mainly influenced by rock weathering, as revealed in the Gibbs diagram, and has no restriction on permeability, according to the Doneen diagram. The WQI showed that all the dams fall in the Good and Excellent category for irrigation using APL, while applying MPL, all the dams were in the Excellent category, which demonstrates the necessity of considering extreme events and regulatory thresholds.

The AquaCrop model is used to predict rice yield in response to different irrigation management in the Yanyun irrigation area in Yangzhou, China, and the constraints to rice production were identified to maximize water productivity based on model simulations. The model was calibrated by comparing measured and predicted canopy cover (CC), yield, and soil water content during the growing season in 2018. The results showed that, for CC simulations, R2 was 0.99, RMSE was 3.6%, and NRMSE was 5.3%; for Biomass simulation, RMSE was 0.50 t/ha, and NRMSE was 5.3%. Different irrigation strategies were analyzed for a long-term simulation period from 1955 to 2014. The simulated rice yield increased rapidly as irrigation demand increased initially, and then gradually stabilized. The simulated rice yield fluctuated in the different years. The Pearson type-III model method was used to identify different hydrological years of wet, normal, and dry years. The analysis identified the wet year as 1991, normal year as 1981, and dry year as 1966. In the different rainfall years (1991, 1981, and 1966) water use efficiency (WUE), water productivity (WPet), and irrigation water productivity (IWP) were utilized to determine the irrigation strategy. The predicted highest WPet in the wet year was 1.77kg m−3, while the lowest WPet in the dry year was 1.13 kg m−3. The highest IWP was 19.78 kg m−3 in the wet year, and 9.32 kg m−3 in the normal year; while the lowest IWP in the dry year was 1.90 kg m−3. IWP was significantly higher in the rainy year, while WUE was significantly lower. On the other hand, WPet was more extensive in the wet year because the yield was higher, and the Evapotranspiration (ET) was smaller in comparison to the dry year.

Green roofs are becoming popular in urban areas due to their potential benefits, including energy efficiency, urban heat island mitigation, and stormwater management. However, their water consumption can negatively impact water resources. Therefore, carefully managing the water consumption of green roofs is crucial to ensure they do not exacerbate existing water scarcity issues. This review explores the influencing factors and innovative solutions that increase the sustainability of water management on green roofs. A systematic quantitative review was conducted on published studies on green roofs. The review highlighted that while small-scale experimental studies are almost saturated, large-scale monitoring studies are still lacking. Modelling and assessing green roof settings based on climatic conditions and water availability and consumption are essential for successful water management. Using integrated technologies and sensing systems can increase water management efficiency and sustainability. Rainwater may be sufficient as a water source for green roofs in wet climates, while irrigation is still needed in other climates. Phytoremediation and biosorption can potentially increase runoff water quality. Improving hydrological performance by increasing rainwater retention and reducing water consumption capacity can reduce demand for other water resources and effectively manage small storms, mitigating pressure on city infrastructure and increasing water quality. Seeking non-potable sources, such as greywater, or harvesting enough rainwater to be used for irrigation during dry weather periods is highly advantageous for improving the sustainability of green roofs.

In arid and semi-arid regions like Tunisia, irrigation water is typically saline, posing a risk of soil and crop salinization and yield reduction. This research aims to study the combined effects of soil matric and osmotic potential stresses on tomato root water uptake. Plants were grown in pot and field experiments in loamy-clay soils and were irrigated with three different irrigation water qualities: 0, 3.5, and 7 dS/m. The Hydrus-1D model was used to simulate the combined dynamics of subsurface soil water and salts. Successful calibration and validation of the model against measured water and salt profiles enabled the examination of the combined effects of osmotic and matric potential stresses on root water uptake. Relative yields, indirectly estimated from actual and potential transpiration, indicated that the multiplicative stress response model effectively simulated the measured yields and the impact of saline water irrigation on crop yields. The experimental and modeling results provide information to aid in determining the salinity levels conducive to optimal crop growth. The findings indicate that the selected salinity levels affect tomato growth to varying degrees. Specifically, the salinity levels conducive to optimal tomato growth were between 0 and 3.5 dS/m, with a significant growth reduction above this salinity level. The gradual salinization of the root zone further evidenced this effect. The scenario considering a temperature increase of 2 °C had no significant impact on crop yields in the pot and field experiments.

The study of ancient irrigation is crucial in the archaeological research of arid regions. It covers a wide range of topics, with the Near East being the focus for decades. However, political instability and limited data have posed challenges to these studies. The primary objective is to establish a standardised method applicable to different arid environments using the Google Earth Engine platform, considering local relief of terrain and seasonal differences in vegetation. This study integrates multispectral data from LANDSAT 5, Sentinel-2, SAR imagery from Sentinel 1, and TanDEM-X (12 m and 30 m) DSMs. Using these datasets, calculations of selected vegetation indices such as the SMTVI and NDVSI, spectral decomposition methods such as TCT and PCA, and topography-based methods such as the MSRM contribute to a comprehensive understanding of landscape irrigation. This paper investigates the influence of modern environmental conditions on the visibility of features like levees and palaeo-channels by testing different methods and parameters. This study aims to identify the most effective approach for each case study and explore the possibility of applying a consistent method across all areas. Optimal results are achieved by combining several methods, adjusting seasonal parameters, and conducting a comparative analysis of visible features.

A head loss model for pressureless mesh filters used in farmland irrigation was developed by integrating the four basic test factors: irrigation flow, filter cartridge speed, self-cleaning flow, and initial sand content. The model’s coefficient of determination was found to be 98.61%. Among the basic factors, the total irrigation flow accounted for only 17.20% of the relatively small self-cleaning flow. The contribution of initial sand content was found to be the smallest, with a coefficient of only 0.0166. Furthermore, the contribution rate of the flow term was significantly higher than that of the initial sand content, with a value of 159.73%. In terms of quadratic interaction, the difference between the interaction term of flushing flow and filter cartridge speed, and the interaction term of filter cartridge speed and self-cleaning flow was 38.42%. On the other hand, the difference within this level for the interaction term between initial sand content and filter cartridge speed, as well as the interaction term between irrigation flow and self-cleaning flow, was 2.82%. Finally, through joint optimization of the response surface and model, the optimal values for the irrigation flow rate, filter cartridge speed, self-cleaning flow rate, and initial sand content were determined to be 121.687 m3·h−1, 1.331 r·min−1, 19.980 m3·h−1, and 0.261 g·L−1; the measured minimum head loss was found to be 21.671 kPa. These research findings can serve as a reference for enhancing the design of farmland filters and optimizing irrigation systems.

Mediterranean water-stressed areas face significant challenges from higher temperatures and increasingly severe droughts. We assess the effect of climate change on rainfed barley production in the aridity-prone province of Almería, Spain, using the FAO AquaCrop model. We focus on rainfed barley growth by the mid-century (2041–2070) and end-century (2071–2100) time periods, using three Shared Socio-economic Pathway (SSP)-based scenarios: SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5. Using the paired t-test, Spearman and Pearson correlation coefficient, Root Mean Squared Error, and relative Root Mean Squared Error, we verified AquaCrop’s ability to capture local multi-year trends (9 or more years) using standard barley crop parameters, without local recalibration. Starting with a reference Initial Soil Water Content (ISWC), different soil water contents within barley rooting depth were modelled to account for decreases in soil water availability. We then evaluated the efficiency of different climate adaptation strategies: irrigation, mulching, and changing sowing dates. We show average yield changes of +14% to −44.8% (mid-century) and +12% to −55.1% (end-century), with ISWC being the main factor determining yields. Irrigation increases yields by 21.1%, utilizing just 3% of Almería’s superficial water resources. Mulches improve irrigated yield performances by 6.9% while reducing irrigation needs by 40%. Changing sowing dates does not consistently improve yields. We demonstrate that regardless of the scenario used, climate adaptation of field barley production in Almería should prioritize limiting soil water loss by combining irrigation with mulching. This would enable farmers in Almería’s northern communities to maintain their livelihoods, reducing the province’s reliance on horticulture while continuing to contribute to food security goals.

Small-scale agriculture is important. However, there are still limitations regarding the implementation of technologies in small-scale agriculture due to the high costs accompanying them. Therefore, it is essential to seek viable and low-cost solutions since the insertion of technologies in agriculture, especially irrigated agriculture, guarantees the sustainable expansion of production capacity. The present work applied the Internet of Things concept to an automated irrigation system powered by photovoltaic panels. The materials used in the prototype consisted of Arduino Uno R3, the ESP8266 development board, a soil moisture sensor, a current sensor, a voltage sensor, a flow sensor, and a humidity and temperature sensor. The prototype was designed to take system readings and send them to the Adafruit platform IO. Furthermore, it was programmed to perform remote irrigation control, enabling this to be activated from distant points through the platform. The medium proved efficient for the monitoring and remote control of the system. This indicates that it is possible to use this medium in small automated irrigation systems.

The rapid decline in water availability for irrigation on the Texas High Plains (THP) is a significant problem affecting crop production and the viability of a large regional economy worth approximately USD 7 billion annually. This region is the largest continuous cotton-producing area in the United States, and the timely delivery and efficient use of irrigation water are critical to the sustainability and profitability of cotton production in this region. Current irrigation scheduling must be improved to reduce water consumption without compromising crop production. Presently, irrigation scheduling based on reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is limited due to the lack of reliable and readily available in-field weather data and updated crop coefficients. Additionally, in-field variability in crop water demand is often overlooked, leading to lower irrigation efficiency. To address these challenges, we explored the potential use of an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based crop monitoring system to support irrigation management decisions. This study was conducted in Lubbock, Texas, in 2022, where high temporal and spatial resolution images were acquired using a UAV from a cotton field experiment with four irrigation levels. Soil moisture and canopy temperature sensors were deployed to monitor crop response to irrigation and rainfall. The results indicated a significant effect of water stress on crop growth (revealed by UAV-based canopy cover (CC) measurements), yield, and fiber quality. Strong correlations between multi-temporal CC and lint yield (R2 = 0.68 to 0.88) emphasized a clear trend: rainfed treatments with lower yields exhibited reduced CC, while irrigated plots with higher CC displayed increased yields. Furthermore, irrigated plots produced more mature and uniform fibers. This study also explored various evapotranspiration calculation approaches indicating that site-specific CC measurements obtained from a UAV could significantly reduce irrigation application. A regression model linking evapotranspiration to canopy cover demonstrated promising potential for estimating water demand in crops with an R2 as high as 0.68. The findings highlight the efficacy of UAV-based canopy features in assessing drought effects and managing irrigation water in water-limited production regions like the THP.