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Antarctica is an untapped reservoir of bacterial communities, which are able to adapt to a huge variety of strategies to cope with extreme conditions and, therefore, are capable of producing potentially valuable compounds for biotechnological applications. In this study, 31 UV-resistant bacteria collected from different Antarctic aquatic environments (surface sea waters/ice and shallow lake sediments) were isolated by UV-C assay and subsequently identified. A phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities showed that the isolates were affiliated with Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Firmicutes phyla, and they were clustered into 15 bacterial genera, 5 of which were Gram negative (Brevundimonas, Qipengyuania, Sphingorhabdus, Sphingobium, and Psychrobacter) and 10 of which were Gram positive (Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Mesobacillus, Kocuria, Gordonia, Rhodococcus, Micrococcus, Arthrobacter, Agrococcus, and Salinibacterium). Strains belonging to Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria phyla were the most abundant species in all environments. The genus Psychrobacter was dominant in all collection sites, whereas bacteria belonging to Actinobacteria appeared to be the most diverse and rich in terms of species among the investigated sites. Many of these isolates (20 of 31 isolates) were pigmented. Bacterial pigments, which are generally carotenoid-type compounds, are often involved in the protection of cells against the negative effects of UV radiation. For this reason, these pigments may help bacteria to successfully tolerate Antarctic extreme conditions of low temperature and harmful levels of UV radiation.

Microalgae produce a plethora of primary and secondary metabolites with possible applications in several market sectors, including cosmetics, human nutrition, aquaculture, biodiesel production and treatment/prevention of human diseases. Diatoms, in particular, are the most diversified microalgal group, many species of which are known to have anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetes, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Compounds responsible for these activities are often still unknown. The aim of this study was to de novo sequence the full transcriptome of two strains of the diatom Asterionellopsis thurstonii, sampled from two different locations and cultured in both control and phosphate starvation conditions. We used an RNA-sequencing approach to in silico identify transcripts potentially involved in the synthesis/degradation of compounds with anti-cancer and immunomodulatory properties. We identified transcript coding for L-asparaginase I, polyketide cyclase/dehydrase, bifunctional polyketide phosphatase/kinase, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (fragment), inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase INPP5B/F, catechol O-Methyltransferase, digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase (DGD1), 1,2-diacylglycerol-3-beta-galactosyltransferase and glycerolphosphodiester phosphodiesterase. Differential expression analysis also allowed to identify in which culturing condition these enzymes are more expressed. Overall, these data give new insights on the annotation of diatom genes, enzymatic pathways involved in the generation of bioactive molecules and possible exploitation of Asterionellopsis thurstonii.

Microalgae, eukaryotic unicellular plants that are distributed worldwide, have been shown to exert anti-proliferative and anticancer activities on various human cancer cell lines. An example of a microalgal bioactive compound is a chlorophyll breakdown product named Pheophorbide a (Ppa), which has been reported to have anti-proliferative properties against various cell lines. This compound has also been tested with light exposure in photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment. In this paper, we screened eleven marine microalgae against a panel of cancer cells, and evaluated the synergistic anti-proliferative effect with Pheophorbide a, with and without photo-activation. The results showed significant anti-proliferative activity against melanoma cells when Ppa was combined with fraction E of the diatom Cylindrotheca closterium plus 1 h photo-activation. Its activity was also analyzed using gene expression and Western blot experiments. Altogether, these data give new insights into the possible application of microalgae for photodynamic therapy.

COVID-19 has attracted worldwide attention ever since the first case was identified in Wuhan (China) in December 2019 and was classified, at a later time, as a public health emergency of international concern in January 2020 and as a pandemic in March 2020. The interstitial pneumonia caused by COVID-19 often requires mechanical ventilation, which can lead to pulmonary barotrauma. We assessed the relationship between pneumonia severity and the development of barotrauma in COVID-19-positive patients mechanically ventilated in an intensive care unit; we therefore analyzed the prevalence of iatrogenic barotrauma and its trends over time during the pandemic in COVID-19-positive patients undergoing mechanical ventilation compared to COVID-19-negative patients, making a distinction between different types of ventilation (invasive mechanical ventilation vs. noninvasive mechanical ventilation). We compared CT findings of pneumomediastinum and pneumothorax in 104 COVID-19-positive patients hospitalized in an intensive care unit and 101 COVID-19-negative patients undergoing mechanical ventilation in the period between October 2020 and December 2021. The severity of pneumonia was not directly correlated with the development of barotrauma. Furthermore, a higher prevalence of complications due to barotrauma was observed in the group of mechanically ventilated COVID-19-postive patients vs. COVID-19-negative patients. A higher rate of barotrauma was observed in subgroups of COVID-19-positive patients undergoing mechanical ventilation compared to those treated with invasive mechanical ventilation. The prevalence of barotrauma in COVID 19-positive patients showed a decreasing trend over the period under review. CT remains an essential tool in the early detection, diagnosis, and monitoring of the clinical course of SARS-CoV2 pneumonia; in evaluating the disease severity; and in the assessment of iatrogenic complications such as barotrauma pathology.

Haptophytes are important primary producers in the oceans, and among the phylum Haptophyta, the flagellate Isochrysis galbana has been found to be rich in high-value compounds, such as lipids, carotenoids and highly branched polysaccharides. In the present work, I. galbana was cultured and collected at both stationary and exponential growth phases. A transcriptomic approach was used to analyze the possible activation of metabolic pathways responsible for bioactive compound synthesis at the gene level. Differential expression analysis of samples collected at the exponential versus stationary growth phase allowed the identification of genes involved in the glycerophospholipid metabolic process, the sterol biosynthetic process, ADP-ribose diphosphatase activity and others. I. galbana raw extracts and fractions were tested on specific human cancer cells for possible antiproliferative activity. The most active fractions, without affecting normal cells, were fractions enriched in nucleosides (fraction B) and triglycerides (fraction E) for algae collected in the exponential growth phase and fraction E for stationary phase samples. Overall, transcriptomic and bioactivity data confirmed the activation of metabolic pathways involved in the synthesis of bioactive compounds giving new insights on possible Isochrysis applications in the anticancer sector.

On 12 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the novel Coronavirus (CoV) disease a global Pandemic and an emerging risk. In order to understand patterns that are typical in COVID-19 pneumonia and track the evolution of the disease, the role of the chest computed tomography (CT) is pivotal. The impact of the illness as well as the efficiency of the therapy are also monitored carefully when performing this imaging exam. Coronaviruses, specifically CoV-2, as RNA viruses, have a tendency to frequently change their genome, giving the virus beneficial characteristics such as greater transmissibility, pathogenicity and the possibility to escape the previously acquired immunity. Therefore, genome evaluation became an extremely important routine practice worldwide. In particular, in Italy, four variants have been recognised and each of them represent a specific temporal wave of the disease. Hence, our goal was to describe imaging findings of COVID-19 pneumonia, specifically its most typical imaging identified during the period of our study, and to assess whether or not SARS-CoV-2 variants determine different CT patterns. Our analyses revealed that the SARS-CoV-2 genotype seems not to interfere with the severity of CT patterns and, in particular, bilateral Ground Glass Opacities (GGOs) are the most frequent findings in all COVID-19 waves.

The marine environment is potentially a prolific source of small molecules with significant biological activities. In recent years, the development of new chromatographic phases and the progress in cell and molecular techniques have facilitated the search for marine natural products (MNPs) as novel pharmacophores and enhanced the success rate in the selection of new potential drug candidates. However, most of this exploration has so far been driven by anticancer research and has been limited to a reduced number of taxonomic groups. In this article, we report a test study on the screening potential of an in-house library of natural small molecules composed of 285 samples derived from 57 marine organisms that were chosen from among the major eukaryotic phyla so far represented in studies on bioactive MNPs. Both the extracts and SPE fractions of these organisms were simultaneously submitted to three different bioassays—two phenotypic and one enzymatic—for cytotoxic, antidiabetic, and antibacterial activity. On the whole, the screening of the MNP library selected 11 potential hits, but the distribution of the biological results showed that SPE fractionation increased the positive score regardless of the taxonomic group. In many cases, activity could be detected only in the enriched fractions after the elimination of the bulky effect due to salts. On a statistical basis, sponges and molluscs were confirmed to be the most significant source of cytotoxic and antimicrobial products, but other phyla were found to be effective with the other therapeutic targets.

The deep-sea environment is a unique, challenging extreme habitat where species have had to adapt to the absence of light, low levels of oxygen, high pressure and little food. In order to survive such harsh conditions, these organisms have evolved different biochemical and physiological features that often have no other equivalent in terrestrial habitats. Recent analyses have highlighted how the deep sea is one of the most diverse and species-rich habitats on the planet but less explored compared to more accessible sites. Because of their adaptation to this extreme environment, deep-sea species have the potential to produce novel secondary metabolites with potent biological activities. Recent advances in sampling and novel techniques in microorganism culturing and chemical isolation have promoted the discovery of bioactive agents from deep-sea organisms. However, reports of natural products derived from deep-sea species are still scarce, probably because of the difficulty in accessing deep-sea samples, sampling costs and the difficulty in culturing deep-sea organisms. In this review, we give an overview of the potential treasure represented by metabolites produced by deep marine species and their bioactivities for the treatment and prevention of various human pathologies.

Our daily experience in a COVID hospital has allowed us to learn about this disease in many of its changing and unusual aspects. Some of these uncommon manifestations, however, appeared more frequently than others, giving shape to a multifaceted COVID-19 disease. This pictorial review has the aim to describe the radiological aspects of atypical presentations and of some complications of COVID-19 disease in adults and children and provide a simple guide for radiologists to become familiar with the multiform aspects of this disease.

Petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) are one of the most widespread and heterogeneous organic contaminants affecting marine ecosystems. The contamination of marine sediments or coastal areas by PHCs represents a major threat for the ecosystem and human health, calling for urgent, effective, and sustainable remediation solutions. Aside from some physical and chemical treatments that have been established over the years for marine sediment reclamation, bioremediation approaches based on the use of microorganisms are gaining increasing attention for their eco-compatibility, and lower costs. In this work, we review current knowledge concerning the bioremediation of PHCs in marine systems, presenting a synthesis of the most effective microbial taxa (i.e., bacteria, fungi, and microalgae) identified so far for hydrocarbon removal. We also discuss the challenges offered by innovative molecular approaches for the design of effective reclamation strategies based on these three microbial components of marine sediments contaminated by hydrocarbons.

Sponges are known to produce a series of compounds with bioactivities useful for human health. This study was conducted on four sponges collected in the framework of the XXXIV Italian National Antarctic Research Program (PNRA) in November-December 2018, i.e., Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata, Haliclona (Rhizoniera) dancoi, Hemimycale topsenti, and Hemigellius pilosus. Sponge extracts were fractioned and tested against hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2), lung carcinoma (A549), and melanoma cells (A2058), in order to screen for antiproliferative or cytotoxic activity. Two different chemical classes of compounds, belonging to mycalols and suberitenones, were identified in the active fractions. Mycalols were the most active compounds, and their mechanism of action was also investigated at the gene and protein levels in HepG2 cells. Of the differentially expressed genes, ULK1 and GALNT5 were the most down-regulated genes, while MAPK8 was one of the most up-regulated genes. These genes were previously associated with ferroptosis, a programmed cell death triggered by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, confirmed at the protein level by the down-regulation of GPX4, a key regulator of ferroptosis, and the up-regulation of NCOA4, involved in iron homeostasis. These data suggest, for the first time, that mycalols act by triggering ferroptosis in HepG2 cells.

Microalgae are known to produce a plethora of compounds derived from the primary and secondary metabolism. Different studies have shown that these compounds may have allelopathic, antimicrobial, and antipredator activities. In addition, in vitro and in vivo screenings have shown that several compounds have interesting bioactivities (such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial) for the possible prevention and treatment of human pathologies. Additionally, the enzymatic pathways responsible for the synthesis of these compounds, and the targets and mechanisms of their action have also been investigated for a few species. However, further research is necessary for their full exploitation and possible pharmaceutical and other industrial applications. Here, we review the current knowledge on the chemical characteristics, biological activities, mechanism of action, and the enzymes involved in the synthesis of microalgal metabolites with potential benefits for human health.

Marine sponges commonly host a repertoire of bacterial-associated organisms, which significantly contribute to their health and survival by producing several anti-predatory molecules. Many of these compounds are produced by sponge-associated bacteria and represent an incredible source of novel bioactive metabolites with biotechnological relevance. Although most investigations are focused on tropical and temperate species, to date, few studies have described the composition of microbiota hosted by Antarctic sponges and the secondary metabolites that they produce. The investigation was conducted on four sponges collected from two different sites in the framework of the XXXIV Italian National Antarctic Research Program (PNRA) in November–December 2018. Collected species were characterized as Mycale (Oxymycale) acerata, Haliclona (Rhizoniera) dancoi, Hemigellius pilosus and Microxina sarai by morphological analysis of spicules and amplification of four molecular markers. Metataxonomic analysis of these four Antarctic sponges revealed a considerable abundance of Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs) belonging to the phyla Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria and Verrucomicrobia. In particular, M. (Oxymycale) acerata, displayed several genera of great interest, such as Endozoicomonas, Rubritalea, Ulvibacter, Fulvivirga and Colwellia. On the other hand, the sponges H. pilosus and H. (Rhizoniera) dancoi hosted bacteria belonging to the genera Pseudhongella, Roseobacter and Bdellovibrio, whereas M. sarai was the sole species showing some strains affiliated to the genus Polaribacter. Considering that most of the bacteria identified in the present study are known to produce valuable secondary metabolites, the four Antarctic sponges could be proposed as potential tools for the discovery of novel pharmacologically active compounds.

Antarctic waters are the largest almost untapped diversified resource of our planet. Molecular resources for Antarctic organisms are very limited and mostly represented by sequences used for species genotyping. In this study, we present the first transcriptome for the copepod Rhincalanus gigas, one of the predominant zooplankton species of Antarctic waters. This transcriptome represents also the first molecular resource for an eucalanoid copepod. The transcriptome is of high quality and completeness. The presence of three predicted genes encoding antifreeze proteins and gene duplication within the glutathione metabolism pathway are suggested as possible adaptations to cope with this harsh environment. The R. gigas transcriptome represents a powerful new resource for investigating the molecular basis associated with polar biological processes and ecology.

Marine organisms are constantly exposed to variations in physical parameters (e [...]

Investigations on the ability of bacteria to enhance removal of hydrocarbons and reduce heavy metal toxicity in sediments are necessary to design more effective bioremediation strategies. In this study, five bacterial strains, Halomonas sp. SZN1, Alcanivorax sp. SZN2, Pseudoalteromonas sp. SZN3, Epibacterium sp. SZN4, and Virgibacillus sp. SZN7, were isolated from polluted sediments from an abandoned industrial site in the Gulf of Naples, Mediterranean Sea, and tested for their bioremediation efficiency on sediment samples collected from the same site. These bacteria were added as consortia or as individual cultures into polluted sediments to assess biodegradation efficiency of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metal immobilisation capacity. Our results indicate that these bacteria were able to remove polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, with a removal rate up to ca. 80% for dibenzo-anthracene. In addition, these bacteria reduced arsenic, lead, and cadmium mobility by promoting their partitioning into less mobile and bioavailable fractions. Microbial consortia generally showed higher performance toward pollutants as compared with pure isolates, suggesting potential synergistic interactions able to enhance bioremediation capacity. Overall, our findings suggest that highly polluted sediments select for bacteria efficient at reducing the toxicity of hazardous compounds, paving the way for scaled-up bioremediation trials.

Programmed cell death, such as apoptosis and autophagy, are key processes that are activated early on during development, leading to remodelling in embryos and homeostasis in adult organisms. Genomic conservation of death factors has been largely investigated in the animal and plant kingdoms. In this study, we analysed, for the first time, the expression profile of 11 genes involved in apoptosis (extrinsic and intrinsic pathways) and autophagy in sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus embryos exposed to antiproliferative polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs), and we compared these results with those obtained on the human cell line A549 treated with the same molecules. We found that sea urchins and human cells activated, at the gene level, a similar cell death response to these compounds. Despite the evolutionary distance between sea urchins and humans, we observed that the activation of apoptotic and autophagic genes in response to cytotoxic compounds is a conserved process. These results give first insight on death mechanisms of P. lividus death mechanisms, also providing additional information for the use of this marine organism as a useful in vitro model for the study of cell death signalling pathways activated in response to chemical compounds.

Diatoms are the dominant component of the marine phytoplankton. Several diatoms produce secondary metabolites, namely oxylipins, with teratogenic effects on their main predators, crustacean copepods. Our study reports the de novo assembled transcriptome of the calanoid copepod Calanus helgolandicus feeding on the oxylipin-producing diatom Skeletonema marinoi. Differential expression analysis was also performed between copepod females exposed to the diatom and the control flagellate Prorocentrum minimum, which does not produce oxylipins. Our results showed that transcripts involved in carbohydrate, amino acid, folate and methionine metabolism, embryogenesis, and response to stimulus were differentially expressed in the two conditions. Expression of 27 selected genes belonging to these functional categories was also analyzed by RT-qPCR in C. helgolandicus females exposed to a mixed solution of the oxylipins heptadienal and octadienal at the concentration of 10 µM, 15 µM, and 20 µM. The results confirmed differential expression analysis, with up-regulation of genes involved in stress response and down-regulation of genes associated with folate and methionine metabolism, embryogenesis, and signaling. Overall, we offer new insights on the mechanism of action of oxylipins on maternally-induced embryo abnormality. Our results may also help identify biomarker genes associated with diatom-related reproductive failure in the natural copepod population at sea.

Many dinoflagellates species, especially of the Alexandrium genus, produce a series of toxins with tremendous impacts on human and environmental health, and tourism economies. Alexandrium tamutum was discovered for the first time in the Gulf of Naples, and it is not known to produce saxitoxins. However, a clone of A. tamutum from the same Gulf showed copepod reproduction impairment and antiproliferative activity. In this study, the full transcriptome of the dinoflagellate A. tamutum is presented in both control and phosphate starvation conditions. RNA-seq approach was used for in silico identification of transcripts that can be involved in the synthesis of toxic compounds. Phosphate starvation was selected because it is known to induce toxin production for other Alexandrium spp. Results showed the presence of three transcripts related to saxitoxin synthesis (sxtA, sxtG and sxtU), and others potentially related to the synthesis of additional toxic compounds (e.g., 44 transcripts annotated as “polyketide synthase”). These data suggest that even if this A. tamutum clone does not produce saxitoxins, it has the potential to produce toxic metabolites, in line with the previously observed activity. These data give new insights into toxic microalgae, toxin production and their potential applications for the treatment of human pathologies.

The chemical ecology of marine diatoms has been the subject of several studies in the last decades, due to the discovery of oxylipins with multiple simultaneous functions including roles in chemical defence (antipredator, allelopathic and antibacterial compounds) and/or cell-to-cell signalling. Diatoms represent a fundamental compartment of marine ecosystems because they contribute to about 45% of global primary production even if they represent only 1% of the Earth’s photosynthetic biomass. The discovery that they produce several toxic metabolites deriving from the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, known as oxylipins, has changed our perspectives about secondary metabolites shaping plant–plant and plant–animal interactions in the oceans. More recently, their possible biotechnological potential has been evaluated, with promising results on their potential as anticancer compounds. Here, we focus on some recent findings in this field obtained in the last decade, investigating the role of diatom oxylipins in cell-to-cell communication and their negative impact on marine biota. Moreover, we also explore and discuss the possible biotechnological applications of diatom oxylipins.

Chlorophyll breakdown products are usually studied for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The chlorophyll derivative Pheophorbide a (PPBa) is a photosensitizer that can induce significant anti-proliferative effects in several human cancer cell lines. Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, accounting for about 9.6 million deaths, in 2018 alone. Hence, it is crucial to monitor emergent compounds that show significant anticancer activity and advance them into clinical trials. In this review, we analyze the anticancer activity of PPBa with or without photodynamic therapy and also conjugated with or without other chemotherapic drugs, highlighting the capacity of PPBa to overcome multidrug resistance. We also report other activities of PPBa and different pathways that it can activate, showing its possible applications for the treatment of human pathologies.

Microalgae have been shown to be excellent producers of lipids, pigments, carbohydrates, and a plethora of secondary metabolites with possible applications in the pharmacological, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical sectors. Recently, various microalgal raw extracts have been found to have anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we performed the fractionation of raw extracts of the diatom Cylindrotheca closterium, previously shown to have anti-inflammatory properties, obtaining five fractions. Fractions C and D were found to significantly inhibit tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-⍺) release in LPS-stimulated human monocyte THP-1 cells. A dereplication analysis of these two fractions allowed the identification of their main components. Our data suggest that lysophosphatidylcholines and a breakdown product of chlorophyll, pheophorbide a, were probably responsible for the observed anti-inflammatory activity. Pheophorbide a is known to have anti-inflammatory properties. We tested and confirmed the anti-inflammatory activity of 1-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, the most abundant lysophosphatidylcholine found in fraction C. This study demonstrated the importance of proper dereplication of bioactive extracts and fractions before isolation of compounds is commenced.

Dinoflagellates, a major class of marine eukaryote microalgae composing the phytoplankton, are widely recognised as producers of a large variety of toxic molecules, particularly neurotoxins, which can also act as potent bioactive pharmacological mediators. In addition, similarly to other microalgae, they are also good producers of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), important precursors of key molecules involved in cell physiology. Among PUFA derivatives are the prostaglandins (Pgs), important physiological mediators in several physiological and pathological processes in humans, also used as “biological” drugs. Their synthesis is very expensive because of the elevated number of reaction steps required, thus the search for new Pgs production methods is of great relevance. One possibility is their extraction from microorganisms (e.g., diatoms), which have been proved to produce the same Pgs as humans. In the present study, we took advantage of the available transcriptomes for dinoflagellates in the iMicrobe database to search for the Pgs biosynthetic pathway using a bioinformatic approach. Here we show that dinoflagellates express nine Pg-metabolism related enzymes involved in both Pgs synthesis and reduction. Not all of the enzymes were expressed simultaneously in all the species analysed and their expression was influenced by culturing conditions, especially salinity of the growth medium. These results confirm the existence of a biosynthetic pathway for these important molecules in unicellular microalgae other than diatoms, suggesting a broad diffusion and conservation of the Pgs pathway, which further strengthen their importance in living organisms.

Oxylipins are diatom-derived secondary metabolites, deriving from the oxidation of polyunsatured fatty acids that are released from cell membranes after cell damage or senescence of these single-celled algae. Previous results revealed harmful toxic effects of polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs) and hydroxyacids (HEPEs) on sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus embryonic development by testing individual compounds and mixtures of the same chemical group. Here, we investigated the combined effects of these compounds on sea urchin development at the morphological and molecular level for the first time. Our results demonstrated that oxylipin mixtures had stronger effects on sea urchin embryos compared with individual compounds, confirming that PUAs induce malformations and HEPEs cause developmental delay. This harmful effect was also confirmed by molecular analysis. Twelve new genes, involved in stress response and embryonic developmental processes, were isolated from the sea urchin P. lividus; these genes were found to be functionally interconnected with 11 genes already identified as a stress response of P. lividus embryos to single oxylipins. The expression levels of most of the analyzed genes targeted by oxylipin mixtures were involved in stress, skeletogenesis, development/differentiation, and detoxification processes. This work has important ecological implications, considering that PUAs and HEPEs represent the most abundant oxylipins in bloom-forming diatoms, opening new perspectives in understanding the molecular pathways activated by sea urchins exposed to diatom oxylipins.

Oxygenated derivatives of fatty acids, collectively called oxylipins, are a highly diverse family of lipoxygenase (LOX) products well described in planktonic diatoms. Here we report the first investigation of these molecules in four benthic diatoms, Cylindrotheca closterium, Nanofrustulum shiloi, Cocconeis scutellum, and Diploneis sp. isolated from the leaves of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica from the Gulf of Naples. Analysis by hyphenated MS techniques revealed that C. closterium, N. shiloi, and C. scutellum produce several polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs) and linear oxygenated fatty acids (LOFAs) related to the products of LOX pathways in planktonic species. Diploneis sp. also produced other unidentified fatty acid derivatives that are not related to LOX metabolism. The levels and composition of oxylipins in the benthic species match their negative effects on the reproductive success in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. In agreement with this correlation, the most toxic species N. shiloi revealed the same LOX pathways of Skeletonema marinoi and Thalassiosira rotula, two bloom-forming planktonic diatoms that affect copepod reproduction. Overall, our data highlight for the first time a major role of oxylipins, namely LOFAs, as info-chemicals for benthic diatoms, and open new perspectives in the study of the structuring of benthic communities.

The biological diversity of marine habitats is a unique source of chemical compounds with potential use as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and dietary supplements. However, biological screening and chemical analysis of marine extracts pose specific technical constraints and require adequate sample preparation. Here we report an improved method on Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) to fractionate organic extracts containing high concentration of salt that hampers the recovery of secondary metabolites. The procedure uses a water suspension to load the extracts on a poly(styrene-divynylbenzene)-based support and a stepwise organic solvent elution to effectively desalt and fractionate the organic components. The novel protocol has been tested on MeOH-soluble material from three model organisms (Reniera sarai, Dendrilla membranosa and Amphidinium carterae) and was validated on a small panel of 47 marine samples, including sponges and protists, within discovery programs for identification of immuno-stimulatory and anti-infective natural products.

Ecologically-relevant marine diatoms produce a plethora of bioactive oxylipins deriving from fatty acid oxidation, including aldehydes, hydroxy-fatty acids, epoxy-hydroxy-fatty acids, and oxo-acids. These secondary metabolites have been related to the negative effect of diatoms on copepod reproduction, causing low hatching success and teratogenesis in the offspring during periods of intense diatom blooms. The common intermediates in the formation of oxylipins are fatty acid hydroperoxides. The quantitative measurement of these intermediates can fundamentally contribute to understanding the function and role of lipoxygenase metabolites in diatom-copepod interactions. Here, we describe the successful adaptation of the ferrous oxidation-xylenol orange 2 (FOX2) assay to diatom samples, which showed several advantages over other spectrophotometric and polarographic methods tested in the present work. Using this method we assessed fatty acid hydroperoxide levels in three diatom species: Skeletonema marinoi, Thalassiosira rotula, and Chaetoceros affinis, and discuss results in light of the literature data on their detrimental effects on copepod reproduction.

The anti-proliferative effects of diatoms, described for the first time in copepods, have also been demonstrated in benthic invertebrates such as polychaetes, sea urchins and tunicates. In these organisms PUAs (polyunsaturated aldehydes) induce the disruption of gametogenesis, gamete functionality, fertilization, embryonic mitosis, and larval fitness and competence. These inhibitory effects are due to the PUAs, produced by diatoms in response to physical damage as occurs during copepod grazing. The cell targets of these compounds remain largely unknown. Here we identify some of the genes targeted by the diatom PUA 2-trans-4-trans-decadienal (DD) using the tunicate Ciona intestinalis. The tools, techniques and genomic resources available for Ciona, as well as the suitability of Ciona embryos for medium-to high-throughput strategies, are key to their employment as model organisms in different fields, including the investigation of toxic agents that could interfere with developmental processes. We demonstrate that DD can induce developmental aberrations in Ciona larvae in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, through a preliminary analysis, DD is shown to affect the expression level of genes involved in stress response and developmental processes.

Diatoms are dominant photosynthetic organisms in the world’s oceans and represent a major food source for zooplankton and benthic filter-feeders. However, their beneficial role in sustaining marine food webs has been challenged after the discovery that they produce secondary metabolites, such as polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs), which negatively affect the reproductive success of many invertebrates. Here, we report the effects of two common diatom PUAs, heptadienal and octadienal, which have never been tested before at the molecular level, using the sea urchin, Paracentrotus lividus, as a model organism. We show that both PUAs are able to induce teratogenesis (i.e., malformations), as already reported for decadienal, the better-studied PUA of this group. Moreover, post-recovery experiments show that embryos can recover after treatment with all three PUAs, indicating that negative effects depend both on PUA concentrations and the exposure time of the embryos to these metabolites. We also identify the time range during which PUAs exert the greatest effect on sea urchin embryogenesis. Finally, we report the expression levels of thirty one genes (having a key role in a broad range of functional responses, such as stress, development, differentiation, skeletogenesis and detoxification processes) in order to identify the common targets affected by PUAs and their correlation with morphological abnormalities. This study opens new perspectives for understanding how marine organisms afford protection from environmental toxicants through an integrated network of genes.

Microalgae are an excellent source of valuable compounds for nutraceutical and cosmeceutical applications. These photosynthesizing microorganisms are amenable for large-scale production, thus overcoming the bottleneck of biomass supply for chemical and activity characterization of bioactive compounds. This characteristic has recently also prompted the screening of microalgae for potential pharmaceutical applications. Here, we show that monoacylglycerides (MAGs) purified from the marine diatom Skeletonema marinoi have selective cytotoxic activity against the haematological cancer cell line U-937 and colon cancer cell line HCT-116 compared to normal MePR-2B cells. LC-MS analysis of the raw extract revealed that in their natural form, MAGs occur as 2-monoacyl derivatives and include mainly C16 and C20 analogues, but they are converted into the corresponding 1-isomers during purification processes. Pure compounds along with the synthetic 1-monoarachidonoylglycerol tested on HCT-116 and U-937 tumor cell lines induced cell death via apoptosis. The mechanism of action was investigated, and we show that it involves the induction of apoptosis through caspase 3/7 activation. These findings pave the way for the possible use of these molecules as potential anticancer agents or as precursors for the generation of new and more potent and selective compounds against tumor cells.

As people across the world live longer, chronic illness and diminished well-being are becoming major global public health challenges. Marine biotechnology may help overcome some of these challenges by developing new products and know-how derived from marine organisms. While some products from marine organisms such as microalgae, sponges, and fish have already found biotechnological applications, jellyfish have received little attention as a potential source of bioactive compounds. Nevertheless, recent studies have highlighted that scyphomedusae (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) synthesise at least three main categories of compounds that may find biotechnological applications: collagen, fatty acids and components of crude venom. We review what is known about these compounds in scyphomedusae and their current biotechnological applications, which falls mainly into four categories of products: nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, biomedicals, and biomaterials. By defining the state of the art of biotechnological applications in scyphomedusae, we intend to promote the use of these bioactive compounds to increase the health and well-being of future societies.

Enzymes are essential components of biological reactions and play important roles in the scaling and optimization of many industrial processes. Due to the growing commercial demand for new and more efficient enzymes to help further optimize these processes, many studies are now focusing their attention on more renewable and environmentally sustainable sources for the production of these enzymes. Microalgae are very promising from this perspective since they can be cultivated in photobioreactors, allowing the production of high biomass levels in a cost-efficient manner. This is reflected in the increased number of publications in this area, especially in the use of microalgae as a source of novel enzymes. In particular, various microalgal enzymes with different industrial applications (e.g., lipids and biofuel production, healthcare, and bioremediation) have been studied to date, and the modification of enzymatic sequences involved in lipid and carotenoid production has resulted in promising results. However, the entire biosynthetic pathways/systems leading to synthesis of potentially important bioactive compounds have in many cases yet to be fully characterized (e.g., for the synthesis of polyketides). Nonetheless, with recent advances in microalgal genomics and transcriptomic approaches, it is becoming easier to identify sequences encoding targeted enzymes, increasing the likelihood of the identification, heterologous expression, and characterization of these enzymes of interest. This review provides an overview of the state of the art in marine and freshwater microalgal enzymes with potential biotechnological applications and provides future perspectives for this field.

Prostaglandins (PGs) are lipid mediators belonging to the eicosanoid family. PGs were first discovered in mammals where they are key players in a great variety of physiological and pathological processes, for instance muscle and blood vessel tone regulation, inflammation, signaling, hemostasis, reproduction, and sleep-wake regulation. These molecules have successively been discovered in lower organisms, including marine invertebrates in which they play similar roles to those in mammals, being involved in the control of oogenesis and spermatogenesis, ion transport, and defense. Prostaglandins have also been found in some marine macroalgae of the genera Gracilaria and Laminaria and very recently the PGs pathway has been identified for the first time in some species of marine microalgae. In this review we report on the occurrence of prostaglandins in the marine environment and discuss the anti-inflammatory role of these molecules.

Due to the unique biodiversity and the physical-chemical properties of their environment, marine microorganisms have evolved defense and signaling compounds that often have no equivalent in terrestrial habitats. The aim of this study was to screen extracts of the dinoflagellate Amphidinium carterae for possible bioactivities (i.e., anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetes, antibacterial and antifungal properties) and identify bioactive compounds. Anticancer activity was evaluated on human lung adenocarcinoma (A549), human skin melanoma (A2058), human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2), human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF7) and human pancreas carcinoma (MiaPaca-2) cell lines. Antimicrobial activities were evaluated against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus MRSA and MSSA), Gram-negative bacteria (i.e., Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae), Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. The results indicated moderate biological activities against all the cancer cells lines and microorganisms tested. Bioassay-guided fractionation assisted by HRMS analysis allowed the detection of one new and two known amphidinols that are potentially responsible for the antifungal and cytotoxic activities observed. Further isolation, purification and structural elucidation led to a new amphidinol, named amphidinol 22. The planar structure of the new compound was determined by analysis of its HRMS and 1D and 2D NMR spectra. Its biological activity was evaluated, and it displayed both anticancer and antifungal activities.

Epidemiological studies are providing strong evidence on beneficial health effects from dietary measures, leading scientists to actively investigate which foods and which specific agents in the diet can prevent diseases. Public health officers and medical experts should collaborate toward the design of disease prevention diets for nutritional intervention. Functional foods are emerging as an instrument for dietary intervention in disease prevention. Functional food products are technologically developed ingredients with specific health benefits. Among promising sources of functional foods and chemopreventive diets of interest, microalgae are gaining worldwide attention, based on their richness in high-value products, including carotenoids, proteins, vitamins, essential amino acids, omega-rich oils and, in general, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds. Beneficial effects of microalgae on human health and/or wellness could in the future be useful in preventing or delaying the onset of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. During the past decades, microalgal biomass was predominately used in the health food market, with more than 75% of the annual microalgal biomass production being employed for the manufacture of powders, tablets, capsules or pastilles. In this review, we report and discuss the present and future role of microalgae as marine sources of functional foods/beverages for human wellbeing, focusing on perspectives in chemoprevention. We dissected this topic by analyzing the different classes of microalgal compounds with health outputs (based on their potential chemoprevention activities), the biodiversity of microalgal species and how to improve their cultivation, exploring the perspective of sustainable food from the sea.

Oxylipins such as polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs) and hydroxyacids (HEPEs) are signaling molecules derived from the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. They are common in diatoms that constitute a major group of microalgae in freshwater and oceanic ecosystems. Although HEPEs represent the most common oxylipins produced by diatoms, little information is available on their effects on marine invertebrates, and most of the information has been obtained by testing individual HEPEs. Our previous studies reported that four hydroxyacids, i.e., 5-, 9-, 11-, and 15-HEPE, were able to induce malformations and a marked developmental delay in sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus embryos, which had not been reported for other oxylipins. Here, we tested a mixture of 5-, 9-, 11-, and 15-HEPE at different concentrations for the first time. The results showed that mixtures of HEPEs have synergistic effects that are much more severe compared to those of individual HEPEs: The HEPE mixtures induced malformations in sea urchin embryos at lower concentrations. Increasing HEPE mixture concentrations induced a marked increase in the number of delayed embryos, until all embryos were delayed at the highest concentration tested. At the molecular level, the HEPE mixtures induced variations in the expression of 50 genes involved in different functional processes, mainly down-regulating these genes at the earliest stages of embryonic development. These findings are ecologically significant, considering that during diatom blooms, sea urchins could accumulate HEPEs in concentrations comparable to those tested in the present study.

Amphidinolides are cytotoxic macrolides produced by symbiotic unicellular microalgae of the genus Amphidinium. Here we describe the identification of four related molecules belonging to this macrolide family isolated from the invertebrate Stragulum bicolor. The new molecules, named amphidinolide PX1-PX3 and stragulin A (1–4), show an unprecedented carbon skeleton whose complete stereochemistry has been determined by spectroscopic and computational methods. Differences in the structures of these molecules modulate their biological activity in a panel of tumor cell lines, but the opened derivative stragulin (4) shows a very potent and specific cytotoxic activity (IC50 0.18 µM) against the aggressive human melanoma cell A2058.

Marine dinoflagellates are a valuable source of bioactive molecules. Many species produce cytotoxic compounds and some of these compounds have also been investigated for their anticancer potential. Here, we report the first investigation of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum as source of water-soluble compounds with antiproliferative activity against human lung cancer cells. A multi-step enrichment of the phenol⁻water extract yielded a bioactive fraction with specific antiproliferative effect (IC50 = 0.4 µg·mL−1) against the human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549 cell line). Preliminary characterization of this material suggested the presence of glycoprotein with molecular weight above 20 kDa. Interestingly, this fraction did not exhibit any cytotoxicity against human normal lung fibroblasts (WI38). Differential gene expression analysis in A549 cancer cells suggested that the active fraction induces specific cell death, triggered by mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy). In agreement with the cell viability results, gene expression data also showed that no mitophagic event was activated in normal cells WI38.

Marine chemical ecology comprises the study of the production and interaction of bioactive molecules affecting organism behavior and function. Here we focus on bioactive compounds and interactions associated with phytoplankton, particularly bloom-forming diatoms, prymnesiophytes and dinoflagellates. Planktonic bioactive metabolites are structurally and functionally diverse and some may have multiple simultaneous functions including roles in chemical defense (antipredator, allelopathic and antibacterial compounds), and/or cell-to-cell signaling (e.g., polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs) of diatoms). Among inducible chemical defenses in response to grazing, there is high species-specific variability in the effects on grazers, ranging from severe physical incapacitation and/or death to no apparent physiological response, depending on predator susceptibility and detoxification capability. Most bioactive compounds are present in very low concentrations, in both the producing organism and the surrounding aqueous medium. Furthermore, bioactivity may be subject to synergistic interactions with other natural and anthropogenic environmental toxicants. Most, if not all phycotoxins are classic secondary metabolites, but many other bioactive metabolites are simple molecules derived from primary metabolism (e.g., PUAs in diatoms, dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) in prymnesiophytes). Producing cells do not seem to suffer physiological impact due to their synthesis. Functional genome sequence data and gene expression analysis will provide insights into regulatory and metabolic pathways in producer organisms, as well as identification of mechanisms of action in target organisms. Understanding chemical ecological responses to environmental triggers and chemically-mediated species interactions will help define crucial chemical and molecular processes that help maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functionality.

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid with powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity produced by several freshwater and marine microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast, fungi, and microalgae. Due to its deep red-orange color it confers a reddish hue to the flesh of salmon, shrimps, lobsters, and crayfish that feed on astaxanthin-producing organisms, which helps protect their immune system and increase their fertility. From the nutritional point of view, astaxanthin is considered one of the strongest antioxidants in nature, due to its high scavenging potential of free radicals in the human body. Recently, astaxanthin is also receiving attention for its effect on the prevention or co-treatment of neurological pathologies, including Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. In this review, we focus on the neuroprotective properties of astaxanthin and explore the underlying mechanisms to counteract neurological diseases, mainly based on its capability to cross the blood-brain barrier and its oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties.

The diatom-derived polyunsaturated aldehydes (PUAs), 2-trans,4-trans-decadienal, 2-trans,4-trans-octadienal, 2-trans,4-trans,7-octatrienal, 2-trans,4-trans-heptadienal, as well as tridecanal were tested on early and later larval development in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. We also tested the effect of some of the more abundant diatom polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on development, in particular 5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), one of the main precursors of diatom PUAs, as well as 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid (stearidonic acid), 6,9,12-octadecatrienoic acid (γ-linolenic acid) and 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (linoleic acid). PUAs blocked sea urchin cell cleavage in a dose dependent manner and with increasing chain length from C7 to C10 PUAs, with arrest occurring at 27.27 µM with heptadienal, 16.13 µM with octadienal, 11.47 µM with octatrienal and 5.26 mM with decadienal. Of the PUFAs tested, only EPA and stearidonic acid blocked cleavage, but at much higher concentrations compared to PUAs (331 μM for EPA and 181 μM for stearidonic acid). Sub-lethal concentrations of decadienal (1.32–5.26 μM) delayed development of embryos and larvae which showed various degrees of malformations depending on the concentrations tested. Sub-lethal concentrations also increased the proportion of TUNEL-positive cells indicating imminent death in embryos and larvae. Using decadienal as a model PUA, we show that this aldehyde can be detected spectrophotometrically for up to 14 days in f/2 medium.