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True mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus Raf.) compensates for annual growth lost to browsing under conditions of high resource availability. To develop better guidelines for its management for big game winter forage, twig demography was studied under natural herbivory and resource availability inside and outside exclosures at 1 site in the Wasatch Mountains and on 4 sites on the North Slope of the Uinta Mountains, Utah. Annual and previous years' twig lengths, as well as location and numbers of flowers and seeds were diagrammed on branches of browsed and unbrowsed shrubs in the spring or summer and fall between 1996 and 1999. Annual twig growth and flower and seed numbers of both browsed and unbrowsed shrubs were greatest in 1997 or 1998 when precipitation was highest. Utilization of annual growth varied among sites within a year and among years within a site and ranged from 300 % when previous years' growth was browsed. Despite differences in utilization, browsed twigs compensated similarly for length lost to herbivory, so that total twig lengths remained the same over the course of the study. Although twigs on unbrowsed shrubs had less annual growth per unit branch length than those on browsed shrubs, lack of length lost to herbivory resulted in an increase in total twig length over time. Years of high resource availability are important in allowing grazing tolerant shrubs such as true mountain mahogany to compensate for years of heavy utilization. Flower and seed numbers were much higher (P 100 %) even on years of high resource availability. DOI:10.2458/azu_jrm_v56i6_turley

A 1 year survey was developed to identify conflicts and solutions to conflicts between hunters and ranchers. A questionnaire was mailed to randomly selected groups of 1,000 hunters and 989 ranchers in Montana. One-third of the questionnaire was different for the 2 groups and consisted of questions relating to background information. The other two-thirds was identical between the groups and presented questions related to perceived problems and solutions, big game populations, importance of private and agricultural land to wildlife and hunter/rancher representation. Thirty-five percent of the hunters and 42% of the ranchers responded to the survey. The top 3 conflicts between hunters and ranchers as identified by hunters were too little access to private land, driving off roads, and trespassing. The top 3 solutions selected by hunters were greater consideration and appreciation by ranchers, better communication between groups, and better boundary identification. The top 3 problems identified by ranchers were driving off roads, trespassing, and too many hunters. The top 3 solutions selected by ranchers were stiffer penalties for violators, better communication between groups, and greater consideration and appreciation by hunters. Both hunters and ranchers ranked driving off roads and trespassing in their top 3 problems and ranked better communication and greater consideration and appreciation in their top 3 solutions. Hunters and ranchers have different (P < 0.01) views of who represents them in hunter/rancher related issues. Forty-seven percent of the hunters responding believe they represent themselves or have no representation; whereas, 57% of the ranchers responding indicated they are represented by livestock producer groups. Results of this survey indicate that hunters and ranchers have similar concerns and better communication will help alleviate conflicting interests.

We evaluated the ability of the linked sex harvest strategy (LSHS) proposed by Mccullough et al. (1990) to determine optimum harvest of cervid populations from harvest statistics alone. This strategy purports to optimize total harvest by adjusting female harvest in response to observed changes in male harvest, without knowing the population's size or vital parameters (age-specific survival and productivity), and without an explicit population model. To examine LSHS, we evaluated a series of population models spanning a range of assumptions and parameter values that encompass many cervid populations. Deterministic simulations and numerical optimization were used to examine the response of these models to LSHS. Both ready state and dynamic responses of harvest statistics proposed for detecting optimal yield were examined. Based on our analyses, we were unable to identify general conditions under which LSHS, as currently proposed, provides a sound basis for harvest management. Reliable information regarding a population's vital parameters and current size of each age-sex class remains the only sound basis for near-optimum big game management involving female harvests

Because mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) cause extensive and costly damage to orchards, nurseries, shelterbelts, and ornamental plantings in Colorado, we evaluated 3 concentrations (0.062, 0.62, and 6.2 %) of Hot Sauce Animal Repellent® (Hot Sauce), habanero peppers, Tabasco® sauce, Ani-spray®, and liquid MGK® Big Game Repellent (BGR) as browsing deterrents on tame mule deer from 31 December 1991 to 25 January 1992. While consumption of apple twigs treated with Anispray and the 0.062 % concentration of Hot Sauce did not differ (P > 0.05) from the control (tap water), a 6.2 % concentration of Hot Sauce (100 times the concentration labeled for deer) and BGR reduced (P < 0.05) consumption relative to the control and other repellents

Unbiased estimates of harvest are requisite to game management. We evaluated the response bias of harvest estimates obtained from 1991 telephone surveys used by the Colorado Division of Wildlife to estimate big game harvest. Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elaphus) hunters that completed their hunt and were leaving North Park, Colorado, were interviewed once at check stations and again 2-3 months later by telephone to determine whether they had harvested an animal. We determined the Game Management Unit (GMU) of harvest, which GMUs they hunted, and the number of days hunted in each GMU. Harvest estimates from the 2 surveys were similar (P ≥ 0.736). Game Management Unit of harvest was the same on the 2 surveys for 67.4 % of the mule deer hunters and 80.2 % of the elk hunters

This study was conducted in a sagebrush-bitterbrush vegetation type in southcentral Wyoming to compare the effects of mowing and 2,4-D application on shrub cover and bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata Pursh) use, preference values, browse values, and residual twig weight after summer/fall browsing by cattle and winter big game use. Areas 3 to 6 ha in size were mowed, sprayed with 2,4-D, or left untreated on 4 different sites. Total shrub cover was reduced from 38% (53% mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp. vaseyana), 37% bitterbrush) to 23% (38% sagebrush, 52% bitterbrush) by mowing, and to 17% (18% sagebrush, 64% bitterbrush) by herbicide application. Twig weight use was greater on mowed areas, on the more productive sites, and during summer cattle browsing when leaves were present than during winter browsing by big game. Frequency of use was inversely related to bitterbrush availability, although the relationship was confounded by different snow depths on different sites. Utilization values based on basal diameter were more sensitive to site and treatment effects than length and weight utilization values, but were influenced by differences in twig morphology and did not reflect differences in twig use, preference values, browse values, or browsing residual weights. Mowing produced the greatest preference values and browsing residual weights for cattle browsing and the greatest browse values for both cattle and big game. Preference values, browse values, and browsing residual weight appear to be useful indicators of site, treatment, and browsing effects.

Because of the extent and cost of elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) damage in Colorado, we tested the repellency of MGK? Big Game Repellent (BGR), chicken eggs, coyote (Canis latrans) urine, Hinder?, Hot Sauce Animal Repellent? (Hot Sauce), Ro -pel?, and thiram on tame cow elk there from December 1990 to February 1991. At the concentrations used, coyote urine and BGR performed better than the other repellents for deterring elk from feeding on cubed alfalfa hay. Consumption of rations treated with odor repellents (BGR, chicken eggs, coyote urine, and Hinder) increased from day 1 through day 5 of the trial, but consumption of rations treated with thiram (a taste repellent) decreased. In a second trial, hungry elk consumed significantly more repellent-treated apple twigs (Malus domestica) than did elk that were maintained on an ad libitum diet. Hot Sauce, applied at 100 times (6.2%) the labeled concentration for deer (Odocoileus spp.), deterred all 9 satiated elk and 7 of 9 hungry elk from browsing on apple twigs, but the labeled concentration (0.06%) failed to deter most elk fed ad libitum and all elk when hungry. Coyote urine, at 10% and 100% concentrations, failed to deter hungry elk, but the 100% solution moderately deterred elk fed ad libitum from browsing on apple twigs. Thiram applied at the labeled concentration and at 10% of the labeled concentration for deer failed to deter any elk when hungry and most elk when fed ad libitum. In a third trial, Hot Sauce at concentrations of 0.06%, 0.20%, and 0.62% did not deter any of 9 elk fed 50% of their average daily intake, but the 2.0% and 6.2% concentrations deterred 2 and 6 elk, respectively. Hot Sauce, at concentrations of 6.2% and 12.4%, and 100% coyote urine were not phytotoxic to apple trees. Abstract: Because of the extent and cost of elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) damage in Colorado, we tested the repellency of MGK? Big Game Repellent (BGR), chicken eggs, coyote (Canis latrans) urine, Hinder?, Hot Sauce Animal Repellent? (Hot Sauce), Ro -pel?, and thiram on tame cow elk there from December 1990 to February 1991. At the concentrations used, coyote urine and BGR performed better than the other repellents for deterring elk from feeding on cubed alfalfa hay. Consumption of rations treated with odor repellents (BGR, chicken eggs, coyote urine, and Hinder) increased from day 1 through day 5 of the trial, but consumption of rations treated with thiram (a taste repellent) decreased. In a second trial, hungry elk consumed significantly more repellent-treated apple twigs (Malus domestica) than did elk that were maintained on an ad libitum diet. Hot Sauce, applied at 100 times (6.2%) the labeled concentration for deer (Odocoileus spp.), deterred all 9 satiated elk and 7 of 9 hungry elk from browsing on apple twigs, but the labeled concentration (0.06%) failed to deter most elk fed ad libitum and all elk when hungry. Coyote urine, at 10% and 100% concentrations, failed to deter hungry elk, but the 100% solution moderately deterred elk fed ad libitum from browsing on apple twigs. Thiram applied at the labeled concentration and at 10% of the labeled concentration for deer failed to deter any elk when hungry and most elk when fed ad libitum. In a third trial, Hot Sauce at concentrations of 0.06%, 0.20%, and 0.62% did not deter any of 9 elk fed 50% of their average daily intake, but the 2.0% and 6.2% concentrations deterred 2 and 6 elk, respectively. Hot Sauce, at concentrations of 6.2% and 12.4%, and 100% coyote urine were not phytotoxic to apple trees.

A helicopter-assisted mark-recapture study was conducted on a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population in northern Ohio from late January to early February, 1975. Two hundred and thirty-four deer were marked with collars on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Plum Brook Station. The 2,176-ha facility was completely enclosed by a 2.44-m chain-link fence. Collared deer were visually "recaptured" by systematically surveying the Station by helicopter. The population estimate was 2,499 with a 0.95 confidence interval of 2,405-2,593, a density of 115/km2 (298/mi2). Compliance with model assumptions was investigated through a study of animals on a 122-ha Test Area separated from the rest of the Station by an interior fence. Modifications employed in this census effort eliminated many of the problems commonly encountered in mark-recapture work. Procedures for selecting the opti- mum combination of marking and sampling effort in future applications are presented. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(2):197-206 The mark-recapture method (Petersen 1896, Lincoln 1930), used extensively to estimate fish and small mammal popula- tions, has not found wide application in big game censusing. Requirements for intensive sampling and equal probability of recapture for all animals are major obstacles. Strand- gaard (1967) used the mark-recapture method to estimate the size of a roe-deer (Capreolus capreolus) population. Deer were marked with collars and visually sam- pled from an automobile. Strandgaard found his census procedure to be unsatis- factory because deer observed along the roadway did not constitute a truly random sample from the total population. However, aerial observation for recapture of marked deer can potentially solve this problem. Woolf (1973) was one of the first to use the aerial sampling approach. He marked ap- proximately 10 percent of 1,000 deer and sampled the population from a helicopter. Visually sampling deer from the air im- proves compliance with the assumption of

A study ofthe black bear (Ursus americanus) on a 100-km2 study area in the chaparral vegetation type of Arizona was initiated in 1973. During the subsequent 3.5-year period, 44 individual bears were captured and minimum density of 1 bear per 2 km2 was estimated. Twenty-eight bears were radio-instrumented and more than 1,100 locations were recorded. The radio-locations indicated that subadult males have a home range averaging 42 km2, adult males 29 km2, adult females 18 km2, and subadult females 13 km2. There is considerable overlap of home ranges among adult males. A lesser degree of overlap was observed for adult females. Twenty-four dens were located. Most den sites were at elevations between 1,300 and 1,500 m. Some bears den by 1 November, the majority by 15 November. Emergence from dens begins about 15 March and all bears, except females with cubs, leave their dens by 15 April. Females with cubs remain at den sites approximately 30 days longer. Until recently, Arizona black bears were of little interest to either hunters or wildlife biologists. The majority of bears taken in the state were shot incidental to the hunting of other big game. Few sportsmen hunted specifically for bears. Campers and picnickers also encountered bears on occasion, and livestock operators suffered varying degrees of livestock loss each year from bears. As Arizona's population has increased, campers, picnickers, and summer home residents have increas- ingly encountered bears. Also, more hunters began to

Agr., Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 74. 46 p. Griffiths, D. 1912. The thornless prickly pears. U.S. Dep. Agr., Farmers Bull. 483. 20 p. Healy, W. B. 1973. Nutritional aspects of soil ingestion by grazing animals. p. 567-588. In: G. W. Butler and R. W. Baily (Ed.). Chemistry and biochemistry of herbage. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York. Hoffman, G. D., and R. A. Darrow. 1955. Pricklypear, good or bad? Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 806. 12 p. Karns, W. J. 1952. Cowboys with blowtorches. Compressed Air Magazine 57:190-193. Maynard, L. A., and J. K. Loosli. 1969. Animal nutrition. 6th ed. McGrawHill Book Company, New York. 613 p. National Research Council (NRC). 1970. Nutrient requirements of domestic animals. No. 4 Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. 4th revised ed. Nat. Res. Counc., Washington, D.C. 55 p. Pinney, D. O., D. F. Stephens, and L. S. Pope. 1972. Lifetime effects of winter supplemental feed level and age at first parturition on range beef cows. J. Anim. Sci. 34:1067-1074. Shoop, M. C., and D. N. Hyder. 1976. Growth of replacement heifers on shortgrass ranges of Colorado. J. Range Manage. 29:4-8. Tflley, J. M. A., and R. A. Terry. 1963. A two-stage technique for in vitro digestion of forage crops. J. Brit. Grassland Soc. 18:104-111. Van Dyne, G. M. 1962. Micro-methods for nutritive evaluation of range forages. J. Range Manage. 15:303-313. Van Soest, P. J. 1965. Use of detergents in analysis of fibrous feeds. III. Study of effects of heating and drying on yield of fiber and lignin in forages. J. Ass. Offic. Chem. 48:785-790. Van Soest, P. J. 1967. Development of a comprehensive system of feed analyses and its application to forages. J. Anim. Sci. 26:119-127. Van Soest, P. J., and R. H. Wine. 1967. Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds. IV. Determination of plant cell wall constituents. J. Ass. Offic. Agr. Chem. 50:50-55. Wiltbank, J. N. 1972. Management of heifer replacements and the brood cow herd through the calving and breeding periods, p. 150-187. In: C. C. O'Mary and I. H. Dyer (Ed.), Commercial beef cattle production. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa. Woodward, T. E., W. F. Turner, and D. Griffiths. 1915. Pricklypearas feed for dairy cows. J. Agr. Res. 4:405-450.

The monthly level of phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K) in the diet of black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) in mixed-age chaparral of California was determined during 1985-86. Forage samples were harvested by hand and analyzed using standard analytical methods. Annually, dietary concentrations averaged 0.16, 0.11, 0.49, 0.25, and 0.85% for P, S, Ca, Mg, and K, respectively. Levels of P and S were below the recommended minimum requirement during most months. In contrast, levels of Ca, Mg, and K were adequate during most months. To improve forage quality in mixed-age chaparral managers can implement range improvement practices, such as prescribed burning and chemical and mechanical brush control. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(1):37-41 Columbian black-tailed deer are an important big game animal in California. In some habitats deer densities may be low due to forage of poor quality. Most studies assessing the nutrient value of deer forage have been concentrated in the Southwest (Urness et al. 1971, Varner et al. 1977, Everitt and Gonzalez 1981) and Rocky Mountain region (Short et al. 1966, Tew 1970, Wallmo et al. 1977). In California monthly levels of forage quality of selected chaparral species have been determined (Bissell and Strong 1955, Kie 1986), but the relationship between forage quality and deer diet has usually been discussed only in terms of crude protein (Taber 1956, Taber and Dasmann 1958). We report the mineral concentrations of blacktailed deer forage in mixed-age chaparral of California. Forage components were evaluated monthly for P, S, Ca, Mg, and K to identify periods of maximum and minimum forage quality and to detect real or potential problems relating to deer management in mixed-age chaparral. 1 Present Address: EG&G Energy Measurements, % NPR-1, 35R Warehouse, P.O. Box 127, Tupman, CA 93276. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.116 on Sun, 18 Sep 2016 06:41:48 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 38 BLACK-TAILED DEER DIETS * Scrivner et al. J. Wildl. Manage. 52(1):1988 Table 1. Mean percent mineral compositiona (dry-wt basis) of plant species sampled mid-monthly from June 1985 to July 1986 on the University of California Hopland Field Station.

The study of animal populations requires the knowledge of the age of individuals to better understand population structure, turnover rates, and reproductive characteristics. Many methods have been used to evaluate the age of animals from wild populations. The eye lens weight technique, refined by Lord (1959) and revised by Friend (1967a,b), has been used for small game animals (Keith and Cary 1979) as well as big game (Keller and Landry 1976). The age of woodchucks (Marmota monax L.) has been estimated primarily from morphological criteria such as body length, weight, molt and coloration, and incisor width (Snyder et al. 1961, Davis 1964). Davis (1964), and S. W. Ruckel and P. S. Scanlon (pers. commun., 1978) were the first to use the eye lens weight method on woodchucks. Davis (1964) noted that the growth of the eye lens of woodchucks >12 months was linear and that the inclusion of juveniles rendered the regression line nonlinear. During a study of woodchucks in an agricultural region, animals of known age were harvested and the regression line of eye lens weight as a function of age was determined. This paper presents the regression line determined for this population, which can be used to classify age of wild woodchucks from harvest samples. We also examine the influence of eye lens pairs with 1 l% weight differences, primarily in juveniles, on regression equations to facilitate the use of the technique on small samples.

We investigated the response of coyotes (Canis latrans) to military activity on the Pifion Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS), Colorado, during 1984-86. Sixteen coyotes responded to military activity by expanding, contracting, abandoning, or not changing their home range during military maneuvers compared to before and after maneuvers. Three coyotes abandoned their home ranges, with 1 animal returning to its original (i.e., pre-military activity) home range 1 week after maneuvers. Most coyotes that expanded or contracted their home range during military maneuvers resumed their original home range after military maneuvers ceased. Responses appeared to be related to the amount of available cover, topography, and intensity of military activity in a coyote's home range. Coyote activity patterns during the day increased, while activity at sunrise, sunset, and night remained the same during military activity. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 53(2):334-339 The response of wildlife populations to human disturbances is of concern to wildlife professionals and the public. Most research has concentrated on the response of big game species to logging (Peek and Hieb 1976, Van Dyke et al. 1986), mining (Amstrup 1978, Helms 1978, Kuck et al. 1985), recreation (Dorrance et al. 1975, Richens and Lavigne 1978, Ferguson and Keith 1982), and development (Van Dyke et al. 1986, Knight et al. 1988). The response of protected species (e.g., raptors) to recreation and human activity has also been documented (Stalmaster and Newman 1978, Knight and Knight 1984, Andersen et al. 1986). The response of coyotes to increased human activity is unknown. We documented the effect of military activity on coyote home-range size, geometric centers of activity, and activity patterns. We thank P. A. Terletzky, G. B. Perlmutter, B. A. Abel, F. M. Lentsch, and J. L. Williamson for field assistance; the Western Energy and Land Use Team and K. M. Firchow for habitat mapping; J. R. Cary for computer and statistical assistance; and N. S. Smith, D. E. Andersen, T. L. Warren, A. P. Pfister, and S. R. Emmons for review of the manuscript. This study was funded by the Environmental, Energy, and Natural Resources Division, U.S. Army, Fort Carson, Colorado, through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Colorado Fish and Wildlife Assistance Office, Golden, Colorado, and the USFWS Wisconsin Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, and the Graduate School, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Energy expenditure and heart rate during several activities in July were measured in whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) through the use of tracheal cannulas and implanted heart-rate transmitters. The energy expenditure and oxygen consumption for lying, standing/walking, and running activities were 1.01 kcal (0.21 liters of oxygen), 1.72 kcal (0.36 liters of oxygen), and 2.56 kcal (0.51 liters of oxygen) per kgo.75 per minute, respectively. These values were different (P < 0.05) from one another, as were the heart rates for these 3 activity levels: 65, 74, and 106 beats per minute. A linear relationship (P

Highlight: Utilization of shrubs has been determined by several techniques, two of which are: (1) measuring twig lengths before and after use then calculating the percentage and (2) estimating the percentage of browsed twigs. Estimates were checked for accuracy by actually counting the number of browsed and unbrowsed twigs and then calculating percentages. The two methods were compared on a big game winter range in southcentral Utah to evaluate the agreement among utilization estimates, consistency among individual observers, and efficiency. Estimating the percentage of browsed twigs or calculating percentages from counts of browsed and unbrowsed twigs provided higher utilization values than measuring twig lengths. Disadvantages of estimating percentages of browsed twigs include the introduction of individual bias when estimates are made and lack of sensitivity in accurately determining percentage utilization under heavy use. By contrast, calculating percentages of utilization from twig length measurements provided equal sensitivity throughout the 0 to 100% range. Twig measurement data were more consistent among observers than estimates. Measuring twig lengths required about four times as many man-hours as estimating percentages of browsed twigs or counting twig numbers.

Highlight: A Douglasfir-ponderosa pine-Kentucky bluegrass community was studied 14 years after grazing by cattle and big game, by big game, and no cattle or big game grazing. Heavy season-long use by cattle and big game resulted in apparent retrogression. The herbaceous component of the community was substantially changed by cattle and big game grazing but not by big game grazing alone. Grazing by cattle and big game and big game only had similar effects on the browse components of the community.

The number of slides and frequency observations per slide required for microhistological analysis was determined. Slides should be prepared so that at least 20 frequency observations are recorded per slide. When five slides were prepared per sample, reasonable estimations were obtained for species comprising 20% or more of the diet. Minor and trace species in the diet were poorly estimated indicating a large number of slides are needed for adequate precision. The microhistological technique has become one of the most favored techniques to determine the botanical composition of livestock, big game, small mammal, and insect diets. The basic procedure for the method was outlined by Sparks and Malechek (1968). Considerable time is involved in both slide preparation and plant fragment identification. The objectives of this study were to determine the number of slides and the total number of frequency observations required per slide to achieve different precision levels for major, minor, and trace species in the diet. A major species would comprise 20% or more of the diet; minor, 5 to 19a/o; and trace, less than 5%.

Prescribed burning is commonly used in marshes to alter plant species composition and density. Although burning has been used in big game management to improve the protein content of browse (e.g., Lay 1957, Leege 1969), few studies have documented the effects of burning on the nutritive quality of marsh plants (Linde 1969). Nutria (Myocastor coypus), muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), and many waterfowl species are dependent on wetland vegetation for their nutritional requirements. Linde (1969:100) proposed, and we tested, the hypothesis that prescribed burning may improve the nutritive quality of marsh plants.

Regression formulas show close relationships between weight and linear measurements of mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) captured in the Sapphire Mountains of Montana. Residual mean squares were used to compare six equations correlating weight and linear measurements. The most dependable estimates are (1) log weight = 1.2574 (log length + log girth) 2.1531, and (2) weight = 0.0011 (length X girth2) + 11.5 (measurements in English system). These formulas appear to estimate weight accurately regardless of sex or age. Girth should be recorded regularly in future studies of North American ungulates to permit calculation of similar formulas for other species. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 39(4):705-708 The mountain goat has been the subject of relatively few wildlife studies, largely due to the inaccessibility of its habitat. Very few of these wildlife studies have employed any capture methods; those which did generally were associated with mountain goat transplant operations (Cooney 1946, McDowell 1949, P-R Job Prog. Rep., Proj. 5-D-7, Montana Fish Game Dept., Helena, Stockstad 1959, Rogers 1960, Charles 1961, Wadkins 1967, P-R Job Prog. Rep., Proj. W66-R-6, Washington Dept. Game, Olympia), and measurements seldom were taken. Whole weights of both live and dead animals were recorded in Montana (Casebeer et al. 1950, Brandborg 1955, Lentfer 1955, Foss 1962) and in Alaska (Klein 1953); hog-dressed weights were compared with weights of live mountain goats in Montana (Lentfer 1955). Since linear measurements are much easier to take than whole weights, the objective of this paper is to provide an accurate method for estimating mountain goat weights from body measurements. Similar weigh estimation formulas have been used for domestic livestock (Manning and Will ams 1950, Ross 1955, 1958) and for Afric n game animals (McCulloch and Talbot 1965, Talbot and McCulloch 1965, Freeman and King 1969), but not for North American game animals. Suitable regression equations for other big game species would permit reliable whole weight estimates from field measurements. We thank G. D. Maclean, P. M. Smith, and J. T. Watkins for assisting the senior author in the trapping program and C. Smith, Montana Fish and Game Department, for providing advice and supplies. We also are indebted to N. A. Slade, Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, for statistical advice and to R. S. Hoffman, Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, for reviewing the manuscript. This study was supported by the National Rifle Association, Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Fund, Watkins Fund of the University of Kansas, National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Montana Fish and Game Department, American Forest Institute, and University of Kansas Department of Systematics and Ecology. ' Present address: Biology Department, Indiana University Northwest, 3400 Broadway, Gary 46408. 2 Present address: UMC 37, Utah State University Computer Center, Logan 84322 J. Wildl. Manage. 39 (4):1975 705 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.70 on Tue, 06 Sep 2016 05:25:37 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 706 ESTIMATING MOUNTAIN GOAT WEIGHTS * Rideout and Worthen Table 1. Residual mean square values of six weight estimation formulas for the mountain goat. EquaResidual tion mean number Formula square (1) W = 5.2458 G 95.5 105.526 (2) W = 4.2394 L 118.1 114.201 (3) W = 0.0609 LG 19.7 47.572 (4) W = 0.0011 LG2 + 11.5 43.337 (5) log W = 1.2574 (log L + log G) 2.1531 42.264 (6) log W = 0.8243 (log L + 2 log G) 2.0248 46.725 MATERIALS AND METHODS Mountain goats were captured in a pen trap in the Sapphire Mountains of Montana during the period 1971-73 (Rideout 1974a, b) for instrumentation in a radiotelemetry study of mountain goat movements (Rideout 1973, 1974b). Linear measurements, in inches, were obtained with a flexible steel tape, and weights were taken with a Hanson spring scale with 200-pound capacity and recorded to the nearest pound. Measurements were taken of 27 goats captured from June to November. Total handling time, during which the animals were marked, measured, and released, was 30-45 minutes. The mountain goats used in this study were taken from one herd and included a fairly complete cross-section of the population with regard to both sex and age. The measurements considered in this paper include (1) total length (L), measured from the tip of the nose to the tip of the tail along body contours, (2) girth (G), measured around the chest directly behind the forelegs, and (3) whole weight (W). Linear regression techniques (Sokal and Rohlf 1969) were used for weight estimation formulas. Calculations were carried out with the Honeywell 635 computer at the University of Kansas with programs written primarily by the junior author. Six equations were compared for best estimates of the weight by examining the residual mean square values (unexplained sums of squares /degrees of freedom). In the case of log transformed values, Y values were con180

On August 27, 1826, over 130 years ago, Dr. David Douglas met an Indian near the site of the present town of The Dalles, Oregon, while traveling from Walla Walla to Fort Vancouver, Washington. Douglas obtained from the Indian a mountain sheep that had been killed near Mount Adams, Washington. This specimen provided the basis for his description of Ovis californianus (Ovis canadensis californiana). At the time (1826), mountain sheep ranged over much of the mountains and desert regions of California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. At present the subspecies is nearly extinct in California, extinct or nearly so in Oregon, and reduced to perhaps one band in Washington, in the vicinity of Bauerman Ridge and Mount Chopaka. A few small bands are still present in British Columbia (see Cowan, American Midland Naturalist, 24: 557-558. 1940). In 1889 the display collection of big game animals at the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, was being built, and Professor L. L. Dyche made an expedition to Mount Chopaka, Okanogan County, Washington, to collect specimens of mountain sheep. According to the Museum catalogue no less than 54 specimens of O. c. californiana were brought back to the Museum by the expedition. Of these 54, according to the catalogue, 5 are without skulls, 8 specimens have the skulls mounted within the skins, and 4 are on deposit elsewhere. A total of 37 skulls, of which 33 are males and 4 are females, have been studied by us. This is the largest series of North American bighorns from any one locality (Mount Chopaka) known to us to exist in any museum (see also Cowan, op. cit., 509). Much of the flesh of most of these skulls was cut away in the field, but only recently have the skulls been more completely cleaned in order to check accurately the age-variation and individual variation.

use as a definite example the "Summary of Records of Shooting Preserves Reporting Deer Killed" by Sanders (Journ. Wildl. Mgt., 6: 187, 1941). He records a total kill of 5,617 bucks on 984,097 acres of shooting preserves, an average of one to 172 acres, in four Texas counties-Kerr, Llano, Gillespie, and Mason-where the sportsmen believe that the range is greatly overpopulated and the sex ratio of deer is seriously out of balance. It is contended that there are 10 to 50 does for each buck on the range, but the wildest of these claims can definitely be disproved. The known factor is one buck killed for every 172 acres; the sex ratio, popilation density, and percentage of bucks killed by sportsmen are unknown. To widen our knowledge of either sex ratio or population density a series of hypothetical figures is established for one or the other factor. It is immaterial which is used. This is demonstrated in Table

Upon examination the head showed a firm, movable mass on the right jaw, and the skin over the enlargement was largely denuded of hair (P1. 8, A). An attempt to remove the skin over the affected area disclosed a large impacted food mass in the right .buccal cavity, over which the skin and musculature of the cheek were stretched to parchment thinness. The mass (P1. 8, B) measured 10X 15 X 7? cm. and weighed 21 ounces. The first two right upper molars were loose and displaced mesally, but the lower molars appeared unaffected. The gum was receded on both the upper and lower right lateral tooth lines, the upper gum farther than the lower.

digger pines when applied to the trees by the basal cut method. 2. Amine 2,4-D was the most effective formulation tried. Concentrates of amine 2,4-D containing 5.5 lbs. acid equivalent per gallon were more effective than lower concentrations or diluted forms. 3. Cup spacings not over 4 inches apart were found to be important in obtaining complete kills on digger pines. 4. Seasonal effects of herbicide applications apparently depend upon the growth rate of the trees, which in turn is influenced by seasonal precipitation and soil moisture. Dormant trees in a dry soil were more difficult to kill than trees which had started growth after fall rains.

mation on the magnitude of the original big game population of the area that is now Yellowstone National Park and on the extent to which the plant cover of this region was utilized by herbivorous game animals. The accounts of the early explorers of the Yellowstone Park country do not mention the presence of large herds but their visits were nearly always made during the summer months when the animals, unrestricted by deep snows, could roam all over the country and were scattered about in small bands. For this reason it was difficult to estimate or visualize accu

Prior to 1921, the only big game animal indigenous to the Kodiak Island group was the Kodiak bear ( Ursus middendorffi). Big game animals introduced to the Islands in recent years have been: deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis), 1924, elk (Cervus canadensis roosevelti), 1928, and mountain goats (Oreamnos kennedyi), 1952. This paper reports the success of the introduction of the Roosevelt elk, their present population and distribution, local habits and characteristics, and the hunting harvest.

I think many range technicians would agree that the identification and attainment of proper grazing use has been, is now, and will be in the future our most urgent problem in rangeland utilization by domestic livestock and big game animals. Despite supporting evidence from research studies and from an increasing number of individual ranch enterprises, we still have a long way to go in attaining universal application of this concept. Some of the things that will need doing to gain increasing acceptance of this practice include: a.Additional research that will identify what constitutes proper grazing use for additional kinds of rangeland, and for different seasons of use and different stages of plant growth.

Chemical analyses may not be feasible for fat content of femur marrows of big game animals, and to describe color and textures of marrows subjectively is difficult except for extreme characteristics. It was found that the ether-extractable fat content of a femur marrow is related inversely to compressibility of the marrow. A known length of femur marrow reveals its compression and this is easily measured in percent. The freshly obtained femur marrows from 291 elk (wapiti) (Cervus canadensis) were measured at room temperature by the method described and the percent compression compared to the ether-extractable fat content of identical marrows. The amount of compression was also related to fat content of femur marrows of mule deer (Odocoileus h. hemionus), pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana), moose (Alces americana), and cattle. By chemical analysis, fat content varied up to 10 percent between fresh and frozen subsamples of a marrow. The method of measuring femur marrow compression indicates fat content accurately enough for some studies, without delay or laboratory costs. The color and consistency of femur marrows are correlated with the alcohol-etherextraction fat content and indicate condition of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Cheatum 1949). Marrow of deer in good condition is white and solid; that of undernourished deer is gelatinous, and yellow or red. Riney (1955:435) used a system of index values for various colors and textures to permit visual estimation of fat in femur marrow of red deer (Cervus elaphus). Marrow characteristics have limitations in assessing condition of black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), according to Bischoff (1954). He considered that only consistency of a marrow was an adequate measure of its condition. Collections of big game animals provide femur marrows that may be chemically analyzed or grossly examined as a criterion for condition. Under some circumstances the laboratory analysis for fat content in femurs may not be feasible. Femur consistency is difficult to describe and is subject to variable evaluations among different observers. A quantitative method was devised to evaluate femur consistency in 1 A contribution from Montana Federal Aid Project W-83-R. which determinations are easily repeated by the same person, as well as duplicated by other persons.

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Two sources of bias in mail questionnaire surveys to determine game harvests are response bias and non-response bias. Response bias was tested in a 3-year survey of deer hunters whose perform- ance was known. In the survey years, net error in estimating total deer harvest was 7.6 percent, with 9.1 percent of unsuccessful hunters reporting a kill and 4.5 percent of the successful hunters reporting no kill. Non-response bias was tested using intensive follow-up mailings and personal contact in a single year. A significant non-response bias toward overestimation was demonstrated in one of the four hunt- ing license types (Resident Big Game) and a correction factor of 8.0 percent was suggested for this license type. Results of both surveys suggest that the mail questionnaire method of estimating deer harvest provides reasonable estimates of total harvest. Two major sources of bias can be noted in the sample surveys traditionally con- ducted by many state Fish and Game De- partments to determine the extent of har- vest. These are: (1) response bias, that is, the bias introduced by respondents who incorrectly report their hunting activity (either by mistake or by design), and (2) non-response bias, that is, differences in hunting activity or performance between those who respond to the mailed question- naires and those who do not respond. This paper will set forth techniques used by the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish to estimate and to adjust for these sources of error in deer harvest surveys.