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The Special SIMA Seminar on Malaria in Irrigated Agriculture at the 18th ICID International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage was one of the activities aimed at increasing awareness in the agricultural community on the potential of environmental interventions to reduce malaria under Output 4 of SIMA. This document contains papers and abstracts submitted for this seminar in Montreal, Canada. The authors themselves are responsible for their contributions and it is hoped that the publication of these proceedings will stimulate discussions among participants of the seminar as well as in the wider SIMA Network. This seminar is organized by SIMA, the CGIAR Systemwide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture, in collaboration with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). This and subsequent scientific seminars will gather experts on malaria and agriculture to contribute to the development of a comprehensive knowledge base on malaria and agriculture.

This paper on Water for Rural Development is divided into two parts. The first part outlines the most important issues from IWMI's point of view on water for rural development, with a focus on developing countries. This part identifies, discusses and provides recommendations for key areas for interventions in water resources development and management in the context of rural development. The second part of the document provides analyses of present and future water resources in the World Bank's defined regions.

Over the past decade, we have witnessed a growing scarcity of and competition for water around the world. As the demand for water for domestic, municipal, industrial, and environmental purposes rises in the future, less water will be available for agriculture. But the potentials for new water resource development projects and expanding irrigated area are limited. We must therefore find ways to increase the productivity of water used for irrigation. This paper reviews the literature on irrigation efficiency and on the potential for increasing the productivity of water in rice-based systems. It stresses the continuing confusion over the concepts of irrigation efficiency and water productivity. It identifies the reasons for the wide gap between water requirement and actual water input (both irrigation diversions and rainfall) in irrigated rice production systems and discusses potential opportunities for increasing water productivity both on-farm and at the system level. Based on the reported low farm and system level irrigation efficiencies, the potentials for water savings in rice production appear to be very large. But we do not know the degree to which various farm and system interventions will lead to sustainable water savings in the water basin until we can quantify the downstream impact of the interventions. Studies on the economic benefits and costs, and environmental aspects of alternative interventions are also lacking. This paper emphasizes the need to measure the productivity of water at farm, system, and basin levels, and to understand how the productivity at one level relates to the productivity at another. Without water balance studies to measure productivity at these different scales, it is not possible to identify the potential economic benefits of alternative interventions and the most appropriate strategies for increasing irrigation water productivity in rice-based systems.

The study is reported in two Working Papers. Working Paper 17 reports the findings of the HIM exercise. This paper contains the policies, legislation and organizations relevant for understanding of the HIM for the Olifants river basin. It also includes the historical development of the institutional framework in the basin, as this history has left a profound imprint on the South African society at large and is still dictating, in many cases, the interactions between the different organizations. This background on previous and current institutions and policies at the different government levels is used to shed light on the current relationships between different organizations in the basin. Although focusing on the Olifants, the description provided is applicable to the rest of South Africa in broad terms.

This working paper contains the proceedings of the workshop that was organized on 14 March 2001 in Hanoi, gathering experts from the various disciplines such as health, environment, water resources management, irrigation, agriculture, soil sciences, water quality, etc. to discuss the findings of 16 papers on different aspects of wastewater reuse. The proceedings of this workshop are presented here in summary form, which we hope will provide a bird's-eye view of the current knowledge in Vietnam on this subject to a wide spectrum of interested persons.

Water is being transferred out of agriculture to meet the growing demand in other areas, often without an agreement of or compensation to farmers with irrigated land and water rights. Furthermore, there is a failure to recognize that irrigation systems supply water not only for the main fields, but also for domestic uses, home gardens, trees and other permanent vegetation, and livestock. Other productive uses include fishing, harvesting of aquatic plants and animals, and a variety of other enterprises such as brick making. In addition, irrigation systems can have a positive or negative effect on wildlife habitats. Thus, the withdrawal of water affects the rural household, rural economy, and the environment in a number of ways. This paper argues that to ensure efficient, equitable, and sustainable water use, to reduce poverty and improve the well-being of the community, irrigation and water resources policies need to take into account all uses and users of water within the irrigation system. The multiple uses of water in the Kirindi Oya irrigation system are examined in this paper. An interdisciplinary group of scientists have investigated a number of areas including water accounting, water quality, household water use, the valuing of water for alternative uses, and the complementarities, competition, and conflicts among uses and users.

This paper aims to describe the state of the art of both water harvesting (WH) and supplemental irrigation (SI) techniques in the temperate and sub-tropical dry lands, especially in the countries of WANA that are characterized by a Mediterranean-type climate. In addition, three case studies of water harvesting are presented (see annex). These were selected from the case studies presented at the FAO Expert Consultation Cairo (1994). By sharing with us the success and the failure of these endeavors, the authors of the case studies illustrate many of the points that are made in the text. They also illustrate how difficult it is to successfully introduce new technologies to farmers, who at the outset are not usually familiar with the intended purpose of the changes. Also, this paper emphasises that it is difficult to assess the potential for adoption without more studies to assess the risks and economic returns of the alternative techniques and practices.

The System-Wide Initiative on Water Management (SWIM) has defined its central theme and objective as "enhancing the productivity of water and agriculture in an environment of growing scarcity and competition." One program area of SWIM, namely SWIM 7, has the aim of improving the utilization of water resources from the catchment perspective. This paper has been prepared as part of the process of planning research that is to be undertaken by SWIM 7. The paper includes a historical review of research that has involved the use of catchment experiments and a discussion on hydrological modeling techniques. Options for improving water utilization at the catchment and farm scales are identified, and recommendations are made for research that might be undertaken by SWIM 7. The case is argued for interdisciplinary catchment studies that involve the participation of local communities and other stakeholders.

Enduring low agricultural productivity is one of the major causes of rural poverty in South Asia. Based on a review of recent empirical studies, this paper focuses on three key questions: (1) why is agricultural productivity low in the region?; (2) what are the key constraints and opportunities for enhancing agricultural productivity; and (3) what are the effective mechanisms to improve access to key productivity enhancing technologies, factors and services. Two major points raised in the paper are: (a) improved management of land and water is important for increasing productivity, but equally important is farmers' access to non land and water-related inputs and services, which through their complementary relationships with water, increase the productivity and value of water. Even if most of the constraints related to land and water are removed through improved management, the resulting gains in productivity may not be sufficient-in the presence of constraints related to other factors and services-to have any significant impacts on poverty. Therefore, in order to generate any major increases in productivity, farmers' improved access to non land and water-related factors and services is also important; (b) access to these factors and services can be improved by providing them in an integrated manner with public-private sector partnerships. Based on examples of various models, initiatives and practices from Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, China, Sub-Saharan Mrica and other countries, the study suggests a framework for integrated services provision in the agriculture sector, and raises key research issues and questions to be explored.

The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) has, for many years, been involved in research on pesticide poisoning to analyse the reasons for the high number of pesticide poisoning cases in Sri Lanka and discuss ways of controlling the problem through changes in agricultural practices and community involvement. More recently, research has focused on risk factors for deliberate and occupational pesticide poisoning and on the impact that a shift towards Integrated Pest Management (IPM) will have on the health of farming families. A workshop on "Pesticides: Health Impacts and Alternatives" was held at the Colombo Hilton Hotel on 24 January 2002. The workshop marked the end of IWMI's research on pesticide poisoning in Sri Lanka and provided researchers and policy makers from various disciplines such as health, environment, and agriculture an opportunity to share and discuss recent findings and to discuss strategies to reduce pesticide poisoning. This paper presents the workshop proceedings and includes a resource handbook for Sri Lanka on health impacts of pesticides and alternatives by listing names of relevant institutes, addresses and annotated references.

This paper presents a Benchmark Basin initiative which was proposed in IWMI's Strategic Plan 2001-2005 as an approach to understand and beneficially influence water resources development in selected basins in a variety of agro-ecological zones. The initial task represented by this workshop is to conduct a dialogue among partners and stakeholders in the Ruhuna Basin, Sri Lanka. A major objective is to identify these issues and research and also development activities considered to be of highest priority to partners and stakeholders.

The world is facing severe and growing challenges in maintaining water quality and meeting the rapidly growing demand for water resources. In addition, water used for irrigation, the largest use of water in most developing countries, will likely have to be diverted increasingly to meet the needs of urban areas and industry whilst remaining a prime engine of agricultural growth. Finally, environmental and other in-stream water demands become more important as economies develop. The river basin has been acknowledged to be the appropriate unit of analysis to address these challenges facing water resources management; and modeling at this scale can provide essential information for policy makers in their decisions on allocation of resources. This paper reviews the state of the art of modeling approaches to integrated water resources management at the river basin scale, with particular focus on the potential of coupled economic hydrologic models, and concludes with directions for future modeling exercises.

This is the first volume of the proceedings of the National Conference on 'Water for Food and Environment', which was held from June 9-11, 2009 at the Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall (BMICH). The volumes 1 and 3 have been produced as separate documents of this report series. In response to a call for abstracts, 81 abstracts were received from government institutes dealing with water resources and agriculture development, universities, other freelance researchers and researchers from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Forty seven of the eighty-one abstracts that were submitted were accepted for compiling full papers. In the past couple of years the sharp increase in food prices worldwide has raised serious concerns about food security, especially in developing countries. To effectively address these concerns a holistic approach is required that encompasses improved agricultural water productivity, adaptation to climate change, targeted and appropriate institutional and financial measures, and a consideration of environmental issues. The main purpose of the conference was to share experiences in these areas and to find opportunities to improve farmers' incomes and food production, and to promote environmentally sustainable practices in Sri Lanka in the face of growing water scarcity and the challenges of climate change.

This is the second volume of the proceedings of the National Conference on 'Water for Food and Environment', which was held from June 9-11, 2009 at the Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall (BMICH). The volumes 1 and 3 have been produced as separate documents of this report series. In response to a call for abstracts, 81 abstracts were received from government institutes dealing with water resources and agriculture development, universities, other freelance researchers and researchers from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Forty seven of the eighty-one abstracts that were submitted were accepted for compiling full papers. In the past couple of years the sharp increase in food prices worldwide has raised serious concerns about food security, especially in developing countries. To effectively address these concerns a holistic approach is required that encompasses improved agricultural water productivity, adaptation to climate change, targeted and appropriate institutional and financial measures, and a consideration of environmental issues. The main purpose of the conference was to share experiences in these areas and to find opportunities to improve farmers' incomes and food production, and to promote environmentally sustainable practices in Sri Lanka in the face of growing water scarcity and the challenges of climate change.

Focusing on mixed crop-livestock farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa, this review brings together the available knowledge in the various components of the livestock and water sectors. Through an analysis of livestock-water interactions, promising strategies and interventions to improve Livestock Water Productivity are proposed. In the biophysical domain, the numerous interventions relate to feed, water and animal management. These are interlinked with interventions in the socio-political-economic domain. The paper identifies critical research and development gaps in terms of methodologies for quantifying water productivity and integrating different scales, and also in terms of institutions and policies.

In West Africa, especially in the Sahelian countries of Burkina Faso, Niger, Mali and Mauritania, erratic rainfall sequences within and between years has often led to a high uncertainty in rainfed crop production. Over the past three decades, severe food shortages attributed to drought have been frequently reported in several Sahelian countries, most of which are amongst the least developed of the world. Innovative and indigenous ways to achieve improved crop yields through integrated land and water management such as rainwater harvesting and soil water conservation have been successfully tested and, in some cases, adopted in West Africa. This paper highlights the successful interventions of improved indigenous rainwater harvesting/soil water conservation technologies such as Zaï or tassa, stone rows and half-moon in the Sahelian zones of West Africa over the past 10 years, and their contributions to enhancing food security and alleviating poverty. The potential for adoption of these technologies at the farm level and their outscaling to areas with similar agroecological zones are also discussed.

Use of un-treated/partially treated wastewater for irrigation in the dry countries of Asia and Africa and recycling of treated wastewater in the water scarce developed countries has become a common practice due to various reasons. While the lack of wastewater treatment to appropriate levels before use is a major problem in developing countries, the high cost of wastewater recycling is the major problem in developed countries. The current paper is part of a doctoral research and presents the conceptual framework for the research and the methodology that can be used to tackle the problems associated with wastewater recycling.

The paper reviews the existing methods used in India for estimation of flow characteristics at ungauged sites. It focuses on low and high flows, long-term mean flow and flow duration curves. Since it lists the actual formulae, it can be used as a quick reference guide for selecting a suitable technique for various geographical regional and/or river basins in India.

This working paper has been prepared as one of the outputs of the 'Improved water and land management in the Ethiopian Highlands and its impact on downstream stakeholders dependent on the Blue Nile project, supported by the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF). It provides a comprehensive literature review; identifies types, sources and provides geo-referencing of data in the basin; compiles information of hydrology, sediment, and water resources and its uses. It also provides a review of applicable models for watershed and water allocation simulation, research methods, past studies and published material related to the Blue Nile. Extensive reference material and previous studies are compiled.

This paper is a collaborative research between the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Agricultural Engineering Research Centre of Taiwan. This study contributes to IWMI's program on the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. The research in 2003 consists of two components. First, research in Taiwan continues on estimating the positive and negative externalities of paddy-rice production. Second, research is being conducted in Sri Lanka to assess more broadly the impact of water resource development. In addition, two extensive literature reviews have been completed.

Although many irrigation systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka have water shortage problems, water consumption is very high during land preparation. This paper analyzes the impact of institutional interventions on efficient water management, especially during the land preparation period. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors behind prolonged periods of land preparation so that system managers and farmers communities can develop appropriate interventions to reduce water consumption.

This working paper gives an overview of the available global datasets on irrigated areas and an evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses. From these analyses an outline on how to develop a global irrigated area map, based on a generic methodology, is be presented. Some examples are given for the area covering India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. These countries offer a broad range of irrigated areas in different environmental settings, ranging from deserts to humid tropics.

Analyses the participation of female farmers in the farmer organizations (FO) of minor irrigation systems and identifies factors that hamper the participation of women in decision-making processes with regard to land, cultivation and irrigation. The paper argues that participation does not necessarily result in equity and that other forms of equity interact with gender inequity in the FOs.

This paper reviews the conditions and progress towards empowerment of farmer organizations under the Farmer-Managed Irrigated Agriculture Project in the Sindh Province of Pakistan. It discusses the conditions necessary to achieve the goal of an empowered and vitalized farmer organization, the issue of legal status, skill-building activities to build the capacity of the members to manage their own affairs, and institutional issues.

This paper presents an approach for analyzing the socioeconomic, health, and environmental aspects of urban wastewater use in peri-urban agriculture, using typical characteristics of a major city in a developing country. Peri-urban area of Faisalabad is chosen to represent this context.

This paper analyzes the tubewell data collected by IIMI-Pakistan over a period of 4 years. While the main emphasis remains on the operation of private tubewells, public tubewells and canal water supplies are included in the analyses to give a more comprehensive picture of the conjunctive use environment, a characteristic of most of the irrigated areas of the Punjab, Pakistan.

Discharge from the Krishna River into the ocean decreased by 75 percent from 1960-2005, and was zero during a recent multi-year drought. This paper describes the physical geography and hydrology of the Krishna Basin, including runoff production and a basic water account based on hydronomic zones. More than 50 percent of the basin's irrigated area is groundwater irrigation, which is not currently included in inter-state allocation rules. Future water allocation will require inclusion of the interactions among all irrigated areas, including those irrigated by groundwater and surface water.

The success of development programs depends on the role of underlying institutions and the impact synergies from closely related programs. Existing literature has limitations in accounting for these critical factors. This paper fills this gap by developing a methodology, which can quantify both the institutional roles in impact generation and the impact synergies from related programs. The methodology is applied to the Kala Oya Basin in Sri Lanka for evaluating the impacts of three development programs and 11 institutions on food security. The results provide valuable insights on the relative roles of institutions and the varying flow of impact synergies both within and across impact pathways.

The purpose of this paper is to summarize IIMI/IWMI's past research and interventions related to irrigation management transfer and to document, to the extent possible, the academic, policy, and technical outcomes of these efforts. The application of a range of direct and indirect measurement techniques suggests an overall positive contribution from IWMI to IMT theory and application.

This paper reports on a form of multi-criteria analysis that provides a formal approach for evaluating the suitability of a wetland for specific agricultural uses, and ensures that explicit consideration is given to the possible consequences of such utilization. The method is based on a hybrid of ideas taken from concepts and methodologies related to: environmental flow assessments, land suitability classification and the hazard evaluation procedures used in the design of dams. The approach, which elaborates the idea of working wetlands, is generic, though the examples presented are for case studies from southern Africa.

The overall objective of this paper is to outline the analytical framework and theoretical approach underlying a new research paradigm and illustrate how this paradigm can be used for the strategic analysis of water institutions by applying it to the Indian context.