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Le développement des revues scientifiques "en ligne", la circulation instantanée de l'information", sont en principe des atouts pour la production scientifique. Cependant, la pression du "Publish or Perish", les évaluations individuelles parfois effectuées avec des critères bibliométriques, ont permis à des "prédateurs" de s'introduire, qui font payer pour des"journaux" scientifiques, qui seront moins lus qu'un simple "blog", ou pour des "conférences" qui réunissent des clients qui ont peu en commun, et aucune raison de s'écouter avec attention. Au delà d'une mise en garde circonstanciée contre ces prédateurs, et des scientifiques à l'éthique douteuse, cela sera l'occasion de s'interroger sur les bonnes pratiques en conférences et publications, sur l'évaluation par les pairs, et sur les évolutions prévisibles. Il commence aussi à exister une "zone grise" de conférences relativement sérieuses, mais organisées pour des raisons surtout commerciales; de même, de nouveaux journaux par des éditeurs reconnus en science cherchent aussi à accaparer un marché

on-line english version of the author available as : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01622444, the officila English version by the Cionversation is now published as http://theconversation.com/expertise-in-sciences-and-the-decision-of-what-is-publishable-a-noble-yet-endangered-task-86339; International audience

International audience; Based on the study of the parliamentary debates and judicial litigation that preceded the adoption of the Law “On various provisions regarding referees”, this article examines the reasons why, in 2006, the French State refused to grant wage-earner status to paid sports referees. This goes to prove that, under the guise of virtuous purposes, public sports policy can serve federations’ economic interests.; Fondé sur l’étude des débats parlementaires et des contentieux judiciaires qui ont précédé l’adoption d’une loi « portant diverses dispositions relatives aux arbitres », cet article étudie les raisons pour lesquelles l’État français, en 2006, a refusé d’accorder aux arbitres sportifs rémunérés le statut de travailleurs salariés. Il montre que, sous l’apparence de finalités vertueuses, la politique sportive publique peut servir les intérêts économiques des fédérations.

International audience; the institutionalization process of this actor of the game, regarding the transformation of football’srules in the past 150 years. Through the analysis of the archives of the first two club associationsand of the Board, we will focus on the different actors who had to supervise and control the game.Studying the developments in the responsibilities of the central referee will then make it possibleto better understand the complexity of his function and the exercise of his power, even leading usto question recent transformations like video refereeing and goal-line officials.; Reçu le 28 novembre 2013 – Accepté le 15 décembre 2014 Résumé. L'arbitre est une figure emblématique des sports modernes. Dans cet article, l'ambition est d'éclairer le processus d'institutionnalisation de cet acteur du jeu au regard de la transformation du règlement du football depuis 150 ans. À partir de l'analyse des archives des deux premières associations de clubs et de celles du Board, nous nous sommes d'abord intéressés aux différents acteurs auxquels est dévolue cette tâche de surveiller et de diriger le jeu. Puis, dans un second temps, l'étude des évolutions des responsabilités de l'arbitre central nous amène à appréhender la complexité de sa fonction et les conditions d'exercice de son pouvoir jusqu'à interroger les transformations récentes que constituent l'apport de la vidéo et l'arbitrage à cinq. Mots clés : Histoire du football, arbitre, lois du jeu, rôle, pouvoir Abstract. Role and power of the football referee: an historical approach. The referee has emerged as an emblematic figure of modern sports. Our aim is to shed some light on the institutionalization process of this actor of the game, regarding the transformation of football's rules in the past 150 years. Through the analysis of the archives of the first two club associations and of the Board, we will focus on the different actors who had to supervise and control the game. Studying the developments in the responsibilities of the central referee will then make it possible to better understand the complexity of his function and the exercise of his power, even leading us to question recent transformations like video refereeing and goal-line officials.

International audience; Whilst refereeing contributes towards athletes’ performances, top-level referees must also produce a performance. This article looks at the process underlying such performances by examining the case of rugby refereeing. Rather than trying to identify performance factors, we focus on refereeing in terms of its practices. We establish the fact that, on the field, refereeing performance is a co-production. First and foremost, we show how modes of coordination between the referee and the players are part of the performance produced. We then look at how this performance is assessed. Two modes of evaluation weigh upon top-level refereeing: an official institutional evaluation made by a supervisor, and a public evaluation provided by the press. Their examination highlights the variability and disparity in the criteria used to assess top-level refereeing performance.; Si l’arbitrage contribue à la performance des sportifs, l’arbitre de haut niveau doit lui aussi produire une performance. Cet article interroge les conditions de la construction de cette performance en étudiant le cas de l’arbitrage en rugby. Plutôt que de tenter d’identifier des facteurs de performance, nous étudions l’arbitrage dans son contexte de pratique, et développons ainsi une approche de l’activité arbitrale. Nous établissons que la performance arbitrale procède, sur le terrain, d’une co-production. Nous montrons tout d’abord en quoi les modes de coordination entre l’arbitre et les joueurs participent de la performance produite. Ensuite, nous interrogeons la manière dont cette prestation est évaluée. Deux modalités d’évaluation pèsent sur l’arbitrage de haut niveau : une évaluation officielle institutionnelle, produite par un superviseur, et une évaluation publique, proposée par la presse. Leur examen permet de mettre en évidence la variabilité et la disparité des critères d’évaluation de la performance arbitrale de haut niveau.

International audience

International audience; In order to understand what the referee does and the position he occupies in the field of sport, let us start with a question: why did the referee not exist when originally most sports – football especially – were given their rules? The referee does not appear in the initial laws of Football. It may be supposed that originally it had not occurred to the gentlemen of the public schools that players could fail to respect the ethics of the game. And as an admission of failure they rather reluctantly integrated the referee as a guardian of the spirit of the game and its rules (Holt, 1992). Thus, the referee’s emergence was both a phase in the civilising process at work in the 19th century and a symptom - in so far as the participants’ self-control was insufficient to allow the contests to be held peacefully (Elias, 1975).For it is not so much law itself but the relationship to law that is a civilising force. If, as Elias (1975) wrote, "[civilisation] owes its origin and permanence to the intrinsic dynamic of a network of interrelations and specific modifications of forms of behaviour that living together imposes on men", the referee takes part in this dynamic. Like the judge he is the holder of the knowledge of the laws in force; in the eyes of observers he embodies the sport’s Absolute Ethic (Rix et al, 2013). And at the same time, the law guarantees his power and authority. Institutionally, he must watch over the respect of the rules and to do this the institution invests him with the power and duty of judging (Serres, 2010). The referee’s double-faced relationship with the game laws places him at the heart of the diffusion of moral and civilising values. However, although these values are often invoked they are only decreed loosely. During the game, the referee has a definite latitude in setting out what is possible and impossible – thereby constructing an ethic of the game. While the law defines what is permitted and authorised and what is not, the referee, like the judge, orders in the sense that he puts society and social interrelations in order by the authority of the law but based on his active participation in a particular situation. It has to be considered that the ethics of the game, as the referee constructs it, is not independent of his own system of values, or of the sporting culture of which he is the bearer, but it is not independent either of the institutional logic in which he is placed – assessment, hierarchy, promotion/sanction... His spontaneous evaluation of the players’ practices and attitude to how they play, and the way he shows and imposes what is possible are based on his value system and sports culture. But as the institution’s appointee to referee a match at a given competition level, this value system and sports culture implicitly seem to be in conformity with what the sport institutions define as acceptable and what they wish to promote. It is through what the referee shows and imposes not just on the players but also on all the game’s spectators that the institutions are able to make a system of ethics exist. What is at work is the social transposition of bodily practices regulated in the context of the game to the entirety of social practices. To a certain extent the referee becomes the herald of an institutional and state ethic (Chapron, 2006) and takes part as a mandated agent in the ethico-legal control of society, when “the issue is moral discipline of the populations” (Foucault, 1973). Unlike the Greek athlothetes who were responsible for organising and supervising the games, referees are the guarantors of the match’s conformity to the rules but also and just as much of the respect for the moral values the sport inherently and blindly represents (Attali et al., 2002). Not just as observers but as active participants referees are entrusted with a mission to moralise the game’s participants – more by making certain usages standard-practice than by applying the rules in the narrow sense. As the messenger of the legislator the referee is permanently part and parcel of a dynamic on the level of the community and society as a whole. As such he deals directly with behaviour that circumvents the most intrinsic rules and standards. The ways he reacts to and deals with this deviant behaviour form on-the-spot solutions that will become both regulatory and moral precedents and fix – for a time at least – the standard to observe.It might be legitimate to call upon the ethics of the players but the referee’s presence seems to free them of the obligation to respect the sporting Ethic. The invention of the referee allowed them to establish an ethical base they can rest on and refer to which they do not have to support themselves. This explains our initial finding that there was no place for the referee in the original rules for the sports. By establishing the referee as the guardian of the sporting Ethic the players ratified the possibility of dispensing themselves from the game’s moral values. To preserve the ideal of sports ethics they made themselves a moral back-up in the figure of the referee.How, in this light, should the proposal of certain sport institutions to give players and/or managers a right to contest the referee’s decisions – what he shows and imposes on the players - be regarded? Is it contrary to the Absolute Sport Ethic? Does it add to the necessity for the referee to relate the match’s technical ethic constructed in situation to the Sport’s Absolute Ethic and so justify his judgments? Or, on the contrary, does it aim to make players and managers responsible by making their judgments apparent in situation and so the way in which they take part in constructing the ethics of the game? ReferencesAttali, M. (2004). Le sport et ses valeurs. Paris: La dispute.Chapron, T. (2005). L’arbitre et ses fonctions éthiques, L’éthique du sport en débat, vol.7 (2). Montréal. Editions Liber.Elias, N. (1975). La dynamique de l’Occident. Paris: Calmann-LévyFoucault, M. (2013). La société punitive, cours au Collège de France, 1972-1973. Paris: EHESS/Galimard/Seuil.Holt, R. (1992 rééd.). Sport and the British. A modern History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, Rix-Lièvre, G., Biache, M-J., Boyer, S., Coutarel, F. (2013). L’arbitre, garant ou acteur de l’éthique sportive ? In Andrieu B., Ethiques du sport (pp.541-551). Paris: Edition L’Age de l’Homme.Serres, M. (2010). Les arbitres ne font pas d’erreur. In Tous arbitres (pp.8-15). Paris: Chronique.

International audience; Wissenschaftler haben oft Entscheidungsprozesse und physische Anforderung unabhängig voneinander bei Sportschiedsrichtern untersucht. Der in dieser Studie angewandte Ansatz hat zum Ziel, die Herzfrequenz (HF) und die Fortbewegungsgeschwindigkeit (FG) mit den Schiedsrichterentscheidungen zu verbinden. Drei erfahrene Schiedsrichter haben ein echtes Fußballspiel geleitet. Ihre HF und FG wurden in Bezug auf 6 Entscheidungstypen gemessen (indirekt, indirekter Freistoß, direkter Freistoß mit und ohne wichtiger Bedeutung, Vorteil, Strafe). Die Resultate zeigen, dass die HF und die FG des Schiedsrichter signifikant je nach Entscheidungstyp variieren aber auch zwischen der Sichtweise der Aktion und den Schiedsentscheidungen. Forschungsperspektiven, bei denen Konzepte der Perzeption, der Aktion und der Emotion eng verbunden sind, werden vorgeschlagen.; Researchers have often investigated independently the decision-making process and the associated physical demands in sport officials. The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between physiological and locomotor variables and referees’ decisions. Three experimented soccer officials refereed a real match. Heart rate (HR) and movement speed (MS) were measured according to six referee decisions (indirect, indirect free kick, direct free kick with and without stake, advantage and sanction). Results showed that HR and movement speed differed significantly between decisions and between perception of players’ actions and referee’s decisions. Research perspectives are suggested regarding the link between perception, action and emotion.; Continuamente los investigadores han estudiado de manera independiente el proceso de decisión y de la demanda física de los árbitros en las prácticas deportivas. El enfoque utilizado en este estudio tiene por objetivo unir la frecuencia cardiaca (FC) y la velocidad de desplazamiento (VD) a las decisiones arbitrales. Tres árbitros experimentados han arbitrado un match de fútbol real. Su FC y la velocidad de desplazamiento eran medidas según seis tipos de decisiones (indirectas, golpes francos indirectos, golpes franco directos con y sin jugadas decisivas, ventaja y sanción). Los resultados han mostrado que la FC y la velocidad del árbitro variaban significativemente según el tipo de decisiones tomada, pero también entre la percepción de la acción y las decisiones arbitrales. Se proponen perspectivas de investigación donde los conceptos de percepción, de acción y de emoción se encuentran íntimamente ligados.; Les chercheurs ont souvent étudié le processus décisionnel et la demande physique de manière indépendante chez les arbitres des pratiques sportives. L’approche utilisée dans cette étude a pour objectif de relier la fréquence cardiaque (FC) et la vitesse de déplacement (VD) aux décisions arbitrales. Trois arbitres expérimentés ont arbitré un match de football réel. Leur FC et leur vitesse de déplacement étaient mesurées selon six types de décisions (indirectes, coups francs indirects, coups francs directs avec et sans enjeu, avantage et sanction). Les résultats ont montré que la FC et la vitesse de l’arbitre variaient significativement selon le type de décision concerné mais également entre la perception de l’action et les décisions arbitrales. Des perspectives de recherche où les concepts de perception, d’action et d’émotion sont intimement liés sont proposées.; I ricercatori hanno spesso studiato il processo decisionale e la richiesta fisica in maniera indipendente negli arbitri delle pratiche sportive. L’approccio utilizzato in questo studio ha per obiettivo di collegare la frequenza cardiaca (FC) e la velocità di spostamento (VS) alle decisioni arbitrali. Tre arbitri esperti hanno arbitrato una partita di calcio reale. Le loro FC e le loro velocità di spostamento erano misurate secondo sei tipi di decisioni (indirette, calcio di punizione a due, calcio di punizione a uno con e senza fuorigioco, vantaggio e sanzione). I risultati hanno mostrato che la FC e la velocità dell’arbitro variavano significativamente secondo il tipo di decisione considerato ma ugualmente tra la percezione dell’azione e le decisioni arbitrali. Sono state proposte delle prospettive di ricerca in cui i concetti di perfezione, di azione e di emozione sono intimamente legati.

International audience; We discuss each of the recommendations made by Hochberg et al. (2009) to prevent the “tragedy of the reviewer commons”. Having scientific journals share a common database of reviewers would be to recreate a bureaucratic organization, where extra-scientific considerations prevailed. Pre-reviewing of papers by colleagues is a widespread practice but raises problems of coordination. Revising manuscripts in line with all reviewers' recommendations presupposes that reviewers' recommendations converge, which is acrobatic. Signing an undertaking that authors have taken into accounts all reviewers' comments is both authoritarian and sterilizing. Sending previous comments with subsequent submissions to other journals amounts to creating a cartel and a single all-encompassing journal, which again is sterilizing. Using young scientists as reviewers is highly risky: they might prove very severe; and if they have not yet published themselves, the recommendation violates the principle of peer review. Asking reviewers to be more severe would only create a crisis in the publishing houses and actually increase reviewers' workloads. The criticisms of the behavior of authors looking to publish in the best journals are unfair: it is natural for scholars to try to publish in the best journals and not to resign themselves to being second rate. Punishing lazy reviewers would only lower the quality of reports: instead, we favor the idea of paying reviewers “in kind” with, say, complimentary books or papers.; Nous discutons ici de chacune des recommandations faites par Hochberg et al. (2009) pour éviter la « tragédie des referees comme bien commun ». Si les journaux scientifiques partagent une base de données commune des referees, cela va recréer une organisation bureaucratique où des considérations extrascientifiques prévaudront. Faire pré-référer les manuscrits par des collègues est une pratique répandue, mais soulève des problèmes de coordination. La révision des manuscrits suivant toutes les recommandations des referees suppose que les recommandations convergent, ce qui est une hypothèse peu crédible. Faire signer un engagement selon lequel les auteurs ont bien pris en compte toutes les observations des referees est à la fois autoritaire et stérilisant. L'envoi des commentaires antérieurs avec les soumissions futures à d'autres revues revient à créer une entente monopolistique et un seul journal qui englobe tous les autres, ce qui est stérilisant à nouveau. Utiliser des jeunes chercheurs comme referee est très risqué: ils peuvent être très sévères ; et s'ils n'ont pas encore eux-mêmes publié, la recommandation viole le principe du referee par les pairs. Demander aux referees d'être plus sévères ne ferait que créer une crise dans les maisons d'édition et accroîtrait en général la charge de travail. La critique du comportement des auteurs qui cherchent à publier dans les meilleures revues est injuste : il est naturel pour les chercheurs de chercher à publier dans les meilleures revues et de ne pas se résigner à appartenir à la deuxième catégorie. Punir les referees paresseux conduirait seulement à diminuer la qualité des rapports : au lieu de cela, nous sommes en faveur de l'idée de payer « en nature » avec, par exemple, des livres ou des articles gratuits.