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Mitochondria are ubiquitous membrane-bound organelles that not only play a key role in maintaining cellular energy homeostasis and metabolism but also in signaling and apoptosis. Aryl hydrocarbons receptors (AhRs) are ligand-activated transcription factors that recognize a wide variety of xenobiotics, including polyaromatic hydrocarbons and dioxins, and activate diverse detoxification pathways. These receptors are also activated by natural dietary compounds and endogenous metabolites. In addition, AhRs can modulate the expression of a diverse array of genes related to mitochondrial biogenesis and function. The aim of the present review is to analyze scientific data available on the AhR signaling pathway and its interaction with the intracellular signaling pathways involved in mitochondrial functions, especially those related to cell cycle progression and apoptosis. Various evidence have reported the crosstalk between the AhR signaling pathway and the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), tyrosine kinase receptor signaling and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). The AhR signaling pathway seems to promote cell cycle progression in the absence of exogenous ligands, whereas the presence of exogenous ligands induces cell cycle arrest. However, its effects on apoptosis are controversial since activation or overexpression of AhR has been observed to induce or inhibit apoptosis depending on the cell type. Regarding the mitochondria, although activation by endogenous ligands is related to mitochondrial dysfunction, the effects of endogenous ligands are not well understood but point towards antiapoptotic effects and inducers of mitochondrial biogenesis.

Background T. vulgaris, commonly known as the thyme, is an aromatic plant belonging to the Lauraceae family. Six different chemotypes were described for T. vulgaris. The chemotypes are named after its dominant monoterpene: geraniol (G), α-terpineol (A), thuyanol-4 (U), linalool (L), carvacrol (C), and thymol (T). Scope and approach For this review, an extensive bibliographic research on Thymus vulgaris was carried out, including its main components both nutrients and bioactives. Botanical description, distribution and cultivation were also addressed as well as uses in folk medicine. Particular attention was given to biological activities, clinical studies, possible limitations and potential applications. Key findings and conclusions T. vulgaris L. is used as food and for medicinal purposes and it has a great economic importance due to its composition on monoterpene derivatives including p-cymene, thymol and carvacrol. The value of T. vulgaris has been recognized by the pharmaceutical industry, because it proved to have hepatoprotective properties and to have effectiveness as expectorant agent, anti-acne agent, and as fungicidal and antiviral drug. It has been also recognized by the industries of pests' repellents, foods, food packaging and cosmetics. This vast number of industrial applications is mainly due to its antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects.

Neurodegenerative disorders, particularly in the elderly population, represent one of the most pressing social and health-care problems in the world. Besides the well-established role of both oxidative stress and inflammation, alterations of the immune response have been found to be closely linked to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Interestingly, various scientific evidence reported that an altered gut microbiota composition may contribute to the development of neuroinflammatory disorders. This leads to the proposal of the concept of the gut-brain-immune axis. In this scenario, polyphenols play a pivotal role due to their ability to exert neuroprotective, immunomodulatory and microbiota-remodeling activities. In the present review, we summarized the available literature to provide a scientific evidence regarding this neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects and the interaction with gut microbiota of polyphenols and, the main signaling pathways involved that can explain their potential therapeutic application in neurodegenerative diseases.

The conventional therapies for cancer have a major concern of poor accessibility to tumor tissues. Furthermore, the requirement of higher doses and non-selective nature of therapeutic are associated with a range of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). However, flavonoids are documented to be effective against various types of cancer, but they are not evaluated for their safety profile and tumor site-specific action. Low solubility, rapid metabolism and poor absorption of dietary flavonoids in gastrointestinal tract hinder their pharmacological potential. Some studies have also suggested that flavonoids may act as pro-oxidant in some cases and may interact with other therapeutic agents, especially through biotransformation. Nanocarriers can alter pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic profile of incorporating drug. Moreover, nanocarriers are designed for targeted drug delivery, improving the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs, delivery of macromolecules to site of action within the cell, combining therapeutic agents with imaging techniques which may visualize the site of drug delivery and co-delivery of two or more drugs. Combining two or more anti-cancer agents can reduce ADRs and nanotechnology played a pivotal role in this regard. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown the potential of flavonoids nano-formulations, especially quercetin, naringenin, apigenin, catechins and fisetin in the prevention and treatment of several types of cancer. Similarly, clinical trials have been conducted using flavonoids alone or in combination, however, the nano-formulations effect still needs to be elucidated. This review focuses on the impact of flavonoids nano-formulations on the improvement of their bioavailability, therapeutic and safety profile and will open new insights in the field of drug discovery for cancer therapeutics.

The genus Eryngium is known for presenting a wide range of bioactive compounds with proved medicinal properties. In last years, research has focused on E. maritimum, with previous studies reporting anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. Ethnobotanical literature suggests that it has been traditionally used to treat a wide range of illnesses such as antitussive, diuretic and aphrodisiac. Being rhizomes one of the most bioactive organs, much of the available references from traditional uses suggest that it has been specifically used to treat renal diseases. In this sense, inflammation and oxidative processes play a major role in kidney dysfunctions, which could be associated to the mechanism of action of the species extracts.The main aim of the study was to investigate the effects of E. maritimum rhizome extract on the antioxidant and inflammatory response of human immune cells.Rhizome extracts were obtained from individuals located in Mallorca (Balearic Islands), and its composition was determined using HPLC-DAD, highlighting simple phenolic compounds such as trans-ferulic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, epicatechin and rosmarinic acid as the major constituents. Total antioxidant capacity was determined using the FRAP assay. Jurkat cells were cultured to analyse cytotoxicity by the cell viability assay. In parallel, cells were stimulated with phytohemagglutinin and treated with different extract concentrations. Gene and protein expression, as well as nitrite and cytokine levels were evaluated as indicators of metabolic responses.The species presented a high diversity of pharmacologically bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic uses. The extract presented null cytotoxicity and exerted antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects on Jurkat cells by inducing an antioxidant response and reducing cytokine and nitric oxide release and the expression of pro-inflammatory genes.The present findings suggest that E. maritimum is a promising phytotherapeutic species because of its strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential, which could explain some of its traditional uses.

Background Tea is one of the most common functional drinks in our daily life. Emerging evidence from experimental, epidemiological, and interventional studies have shown that tea consumption is inversely associated with cardiovascular disease development by reducing cardiovascular risk factors, such as hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and hyperglycemia. Tea phytochemicals exert cardiovascular protection via its anti-LDL oxidation, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic, and endothelial protective effects. Scope and approach In this review, we provided a timely up-to-date overview of the cardiovascular benefits and molecular mechanisms of tea and its vasoactive components in cardiovascular health and diseases. It emphasizes the importance of tea drinking as part of lifestyle modification in cardiovascular disease prevention. Key findings and conclusions The health benefits of tea in cardiovascular disease prevention reported in observational and interventional studies mainly arise from the presence of various antioxidants, especially flavonoids. The molecular targets of tea and its bioactive components include Nrf2 activation and NF-kB inhibition. In addition, biotechnological advances including deep sequencing and microbiota profiling are of great value to find novel molecular targets of tea. More large-scale randomized clinical trials using bioactive compounds from tea avoiding confounding factors are necessary to confirm the effects of tea consumption in cardiovascular disease prevention.

Background Allicin is an organosulfur and defensive compound found in garlic (Allium sativum L.) and other Allium species. Its unique odor is easily detectable, and its effects on human health have been studied since ancient times. Scope and approach In this compressive review we report the presence of allicin in different Allium species, their biosynthesis, pharmacokinetics, absorption, and safety profile. Among the main allicin applications highlight its antimicrobial and antiparasitic properties, reviewed in the present work from in vitro evidence and in vivo studies. Finally, special attention was also given to the allicin state of the art in human health, including in vitro and in vivo assays, and clinical trials, on antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic and immunomodulatory effects, besides to its contribution as a cardioprotective agent. Key findings and conclusions The promising capacity of allicin to interact with thiol groups seems to be directly related to its antimicrobial potential, showing both antibacterial and antifungal activities. Allicin also displayed an interesting potential in the prevention and treatment of several diseases including diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Indeed, its antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects are some of the mechanisms that may explain their biological activities. Future applications should be directed to allicin pharmaceutical formulation, its delivery and its compatibility with food matrices and other drugs due to allicin biosynthesis, instability, reactivity, and volatility.

Plastic waste has become ubiquitous pollutants in seas and oceans and can affect a wide range of species. For some marine species, plastic debris could pose a considerable threat through entanglement, ingestion, and habitat degradation and loss. Sea turtles are one of the most sensitive species, as their migratory behaviour and multifaceted life cycles make these reptiles especially vulnerable to the negative effects of plastic debris. The present study aimed to assess the amount and composition of plastic debris ingested by loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta, Linnaeus, 1758) in the Balearic Islands Sea, thusly providing new information to complete the knowledge for this topic. In this work, 45 stranded dead C. caretta specimens were necropsied, and their digestive tract content analysed for the presence of plastic debris. Plastic objects were observed in 27 individuals (60.0%), with an average of 12.7 ± 4.7 plastic items per turtle. Litter in the faecal pellet was also monitored in 67 living individuals, observing plastic elements in 46 (68.7%) of the specimens, reporting an average of 9.7 ± 3.3 plastic elements per individual. Overall, 785 plastic items were found, measured, weighed and categorized according to size, colour, shape, and type of polymer. The main elements ingested were plastic sheets that were found in 65.3% of the turtles analysed, being white (42.7%) and transparent (29.2%) the most predominant colours. Most elements were macroplastics (59.3%), while microplastics were not found. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FT-IR) analysis showed that high-density polyethylene and polypropylene were the main polymer plastics, representing 42.3% and 33.8% of the total, respectively. In conclusion, the high occurrence of plastic debris determined in the present study evidenced for the first time plastic ingestion in loggerhead turtles in the Balearic Islands, and highlights C. caretta as a bioindicator organism for marine pollution.

Microplastics are tiny ubiquitous plastic particles present in marine environments. They are not an individual entity, but constitute a cocktail of polymers and additives that can absorb substances from the surrounding environment, including living substances, nutrients and marine pollutants. Given their small size (5 μm), microplastics can be ingested by a wide range of marine organisms with the potential to cause harms. Microplastics are a growing threat for marine biota and ecosystem. For organisms, the risks associated with microplastic ingestion are not only due to the material itself, but also to its ability to absorb and concentrate environmental contaminants in seawater and subsequently transfer them through food chains. Moreover, microplastics could influence ecological processes. Recently, plastic debris are recognized as emerging pollutants and represent a great risk for marine biodiversity worldwide. Here, we summarize the main effects of plastics and microplastics on some marine organisms and ecosystem.

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Parkinson's (PD), Alzheimer's (AD), Huntington's disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) cause significant world-wide morbidity and mortality. To date, there is no drug of cure for these, mostly age-related diseases, although approaches in delaying the pathology and/or giving patients some symptomatic relief have been adopted for the last few decades. Various studies in recent years have shown the beneficial effects of omega-3 poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) through diverse mechanisms including anti-inflammatory effects. This review now assesses the potential of this class of compounds in NDs therapy through specific action against the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. The role of mTOR in neurodegenerative diseases and targeted therapies by PUFAs are discussed.

Alkaloids are well-studied secondary metabolites, with recent preclinical studies evidencing that many of them exhibit anti-cancer, anti-depressant, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, anti-platelet, anti-oxidant, and anti-bacterial properties. Aconitum is a genus rich of diverse alkaloids. More than 450 alkaloids have been identified in a variety of species. Songorine is a C20 diterpenoid alkaloid and 12-keto analog of napelline, isolated from Aconitum soongaricum and was associated with a heterogeneous panel of biological functions. However, the bioactivity profile of this natural product has not been reviewed up to now. The present manuscript aims to summarize the most important biological activities associated with songorine administration in preclinical models. The most significant data found in the scientific literature were evaluated in order to summarize the potential clinical utility of songorine in a diverse spectrum of pathologies and conditions. Songorine and its derivatives have many pharmacological effects including anti-arrhythmic, anti-cardiac-fibrillation, excitation of synaptic transmission, anxiolytic effects, anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis effects, and a regenerative effect in a skin excision wound animal model. Despite its outstanding pharmacotherapeutic potential, songorine has never been tested in clinical trials. Therefore, further evaluation is required to better evaluate its clinical utility.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. In this disease, the immune system attacks oligodendrocyte cells and the myelin sheath of myelinated neurons in the central nervous system, causing their destruction. These conditions lead to impaired conduction of nerve impulses and are manifested by symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, visual and motor disorders. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of trifluoperazine (TF) to improve cuprizone-induced behavioral and histopathological changes in the prefrontal cortex of C57BL/6 male mice. Demyelination was induced by adding 0.2% cuprizone (CPZ) to the standard animal diet for 6 weeks. Three doses of TF (0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg/day; i.p.) were given once daily for the last 2 weeks of treatment. Treatment with CPZ induced a weight loss during 6 weeks of treatment compared to the control group, which was reversed by the administration of TF. Behavioral tests (pole test and rotarod performance test) showed a decrease in motor coordination and balance in the group treated with CPZ (P 0.01). Treatment with TF during the last two weeks was able to improve these motor deficiencies. Histopathological examination also evidenced an increase in demyelination in the CPZ group, which was improved by TF administration. In addition, CPZ intake significantly decreased the cerebral cortex levels of p-Nrf2 (P 0.001) and increased the levels of p-IKB (P 0.001) and, these changes were normalized in the TF groups. TF administration also reversed the increased levels of nitrite and the reduced activity of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase associated with CPZ exposure. TF can to reduce the harmful effects of CPZ by reducing the demyelination and modulating the Nrf2 and NF-kB signaling pathways.

The constant increase in plastic pollution has attracted great attention in recent years due to its potential detrimental effects on organisms and ecosystems.While the consequences of ingestion of large plastic litter aremostly understood, the impacts resulting from a long-term exposure and a recovery period of microplastics (MPs) are still limited. The aims were to monitor oxidative stress, detoxification and inflammatory biomarkers in liver, plasma and erythrocytes of Sparus aurata exposed during 90 days to low-density polyethylene (LDPE)-MPs enriched diet (10% by weight) followed by 30 days of depuration. Exposure to LDPE-MPs progressively activates the antioxidant and detoxification systemand induces an inflammatory response in liver and plasma,whereas no significant changes were observed in erythrocytes. The plasma activities of catalase, myeloperoxidase (MPO), lysozyme and the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) as maker of lipid peroxidation significantly increased after exposure to LDPE-MPs for 90 days compared to the control group. The activities of all antioxidant enzymes – catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase-, the detoxification enzyme glutathione s transferase,MPO, the production of reactive oxygen species and the levels ofMDA were also significantly increased in liver after MPs exposure. Additionally, all these biomarkers tended to recover during the depuration period,most of themreaching similar levels to those of the control group. In conclusion, the ingestion of a diet containing LDPE-MPs for 90 days induced a progressive increase in oxidative stress and inflammation biomarkers in liver and plasma of S. aurata but not in erythrocytes, which tended to regain control values, SI

Platelets are small anucleated fragments derived from a megakaryocyte precursor. Platelets play a key role in many physiological functions especially in hemostasis and wound healing processes in order to maintain the integrity of the circulatory system. In addition, activated platelets release cytokines and chemokines which modulate the immune response and, in some cases of hyperactivation, they could be associated to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. Flavonoids are polyphenolic compounds ubiquosly found in plants known to be potent antioxidants with positive effects against diverse diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative or cardiovascular disease. It has been reported that some flavonoids possess anti-platelet aggregation effects though different pathways, being the inhibition of the arachidonic acid-based pathway the most representative mechanism of action. In the present review, the main sources of flavonoids, as well as their bioavailability and metabolism are summarized. Moreover, the available data about the anti-aggregation effects of flavonoids and the different mechanisms of action that has been proposed until now are also discussed. A. Sureda was supported by Spanish Ministry of Health and Consumer Affairs (CIBEROBN CB12/03/30038). A. Mocan acknowledges funding from UEFISCDI, Romania, project no. PNII-RU-TE- 2014-4-1247. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Environmental pollution from plastic debris is a major global concern, being a potential threat to marine organisms and ecosystems. The accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the oceans has notable ecological implications due to their long persistence, their potential ecotoxicity, and their ability to adsorb other pollutants and act as vectors of pathogens. Nevertheless, whereas the number of investigations documenting the presence of MPs in wild fish has increased, less studies have addressed the toxicological effects associated with the ingestion of MPs in long-term laboratory conditions. The aim of the present study was to assess the physiological response of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) exposed to low-density polyethylene (LDPE) MPs during a 90-day exposure followed by an extra 30 days of depuration through the application of oxidative stress biomarkers in the gut. No changes were observed in the Fulton condition factor of fish associated with MP intake. The activities of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione s-transferase and the levels of reduced glutathione progressively increased throughout the study in the MPs-fed group compared to the control group, reaching the highest values at 90 days. Similarly, the activity of the pro-inflammatory enzyme, myeloperoxidase, and the levels of oxidative damage markers -malondialdehyde and protein carbonyls-also increased after 90 days of exposure to an enriched diet with MPs. During the 30-day depuration period, all the biomarkers analysed tended to normalize, with the majority recovering values similar to those of the control group. In conclusion, MPs exposure during 90 days to S. aurata induced oxidative stress and a pro-inflammatory response in gut, and were able to recover after the exposure to MPs was removed.

Negative psychological and physiological consequences of neurodegenerative disorders represent a high social and health cost. Among the neurodegenerative disorders Alzheimer's disease (AD) is recognized as a leading neurodegenerative condition and a primary cause of dementia in the elderlys. AD is considered as neurodegenerative disorder that progressively impairs cognitive function and memory. According to current epidemiological data, about 50 milLion people worldwide are suffering from AD. The primary symptoms of AD are almost inappreciable and usually comprise forgetfulness of recent events. Numerous processes are involved in the development of AD, for example oxidative stress (OS) mainly due to mitochondrial dysfunction, intracellular the accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau (τ) proteins in the form of neurofibrillary tangles, excessive the accumulation of extracellular plaques of beta-amyloid (Aβ), genetic and environmental factors. Running treatments only attenuate symptoms and temporarily reduce the rate of cognitive progression associated with AD. This means that most treatments focus only on controlLing symptoms, particularly in the initial stages of the disease. In the past, the first choice of treatment was based on natural ingredients. In this sense, diverse natural products (NPs) are capable to decrease the symptoms and alleviate the development of several diseases including AD attracting the attention of the scientific community and the pharmaceutical industry. Specifically, numerous NPs including flavonoids, gingerols, tannins, anthocyanins, triterpenes and alkaloids have been shown anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-amyloidogenic, and anti-choLinesterase properties. This review provide a summary of the pathogenesis and the therapeutic goals of AD. It also discusses the available data on various plants and isolated natural compounds used to prevent and diminish the symptoms of AD.

The considerable increment in the use of Nanoparticles in the industry has been recognized as an environmental concern today. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the toxicity effects of green synthesized cadmium nanoparticles [Cd]NPs using Moringa oleifera leaves extract on multi-biomarkers in Oreochromis niloticus after four weeks of exposure. The results showed that LC50 values of [Cd]NPs for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h were 2.17, 1.75, 1.49 and 1.22 mg l−1, respectively. There was a significant decrease in the number of white and red blood cells, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration value in fish exposed to [Cd]NPs. The mean corpuscular volume and neutrophils were increased. [Cd]NPs exposure to fish has led to cytotoxic and genotoxic changes in the erythrocytes. Significant changes were observed in the cortisol, triiodothyronine, and thyroxine levels of the fish exposed to [Cd]NPs. The activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase increased. Glucose, total lipids, urea, and creatinine levels increased in the serum of fish exposed to [Cd]NPs, whereas total protein contents and alkaline phosphatase activity decreased. A significant reduction was observed in glycogen, total antioxidant levels, and superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione S-transferase activities of fish exposed to [Cd]NPs. In contrast, the [Cd]NPs exposure resulted in a significant increase in DNA fragmentation percentages, lipid peroxidation, and carbonyl protein levels in different tissues. The results of the present study confirmed that [Cd]NPs has the toxicity potential to cause Cyto-genotoxicity, oxidative damages, changes in the hematological and biochemical changes, and endocrine disruptor in the fish.

Pollution derived from human activities and the arrival of invasive species are common worldwide and affect coastal marine ecosystems negatively, and more especially in a semi-closed sea such as the Mediterranean Sea. The aim of the study was to evaluate oxidative stress biomarkers in the gonadal tissue of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus (Lamarck, 1816) sampled in different areas of Sant Antoni de Portmany (Ibiza Island, Spain) with different anthropic activities, and in an area deeply covered by the invasive red algae Lophocladia lallemandii. The densities of P. lividus were higher in the area with the greatest anthropogenic influence, while the area invaded by L. lallemandii showed the lowest density. A significant increase in the activities of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GRd) and the phase II detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST) was found in the most impacted area by the human activity. Moreover, malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitrite levels were also increased in the most impacted area. Similarly, the presence of L. lallemandii induced oxidative stress in P. lividus evidenced by a significant increase in all analysed biomarkers. In conclusion, changes in oxidative stress biomarkers are a good proxy to evaluate the impacts induced by anthropogenic activities and by the presence of invasive algae to P. lividus.

The red scorpionfish Scorpaena scrofa (Linnaeus 1758) is a species of high commercial value in the Western Mediterranean Sea. The market value of S. scrofa is highly related to its size, with smaller individuals, less than 25 cm, sold mixed with other species with a low commercial value with respect to the larger ones. Fishing stress and survival of the specimens of S. scrofa under 25 cm were analysed from captures by fishing line, trammel nets and trawling. Line and trammel net were the most selective fishing gears and both gears had the higher survival rates (100% and 70% respectively), while trawling recorded a 0% survival rate. Superoxide dismutase activity was significantly higher in trawling than the other capture methods and the control group, while the glutathione reductase was lower in trawling and trammel net compared to the control group. No differences were observed in catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities. Malondialdehyde levels were elevated in S. scrofa captured by trawling and trammel net when compared with the controls. Cortisol and lactate were significantly higher in individuals captured by trawling and trammel net respect fishing line and control and glucose levels were increased in individuals captured by trammel net. According to the obtained results, the establishment of measures to favour the release of smaller specimens could contribute to an improvement in the conservation of the stocks of S. scrofa and an increase in the future value of catches.

Wetlands are very fragile systems and susceptible to being affected by human activity. S'Albufera de Mallorca Natural Park is the main wetland in Mallorca Island (Spain), and undergoes a salinization process derived from the overexploitation of adjacent aquifers, which favors marine intrusion. The objective was to evaluate the effects of salinity changes in a channel in s'Albufera de Mallorca through the analysis of biomarkers of oxidative stress in the submerged macrophyte Myriophyllum spicatum. Six different points were analysed along a channel characterized by different salinity values, ranging from ~2 to ~11. The % of macrophyte coverage in the studied stations followed an inverse salinity pattern with greater coverage in areas of low salinity and minimal coverage in those with higher saline concentration. The photosynthetic pigments index (D430/D665), determined in M. spicatum leaves, was significantly higher at the stations most affected by salinity. All antioxidant enzyme activities – catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase – followed a similar pattern of response with an increase in activity as salinity increases. Similarly, the levels of malondialdehyde, as marker of lipid peroxidation, were also increased the stations with the highest salinity. In conclusion, marine water intrusion causes an increase in the salinity of inland waters in s’Albufera de Mallorca, which is evidenced by the increase in the antioxidant enzyme activities and oxidative damage.

Polyphenols are secondary metabolites widely distributed in many plant foods, such a tea, coffee, chocolate and fruits. The consumption of these compounds is related to the improvement or amelioration of many diseases, including diabetes. Nevertheless, the great barrier to the therapeutic use of polyphenols is the low bioavailability of these compounds once ingested. For that reason, the encapsulation of polyphenols in different matrices may protect them from digestion and improve their release and subsequent absorption to obtain target-specific health effects. Some studies have reported the beneficial effect of encapsulation to increase both bioavailability and bioaccessibility. However, these works have mostly been carried out in vitro and few studies are specifically addressed at improving diabetes. In the current work, an overview of the knowledge related to nanoparticles and their use in the diabetic condition has been reviewed.

The introduction of invasive species can lead to significant adverse effects on the colonized areas. The aim of the present research was to determine if the invasive behavior of Paraleucilla magna could induce the activation of the antioxidant defences in the native red algae, Peyssonnelia squamaria. Individuals of isolated P. squamaria and individuals epiphytized by P. magna, both growing on rocky bottoms, were collected. The activity of the antioxidant enzymes - catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase - and the levels of the malondialdehyde were significantly higher in the algae of the epiphytic group compared to the control group, while the detoxifying enzyme glutathione S-transferase did not show significant differences. The levels of reduced glutathione and total polyphenols were higher in the algae affected by the sponge. In conclusion, the arrival of the species P. magna induces an adaptative antioxidant response in P. squamaria determined by the use of biomarkers., Sí

Cardiovascular diseases comprise of non-communicable disorders that involve the heart and/or blood vessels and have become the leading cause of death worldwide with increased prevalence by age. mTOR is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase which plays a central role in many physiological processes including cardiovascular diseases, and also integrates various proliferative signals, nutrient and energy abundance and stressful situations. mTOR also acts as central regulator during chronic stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and deregulated autophagy which are associated with senescence. Under oxidative stress, mTOR has been reported to exert protective effects regulating apoptosis and autophagy processes and favoring tissue repair. On the other hand, inhibition of mTOR has been suggested to have beneficial effects against atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, and also in extending the lifespan. In this aspect, the use of drugs or natural compounds, which can target mTOR is an interesting approach in order to reduce the number of deaths caused by cardiovascular disease. In the present review, we intend to shed light on the possible effects and molecular mechanism of natural agents like polyphenols via regulating mTOR.

In the Mediterranean Sea, Posidonia oceanica is the main seagrass meadow that brings food and shelter to many species. The P. oceanica deterioration is an indicator of its own status, since it is sensitive to many disturbances, such as human impacts or alien species. Lately, oxidative stress has been pointed out as another possible biomarker of the animal and plant status. The aim of this work was to evaluate the physiological status of the P. oceanica meadows in the Porto Cristo bay (Manacor, Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Western Mediterranean), evaluating the possible impact induced by human activity performed in the area. In situ measurements were quantified (shoot density, and the maximum length and width of P. oceanica leaves) by scuba divers. Leaf samples were collected to determine the catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities. The malondialdehyde (MDA) level as marker of lipid peroxidation was also evaluated. Shoot density, and length and width measurements of the leaves in the inner locations of the bay showed inferior structural features than the leaves from the outer areas. CAT, SOD and GPx enzymatic activities and lipid peroxidation were higher in leaves from the internal zones than in the outer placements. In conclusion, the general status of the of P. oceanica meadows on the Porto Cristo Bay according to structural and oxidative biomarkers evidenced a good physiological condition, although the areas nearest to the harbour and the beach reflect signs of human affection. Altogether, it reflects a good physiological condition of the meadows in the external areas of the Porto Cristo Bay.

Panax ginseng is a well-known economic medical plant that is widely used in Chinese traditional medicine. This species contains a unique class of natural products—ginsenosides. Recent clinical and experimental studies have presented numerous lines of evidence on the promising role of ginsenosides on different diseases including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancer. Nowadays, most of the attention has focused on ginsenoside Rd as a neuroprotective agent to attenuate ischemic stroke damages. Some of the evidence showed that ginsenoside Rd ameliorates ischemic stroke-induced damages through the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation. Ginsenoside Rd can prolong neural cells' survival through the upregulation of the endogenous antioxidant system, phosphoinositide-3-kinase/AKT and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 pathways, preservation of mitochondrial membrane potential, suppression of the nuclear factor-kappa B, transient receptor potential melastatin, acid sensing ion channels 1a, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1, protein tyrosine kinase activation, as well as reduction of cytochrome c-releasing and apoptosis-inducing factor. In the current work, we review the available reports on the promising role of ginsenoside Rd on ischemic stroke. We also discuss its chemistry, source, and the molecular mechanism underlying this effect.

Several biomarkers were determined to evaluate the effects of the Don Pedro spillage on the digestive gland of the fan mussel Pinna nobilis (Linnaeus, 1758). Two areas in the southeast of Ibiza Island (Western Mediterranean) were selected; one affected by the oil spill (Talamanca) and one did not affected (Espardell). Mussels were sampled one, six and twelve months after the accident. PAH levels were elevated in P. nobilis from the affected area one month after the accident and, although they were decreasing gradually, they were always higher than in the control area. An increase in enzyme activities, reduced glutathione and lipid peroxidation were evidenced one month after the spillage, with no changes in acetylcholinesterase. All biomarkers progressively returned to basal levels one year after the oil spill. In conclusion, the Don Pedro oil spill induced an acute situation of oxidative stress on P. nobilis that were recovered twelve months later., SI

Inflammation is an important process of human healing response, wherein the tissues respond to injuries induced by many agents including pathogens. It is characterized by pain, redness and heat in the injured tissues. Chronic inflammation seems to be associated with different types of diseases such as arthritis, allergies, atherosclerosis, and even cancer. In recent years natural product based drugs are considered as the novel therapeutic strategy for prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases. Among the different types of phyto-constituents present in natural products, flavonoids which occur in many vegetable foods and herbal medicines are considered as the most active constituent, which has the potency to ameliorate inflammation under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. Kaempferol is a natural flavonol present in different plant species, which has been described to possess potent anti-inflammatory properties. Despite the voluminous literature on the anti-inflammatory effects of kaempferol, only very limited review articles has been published on this topic. Hence the present review is aimed to provide a critical overview on the anti-inflammatory effects and the mechanisms of action of kaempferol, based on the current scientific literature. In addition, emphasis is also given on the chemistry, natural sources, bioavailability and toxicity of kaempferol.

Opioids are used in clinical practice to relieve moderate to severe pain. Prolonged use of opioids can lead to a situation of analgesic tolerance and dependence. Several mechanisms are involved in the tolerance to analgesic opioids, including desensitization or internalization of the opioid receptor, elevation of cAMP levels, microglial activation and neuroinflammation, elevation of spinal mTOR activity and change in the expression of some proteins involved in tolerance, such as nNOS. Activation of the AMPK pathway inhibits mTOR and p38 MAPK ameliorating neuroinflammation and tolerance induced by morphine. Metformin, a potent antidiabetic agent, can also activate AMPK. Morphine tolerance was induced in mice by intraperitoneal administration three times daily at 08:00, 11.00 and 16.00 h of 50, 50 and 75 mg/kg morphine, respectively during four days. On the fifth day mice received a single injection of morphine 50 mg/kg. To evaluate the effects of metformin in development of morphine-induced analgesic tolerance a group of mice received metformin (10 mg/kg) 45 min before each morphine administration. Tail flick and hot plate tests were performed to estimate analgesic latency on days 1, 3 and 5. At five days, the animals were sacrificed, the brain dissected and nitrite levels determined. Chronic metformin administration significantly increased the analgesic latency on days 3 and 5 compared to the morphine group in hot plate test and in tail flick test. Chronic and acute metformin administration significantly decreased nitric oxide level compare to morphine group. The present results revealed that metformin attenuated analgesic tolerance induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of morphine in mice.

The anticancer effects of polyphenols are ascribed to several signaling pathways including the tumor suppressor gene tumor protein 53 (p53). Expression of endogenous p53 is silent in various types of cancers. A number of polyphenols from a wide variety of dietary sources could upregulate p53 expression in several cancer cell lines through distinct mechanisms of action. The aim of this review is to focus the significance of p53 signaling pathways and to provide molecular intuitions of dietary polyphenols in chemoprevention by monitoring p53 expression that have a prominent role in tumor suppression.

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) consisted of 11 subtypes (PDE1 to PDE11) and over 40 isoforms that regulate levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), the second messengers in cell functions. PDE inhibitors (PDEIs) have been attractive therapeutic targets due to their involvement in diverse medical conditions, e.g. cardiovascular diseases, autoimmune diseases, Alzheimer's disease (AD), etc. Among them; AD with a complex pathology is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder which affect mostly senile people in the world and only symptomatic treatment particularly using cholinesterase inhibitors in clinic is available at the moment for AD. Consequently, novel treatment strategies towards AD are still searched extensively. Since PDEs are broadly expressed in the brain, PDEIs are considered to modulate neurodegenerative conditions through regulating cAMP and cGMP in the brain. In this sense, several synthetic or natural molecules inhibiting various PDE subtypes such as rolipram and roflumilast (PDE4 inhibitors), vinpocetine (PDE1 inhibitor), cilostazol and milrinone (PDE3 inhibitors), sildenafil and tadalafil (PDE5 inhibitors), etc have been reported showing encouraging results for the treatment of AD. In this review, PDE superfamily will be scrutinized from the view point of structural features, isoforms, functions and pharmacology particularly attributed to PDEs as target for AD therapy.

The present study aimed to evaluate the protective role of Selenium (Se) (0.1 ppm) on the male reproductive system of the catfish Clarias gariepinus exposed to sublethal doses of Mercury (Hg) (0.04 and 0.12 ppm) for 30 days. Indicators of seminal and gonadal hormone disruption (testosterone, estradiol and 11 keto testosterone), antioxidants (total antioxidant capacity (TAO), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx)), oxidative stress biomarkers (lipid peroxidation (LPO), percentage of DNA fragmentation, carbonylated proteins (CP) and nitric oxide (NO)) and histopathological alterations in testicles of Clarias gariepinus were determined. The exposure to Hg resulted in a high accumulation of residues of this metal in testicular tissues. The results showed a significant decrease in sperm count, activity and motility and in all gonadal hormones in Hg exposed groups. Hg exposure also induced a decline in TAO, SOD, CAT and GPx, whereas LPO, DNA fragmentation, CP and NO significantly increased in testicles of C. gariepinus respect to the control group. Although exposure to Se did not reduce the degree of mercury bioconcentration in the testicles, the sperm quality parameters were recovered. Moreover, TAO levels and GPx activity significantly increased after fish exposure to Se, whereas CP levels decreased. LPO, NO, CAT and SOD were also partially normalized when compared with the groups exposed to only Hg. In conclusion, the results showed that Hg, even in the small doses is capable to induce reproductive toxicity in the male catfish. Se exposure partially restored the values of biochemical parameters and sperm quality in Hg-treated fish suggesting protective effects against Hg reproductive toxicity.

The aim was to determine the effects of alien algae feeding on biomarkers of oxidative stress in the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Sea urchins were fed during three months with the native seagrass Posidonia oceanica, and the alien macroalgae Caulerpa racemosa and Lophocladia lallemandii and biochemical analysis were performed in the gonads. A control group was immediately processed after sampling from the sea. Antioxidant enzyme and glutathione S-transferase activities and GSH concentration were significantly higher in sea urchins fed with alien algae when compared with the control group and the one fed with P. oceanica group. This response was more intense in the group fed with L. lallemandii respect to the C. racemosa group. The concentration of MDA, protein carbonyl derivates and 8-OHdG reported no significant differences between treatments. In conclusion, the invasive algae C. racemosa and L. lallemandii induced an antioxidant response in P. lividus without evident oxidative damage, Sí

In the present study, the possible protective effects of gallic acid isolated from Peltiphyllum peltatum against sodium fluoride (NaF)-induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress were evaluated. Rats were intoxicated with 600 ppm NaF through drinking water for one week. Gallic acid (10 and 20 mg/kg) and the positive control, silymarin (10 mg/kg) were administrated for seven days prior to NaF intoxication. 24 h after the treatment period, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities, lipid peroxidation and reduced glutathione levels were measured in the liver. Serum biochemical markers including: alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, lipase and α-amylase activities and triglyceride, cholesterol, glucose, total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, total protein and albumin levels were determined. The results demonstrated that pretreatment with gallic acid normalized the sodium fluoride-induced alterations in serum parameters and oxidative stress in hepatic tissue. Fluoride intoxication resulted in an increased level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) (53.05 ± 2.23 nmol MDA equiv./g tissue) in the liver homogenates in comparison with control group (25.03 ± 1.27 nmol MDA equiv./g tissue). Pretreatment with gallic acid at 20 mg/kg demonstrated significant mitigation in TBARS level (33.95 ± 2.51 nmol MDA equiv./g tissues). Fluoride intoxication did also suppress the superoxide dismutase and catalase activity of hepatic tissue homogenates by 33.87% and 66.87%, respectively. Treatment with gallic acid resulted in a dose-dependent mitigation of the fluoride-mediated suppression of antioxidant enzymes. In conclusion, gallic acid prevented the NaF-induced abnormalities in the serum and hepatic biochemical markers.

Silymarin is a well-known potent antioxidant agent. Numerous reports highlighted that antioxidant consumption can mitigate sodium fluoride induced neuronal damage. The present study aimed to examine the ameliorative potential of silymarin on sodium fluoride-induced oxidative stress using the rat brain as model. Silymarin (10 and 20 mg/kg) and vitamin C (10 mg/kg) were intraperitoneally administrated for seven days followed by one week of sodium fluoride (600 ppm) treatment through drinking water. Antioxidant enzyme activities – superoxide dismutase and catalase – the levels of reduced glutathione and lipid peroxidation were evaluated in brain homogenates. The levels of lipid peroxidation were significantly increased in the sodium fluoride treated group (42.0 ± 2.1 nmol MDA eq/g tissue) compared to the control group (36.0 ± 1.1 nmol MDA eq/g tissue). Silymarin at 20 mg/kg showed significant a reduction in the levels of lipid peroxidation (36.0 ± 1.2 nmol MDA eq/g tissue). Treatment of rats with sodium fluoride significantly reduced the activities of the antioxidant enzymes and the levels of reduced glutathione in brain homogenates. Pre-treatment with silymarin prevented the deleterious effects of sodium fluoride intoxication in a dose dependent response. In conclusion, sodium fluoride induced oxidative stress in rat brain which can be prevented with silymarin administration.

Resumen Introduccion y objetivos La prevalencia de la obesidad infantil ha aumentado en las ultimas decadas. El objetivo fue determinar si una intervencion durante 3 meses de actividad fisica desarrollada en la escuela puede reducir la tendencia al sobrepeso y los factores de riesgo derivados de la obesidad en ninos. Metodos Participaron voluntariamente en el estudio (descriptivo-transversal) 137 ninos (media de edad, 12 ± 1 anos). Los ninos se distribuyeron de manera voluntaria en uno de los siguientes grupos: a ) grupo sedentario (2 h/semana de educacion fisica en la escuela); b ) grupo activo (2 h/semana de educacion fisica en la escuela, mas 3 h/semana extra), y c ) grupo de deportes (2 h/semana de educacion fisica en la escuela, mas 5 h/semana extra). Se determinaron las caracteristicas antropometricas, la presion arterial, la condicion fisica (estimada por la prueba de Course-Navette) y los parametros bioquimicos relacionados con factores de riesgo cardiovascular. Resultados El peso, el indice de masa corporal, la circunferencia de la cintura, la suma de pliegues cutaneos, el porcentaje de grasa corporal y el indice de masa grasa de los ninos disminuyeron en funcion del nivel de actividad, mientras que el contenido en agua aumento con la actividad. Los parametros relacionados con el riesgo cardiovascular trigliceridos, insulina, presion arterial sistolica e indice homeostatic model assessment presentaron valores mas bajos en el grupo de deportes. El consumo maximo de oxigeno y la frecuencia cardiaca maxima (prueba de Course-Navette) aumentaron progresivamente con la actividad. Los ninos que hicieron un total de 7 h/semana de actividad fisica presentaron una odds ratio significativamente menor de tener elevados los siguientes factores de riesgo cardiovascular: circunferencia de cintura, indice de masa grasa e indice homeostatic model assessment . Conclusiones La actividad fisica es esencial para que los ninos mantengan un buen estado metabolico de salud. Los ninos con mayores niveles de actividad fisica presentan mejores perfiles antropometricos y bioquimicos.

10 páginas, 5 tablas, 4 figuras, In the present work, the potential use of several antioxidant and detoxification biomarkers in the digestive gland of wild mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) for biomonitoring the marine pollution induced by the Don Pedro oil spill has been investigated. Two locations from the East to South-East of Eivissa (Ibiza) and Formentera islands were selected, one extensively affected by the oil spill and the other one not affected and considered as the control area. Mussels were sampled one, two and six months after the Don Pedro accident. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels were significantly increased in the soft tissues of mussels in the affected area one month after the disaster, returning to normal values after six months. Markers of oxidative damage in lipids – malondialdehyde, and in proteins – carbonyl derivates, and antioxidant enzyme – catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, activities significantly increased as result of the spill oil after one month, returning to basal values at two month sampling time. Glutathione/glutathione disulfide ratio (GSH/GSSG), as a marker of the redox status, was reduced after one and two months indicating a more oxidized situation. Markers of detoxification – glutathione-Stransferase and cytochrome P4501A activities and metallothionein gene expression – were significantly increased by the oil spill onemonthafter the accident, returning to the basal values attwomonthsampling time. In conclusion, the Don Pedro accident induced a transient situation of PAHs pollution resulting in enhanced antioxidant and detoxification defense systems in the wild mussel M. galloprovincialis returning to normal levels six months from the spill. The selected biomarkers are a useful tool for biomonitoring the response to acute exposure to pollutants in marine mussels., This work supported by grants by DG Pesca, Conselleria d’Agricultura i Pesca, Govern de les Illes Balears.

Existence of diazinon, an organophosphorous pesticide, in river waters of Iran near rice paddy fields has been reported by some authors. The present research aimed to determine the acute toxicity and evaluate the effect of sub-lethal concentrations of diazinon on some biochemical parameters of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss after 7, 14 and 28 days. No significant differences were observed in the plasma levels of creatinine among the treatment groups at different sampling intervals. Acetylcholinesterase activity and the levels of total protein, albumin as well as globulin in plasma were significantly reduced at both concentrations tested ( p p p p .

Marine invasions are a worldwide problem that involves changes in communities and the acclimation of organisms to them. The invasive Chlorophyte Caulerpa racemosa var. cylindracea is widespread in the Mediterranean and colonises large areas from 0 to 70 m in depth. The omnivorous fish Spondyliosoma cantharus presents a high frequency of occurrence of C. racemosa in the stomach contents at invaded areas (76.3%) while no presence of C. racemosa was detected in control areas. The isotopic composition of muscle differed significantly between invaded and non-invaded sites for δ13C (- 16.67‰ ± 0.09 and - 17.67‰ ± 0.08, respectively), δ15N (10.22‰ ± 0.22 and 9.32‰ ± 0.18, respectively) and the C:N ratio (2.01 ± 0.0002 and 1.96 ± 0.009, respectively). Despite the high frequency of occurrence of C. racemosa in the stomach contents of S. cantharus and its important contribution to the δ13C source (20.7% ± 16.2), the contribution of C. racemosa to the δ15N in S. cantharus food sources was very low (6.6% ± 5.8). Other invertebrate prey such as decapods and polychaetes were more important contributors to the δ15N source at both invaded and non-invaded sites. Activation of enzymatic pathways (catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione-s-tranferase, 7-ethoxy resorufin O-de-ethylase) but not a significant increase in lipid peroxidation MDA (0.49 ± 0.01 nmol/mg prot at non-invaded and 0.53 ± 0.01 nmol/mg prot at invaded sites) was observed in S. cantharus individuals living in C. racemosa-invaded sites compared with control specimens. The low δ15N contribution values of C. racemosa by S. cantharus together with the toxicity demonstrated by the activation of the antioxidant defences and the important contribution of invertebrate prey to the δ15N could mean that the ingestion of C. racemosa by S. cantharus might be unintentional during the predation of invertebrate preys living underneath the entanglement of the C. racemosa fronds and stolons mats. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The antioxidant enzyme response of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis to different degree of pollution was investigated. Antioxidant enzyme activities – catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), glutathione reductase (GR), superoxide dismutase (SOD) – and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration were measured in gills and digestive glands of mussels. Mussels from the same origin were transplanted along the Balearic coastal waters in eight stations characterized by a different degree of contamination and human impacts. Antioxidant enzyme activities showed an adaptive response to increase the activities in the more polluted areas. CAT, GR and SOD in gills and CAT and GR in digestive gland presented significant differences between polluted and non-polluted stations. No significant differences were observed in MDA concentration indicating that the antioxidant response is capable to avoid the lipid peroxidation. The use of biomarkers such as CAT and GR in gills and digestive glands of the mussel M. galloprovincialis is a good tool to categorize differences between polluted and non-polluted areas.

Pilocarpine is a cholinergic agonist capable to induce seizures and an epilepticus-like state in rodents. This status epilepticus (SE) is an useful animal model to study the development and understanding of the neuropathology, behavioural and electroencephalographic alterations of human temporal lobe epilepsy. It has been suggested a relationship between SE and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can result in seizure-induced neurodegeneration. The aim of this study was to evaluate the existence of oxidative damage and the changes in the antioxidant system in cortex after administration of a high pilocarpine dose. Rats were injected with pilocarpine (350 mg/kg i.p.) or with saline as control and 2h after the animals were sacrificed. Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, as marker of lipid peroxidation, significantly increased (64%) after pilocarpine treatment evidencing oxidative damage. Antioxidant enzyme activities--catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GP) and superoxide dismutase (SOD)--significantly increased in response to pilocarpine (28%, 28% and 21%, respectively). GP and Mn-SOD gene expression were induced by pilocarpine treatment. Vitamin E concentration in brain cortex decreased (15%) as result of pilocarpine administration. In conclusion, the high dose of pilocarpine, used in the present study, induces oxidative damage and increases antioxidant enzyme activities and expression in brain cortex. Moreover, increased lipid peroxidation produces the consumption of Vitamin E.

It has been reported that exercise induces oxidative stress and causes adaptations in antioxidant defences. The aim of this study was to determine the adaptations of lymphocytes to the oxidative stress induced by an exhaustive exercise. Nine voluntary male subjects participated in the study. The exercise was a cycling mountain stage (171.8 km), and the cyclists took a mean of 283 min to complete it. Blood samples were taken the morning of the cycling stage day, after overnight fasting, and 3 h after finishing the stage. We determined the blood glutathione redox status (GSSG/GSH), lymphocyte antioxidant enzyme activities and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels; the plasma and lymphocyte vitamin E levels; the serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) activities and urate levels; the plasma carotene and malonaldehyde (MDA) levels; and the lymphocyte carbonyl index. The cycling stage induced significant increases in blood-oxidized (glutathione/GSSG), plasma MDA and serum urate levels. The exercise also produced increases in CK and LDH serum activities. The mountain cycling stage induced significant increases in lymphocyte vitamin E levels, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities as well as increased SOD activity and protein levels. The protein carbonyl levels increased significantly in lymphocytes after the stage. In conclusion, in spite of increasing antioxidant defences in response to the oxidative stress induced by the exhaustive exercise, lymphocyte oxidative damage was produced after the stage as demonstrated by the increased carbonyl index even in very well trained athletes.

Exposure of marine animals to certain toxic compounds can enhance reactive oxygen species production with subsequent damage to macromolecules and alterations in oxidant defenses levels. Caulerpenyne is the major metabolite synthesized by Caulerpa species, used as chemical defense affecting several cellular and molecular targets. We assessed the changes produced by the presence of Caulerpa spp. in the activities of antioxidant enzymes as well as lipid peroxidation levels in liver of the teleost Coris julis. Fish were captured at two stations with Caulerpa species-Caulerpa taxifolia and Caulerpa prolifera-and at a region with the seagrass Posidonia oceanica as negative control. Caulerpenyne concentration was significantly higher in C. prolifera than in C. taxifolia (p0.05). Glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase activities were significantly higher in both Caulerpa stations compared to the P. oceanica (p0.05). No statistical difference (p0.05) existed in catalase activity between groups. Glutathione reductase activity is significantly higher in C. prolifera station than in C. taxifolia (p0.05). Despite the variations in the antioxidant enzyme activities, there was no significant difference in malondialdehyde concentration. In conclusion, the production of caulerpenyne by Caulerpa species could induce an antioxidant adaptation in the liver of C. julis in order to prevent oxidative damage.