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Geothermal plants have been producing power in Italy for more than a century. Since local opposition to geothermal development is often fuelled by incomplete and inaccurate environmental information, this paper provides a comprehensive description of the effect of geothermal development on the air, water and soil and investigates potential disturbance from noise, subsidence, and seismicity, as well as the visual impact on the local area. After discussing the risks associated with the geothermal development and the reference data, the paper describes the wide-reaching environmental monitoring and mitigation measures in Italy that have maintained impact values below the thresholds defined by European and Italian regulation. The social benefits for areas where geothermal energy is developed are also described, with the aid of case studies highlighting that citizens do not feel that they are sufficiently informed to have a voice in the innovation process. A regular and comprehensive review of the geothermal environmental and safety regime, as the one carried out in this paper, and a mutual exchange of knowledge between the different stakeholders should be strongly encouraged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the frame of the Integrated Method for Advanced Geothermal Exploration (IMAGE) Project, a reliable exploration and resource assessment workflow was implemented on the basis of an integrated and multidisciplinary approach. Our study addressed to a better understanding of the thermal structure of the deepest part of the Larderello geothermal field (Southern Tuscany, Italy) by integrating structural, geological, geochemical, geochronological, petrological and geophysical data. With the aim to characterize the reservoir located nearby an important seismic reflector (the K-horizon), we systematized the available data and, successively, we applied a numerical thermal modelling approach to test our hypotheses and concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The geothermal energy applications are undergoing a rapid development. However, there are still several challenges in the successful exploitation of geothermal energy resources. A special effort is required to characterize the thermal properties of the ground and to implement the thermal energy transfer technologies. Aim of this study is to provide original heat conductivity values for rocks and sediments in regions included in the VIGOR Project (southern Italy), to overcome the existing lack of data. Thermal properties tests were performed on several samples, both in dry and wet conditions, using thermal analyzer operating following the Modified Transient Plane Source method. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper intends to throw some doubt on the consolidated practice of interpreting seismic data without considering mineral phase transitions. Reference is made to Southern Tuscany, where seismic surveys revealed the presence, within the crystalline basement of a prominent high-amplitude reflector exhibiting local "bright spot" features, known as the K-horizon. According to some researchers, the K-horizon is a layer of fractured rocks hosting high-pressure fluids, but its ultimate origin is unclear. On the basis of the extrapolation of measured temperatures in the Larderello and Amiata geothermal fields and gas geotemperatures from the San Pompeo-2 deep well, we propose that the K-horizon might be largely governed by the α–β transition of quartz and by the very high volumetric thermal expansion of quartz, a main constituent of local crystalline rocks, with respect to other minerals. The effects of these processes are probably suppressed almost everywhere by the abundance of minerals other than quartz and by the occurrence of partial melting, but might be evident in relatively quartz-rich rocks and in regions of very high geothermal gradient, such as Southern Tuscany. As a consequence of these processes, a layer of fractured rocks roughly following the α–β quartz transition temperature would develop and locally host high-pressure fluids, thus justifying in part the high reflectivity of the K-horizon. This hypothesis concords with previous interpretations, although the ruling factors in this case would be the α–β transition and the peculiar physical characteristics of quartz compared to other minerals. In our interpretation, the K-horizon is expected to fade away in rocks where quartz is scarce or absent, where microfractures are not produced by the phase transition. The local disappearance of the K-horizon could, therefore, depend on lithology, whereas its reflectivity would depend on the quantity and type of fluids trapped in the porous layer micro-fractured by the volumetric expansion of quartz. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The conductivity structure of the top 2 km of the crust is examined using data from collocated magnetotelluric (MT) and time-domain electromagnetic (TDEM) soundings across the Vesuvius volcano. The MT data were corrected for static shift using dual-configuration TDEM data. The TEM and MT data were jointly inverted to yield 1D models while the TE and TM mode MT data were jointly inverted using a 2D inversion approach. The resulting models reveal the presence of a resistive cover layer underlain by an anomalous conductive layer (c. 250–500 m below the ground surface) that is shallowest underneath the caldera. We suggest that the conductive body below the caldera is related to enhanced hydrothermal circulation; outside the caldera, the conductor is consistent with the hydrological system and is interpreted as mapping a suggested aquifer system and underlying clayey deposits. Our results show that the aquifer hosted in the Vesuvius edifice is not homogeneous, but appears particularly conductive in the western and southern sectors of the volcano. It was found from 3D numerical modelling study that the presence of the shallow and thick conductors and the Tyrrhenian sea changes the penetration depth of MT data and must be taken into account during interpretation. Recommendations are made for any future MT field studies aimed at resolving the deep resistivity structure of Mt Somma-Vesuvius. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The International Geothermal Association (IGA), founded on 6 July 1988, is an international, worldwide, non-profit and non-governmental association whose objective and mission is to promote the research and utilization of geothermal resources, through the compilation, publication, and dissemination of scientific and technical data and information. The Information Committee (IC) of the IGA is responsible for advising the IGA Board on policies concerned with the collection, compilation, publication, exchange and dissemination of geothermal information, including information on utilization, development, technical findings, scientific research, meetings, publications and Association activities. The Committee is also responsible for the implementation of information policies determined by the Board. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

During 1999 a magnetotelluric (MT) survey was carried out on the southern margin of the Mt. Amiata geothermal region (Tuscany, Italy), with the aim of defining the shallow and deep electric structures related to the local geothermal reservoirs and system heat recharge. Local and remote data were collected along a SW–NE profile and processed with two different robust algorithms. After a detailed study of the EM strike, the data were inverted and two-dimensional (2D) models of electrical resistivity and impedance phase were computed. The interpretation revealed a good correlation between the features of the geothermal field and resistivity distribution at depth. In particular, a shallow conductor (0.5–4 km) detected by the MT survey shows a good correlation with the areal extension of the geothermal reservoirs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper investigates and optimises the thermal performance of deep closed-loop heat exchanger (DCHE) systems by applying a computational numerical approach. The investigated DCHE configuration accounts for two deep vertical boreholes, an injection and a production well, connected by a horizontal borehole at depth and an insulated pipeline at the surface, establishing an effective closed-loop system. First, a parametric sensitivity study explores the effects of the environmental, design and operating variables on the production temperature. The simulation uses realistic geological and geothermal conditions, depths, circulation rates and injection temperatures. Two complex numerical models are then solved for site-specific DCHEs in different geological scenarios: a foreland basin and a convergent margin hosting low-to-intermediate and high-temperature geothermal resources, respectively. Production temperatures beyond 40–60 °C and 100 °C, sustainable for both heat and electric power generation, are obtained, depending on the geothermal conditions and closed-loop dimensions. Furthermore, circulation rates of 0.02–0.04 m3 s−1 are cost-effective, and the system's efficiency and sustainability increase when a fluctuating and periodic heat extraction strategy is employed. When efficiently operated, DCHEs are a viable solution for renewable energy production and should be integrated into the local heat market and distribution network infrastructure. Earth and Planetary Sciences; Energy; Environmental Sciences • Reuse of dry and depleted abandoned wells to boost geothermal energy production. • Deep closed-loop heat exchanger (DCHE) as innovative technological solution. • Computational numerical approach for DCHE performance optimisation. • Sustainable closed-loop configuration for synthetic and real case studies. • Long-term DCHE thermal performance improvement by monthly rotation practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Global Geothermal Energy Database of the International Geothermal Association (IGA) is an internet-based platform providing access to the world geothermal production data. This platform is unique for the geothermal sector, and provides an excellent tool for showing geothermal use in the world and promoting the development of geothermal energy. The platform is also an important example of organization and access to widely distributed data, since it allows analyzing, synthetizing and quickly interpreting stored data. The global and country-specific information regard both electricity generation and direct use applications. The platform, which has been built using an open-source Business Intelligence application and can be accessed through the IGA website, allows to access, navigate and organize information in various ways. Data lists related to geothermal fields and plants, direct uses, geothermal turbine manufactures and geothermal companies can be accessed, aggregated and filtered, producing reports, charts and maps. Aggregation and filtering options synthetize and organize data for direct use, power plants and installed capacity by region, category and operative status. The mapping tool, providing geothermal fields location, power plants and direct uses geographical references, allows also map browsing, and to zoom, to measure distance, to pan and to query for further information. The chart analysis produces pie charts and bar diagrams of data, dynamically sorted and aggregated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we present results of a global resource assessment for geothermal energy within deep aquifers for direct heat utilization. Greenhouse heating, spatial heating, and spatial cooling are considered in this assessment. We derive subsurface temperatures from geophysical data and apply a volumetric heat-in-place method to improve current global geothermal resource base estimates for direct heat applications. The amount of thermal energy stored within aquifers depends on the Earth's heat flow, aquifer volume, and thermal properties. We assess the thermal energy available by estimating subsurface temperatures up to a depth of three kilometer depending on aquifer thickness. The distribution of geothermal resources is displayed in a series of maps and the depth of the minimum production temperature is used as an indicator of performance and technical feasibility. Suitable aquifers underlay 16% of the Earth's land surface and store an estimated 4·10 5 to 5·10 6 EJ that could theoretically be used for direct heat applications. Even with a conservative recovery factor of 1% and an assumed lifetime of 30 years, the annual recoverable geothermal energy is in the same order as the world final energy consumption of 363.5 EJ yr −1 . Although the amount of geothermal energy stored in aquifers is vast, geothermal direct heat applications are currently underdeveloped with less than one thousandth of their technical potential used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a multidisciplinary methodology to estimate the underground heat-exchange potential for Borehole Heat Exchangers (BHEs) coupled with Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHPs) over wide areas. The proposed methodology was tested in four sites in western Sicily (southern Italy) where the shortage of subsurface geological data, in addition to the undefined authorization processes for this kind of system, is probably the main barrier to planning and exploiting geothermal heat for heating and cooling purposes. Reliable high-resolution 3D geological and petrophysical models were built based on the integration of airborne electromagnetic data and laboratory measurements of the thermal properties of rock samples. A GIS-based procedure was applied to assess the geothermal heat-exchange potential using 3D models of thermal conductivity as the main input. The results of the analyses are represented by thematic maps of the underground heat exchange potential for BHEs coupled with GSHPs. The study areas show a generally high suitability for the use of this technology and several municipalities in the area could take advantage of the resulting maps for energy planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Borgia et al. (2014) illustrated an active volcanic spreading model for the Amiata volcanic area (southern Tuscany, Italy). Although, at first glance, the model may appear appealing, this is not fully supported by the available data and the paper does not take into account their discussion. Accordingly, the supposed negative consequences of the Borgia et al. (2014) model on both contamination of shallow water and geothermal exploitation can likely be regarded as speculative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An empirical method aimed at generating maps of potential of geothermal energy exchange for shallow vertical closed-loop systems is proposed here. The method uses both geological and technological information. In particular, the ground parameters that mainly influence the heat transfer in borehole heat exchangers, the energetic parameters driving efficient operations of geothermal systems and heating and cooling requirements of a typical residential building are taken into account. Spatial modeling is carried out in a Geographic Information System leading to an effective and easy-to-use digital cartographic tool. An application of the method to four regions of southern Italy is also shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a data integration tool used to identify potentially undiscovered geothermal resources in the island of Sicily. The factors facilitating the recovery of exploitable geothermal energy were defined, and their spatial correlation established by Geographic Information System (GIS) models. By prioritizing favourable conditions using an Index Overly method, “favourability” maps of Sicily were obtained. The maps considered both geological and economic aspects, and energy recovery was considered for current technologies. Our approach and maps are useful for developing and planning local or national energy policies including geothermal energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A fluid inclusion study of the hydrothermal minerals in two breccias from two wells in the Bagnore geothermal field (Italy) has provided information on the evolution of the fluids, and has also demonstrated that fluid inclusions can be utilized as geothermometers in this geothermal field. Both breccias come from reservoir zones: one (Bagnore 3bis (Bg 3bis)) was cored at a depth of 3111 m below ground level (b.g.l.), whereas the other (Bagnore 22 (Bg 22)) was ejected during a blow-out, probably from a fractured zone present between 2200 and 2300 m b.g.l. The hydrothermal cement of the breccias is mostly made up of quartz, K-feldspar, Na-rich plagioclase, calcite, chlorite and illite. Fluid inclusion studies were carried out on quartz (Bg 3bis and Bg 22 breccias) and adularia (Bg 22 breccia). Three types of fluid inclusions were recognized in the Bg 3bis breccia. Type I (liquid-rich) inclusions trapped an aqueous fluid with a CO2 concentration (1.7–2.7 mol/kg) that is significantly higher than present-day fluids (0.5 mol/kg). Type II (liquid-rich) inclusions formed after type I, and trapped a fluid with less CO2 (0.6–1.0 mol/kg). Type III (vapor-rich) coexist with type I inclusions, and record an early fluid circulation under boiling conditions. The decrease of the CO2 (and total gas) concentrations from type I inclusions to type II inclusions, and on to present-day conditions can be related to boiling with gas loss and/or mixing. Only one type of fluid inclusion (type II), with moderate CO2 concentration (0.7–0.3 mol/kg), was found in the Bg 22 breccia. Boiling and/or mixing explain the variation of the CO2 content in the Bg 22 reservoir fluid from inclusion formation to modern CO2 concentration (0.3 mol/kg). The absence of any type I inclusions in Bg 22 breccia may be related to non-uniform CO2 concentrations in different parts of the field. Present-day temperatures (295±10 °C for Bg 3bis and 320±10 °C for Bg 22) are close or equal to fluid inclusion average total homogenization temperatures (around 290 °C for Bg 3bis and 320 °C for Bg 22), suggesting that fluid inclusions can be useful for estimating local temperatures when direct measurements are not available or dubious. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• A geochemical study on the fluids discharged in continental Sicily is presented • The models of paths circulation and fluids-rock interaction processes are depicted • The relation between the tectonic setting and the fluids geochemistry is discussed Sicily hosts many natural manifestations that include thermal waters, gas discharges and mud volcanoes. Due to the significant geodynamic and geological differences, the fluid discharges along a NE-WS–oriented transect that run from the Peloritani Mts. to the Sciacca Plain shows a large variability in water and gas chemical and isotopic compositions. The studied waters are characterized by Ca-HCO 3 , Ca(Mg)-SO 4 , Ca-Cl and Na-Cl compositions produced by distinct geochemical processes such as water-rock-gas interactions, mixing between deep and shallow aquifers and seawater and direct and reverse ion exchanges. The gas chemistry is dominated by CO 2 to the east and CO 2 -N 2 to the west of the study area, whereas the central part shows mud volcanoes discharging CH 4 -rich gases. Water isotopes suggest that the thermal waters are fed by a meteoric recharge, although isotopic exchange processes between thermal fluids and host rocks at temperature >150°C are recognized. Accordingly, liquid geothermometry suggests equilibrium temperatures up to 220°C. The carbon in CO 2 and helium isotopes of the emissions from the westernmost sector of Sicily indicate that these two gases consists of up to 40 % of a mantle component, the latter decreasing to the east down to 10% where CO 2 of thermometamorphic origin dominates. Accordingly, conceptual models of the fluid circulation for the western, central and eastern sectors are proposed. The regional geothermal reservoir, hosted in carbonates in the western sector and locally outcropping, is of low to medium temperature. Higher temperature conditions (up to 200-220°C) are suggested by geothermometry and probably related to deeper levels of the system. Sicily can be regarded as a potentially suitable area for future investigations to evaluate specific activities aimed at exploiting the geothermal resource. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]