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Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Eupatorium perfoliatum L. originates from North America, where it has been widely used since centuries by native Indians. Additionally extracts are used also in Europe as immunostimulating agent for treatment of fever and cold. The following review summarizes published data on phytochemistry, ethnopharmacological use, as well as clinical and preclinical data. Materials and methods: Literature survey was performed via SciFinder® on papers and patents and by systematic research in ethnopharmacological literature at various university libraries. Results: The phytochemical composition of Eupatorium perfoliatum is described in detail for volatile oil, caffeic acid derivatives, flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, tannins, polysaccharides. Methods for analytical quality control, as well as specification for relevant lead structures can be deduced from published batch analysis. Preclinical studies indicate anti-inflammatory effects of ethanolic extracts, which can be correlated on a molecular level to eupafolin and sesquiterpen lactones. Antiplasmodial, antioxidative and immunomodulating activities are additionally discussed. Clinical data on the use of Eupatorium perfoliatum do not meet modern GCP requirements, but do indicate positive tendencies for use of ethanolic extracts for treatment of common colds. Conclusion: While the postulated immunostimulating properties of Eupatorium perfoliatum have not been confirmed by in vitro data, animal-studies and in vitro experiments with plant extracts both indicate antiinflammatory effects beside antiplasmodial effect against Plasmodium falciparum. Such an antiinflammation caused by the ethanolic extracts can be correlated well with clinical symptoms related to diseases as common cold, rheumatism, athritis etc. These data also support the plausibility of the plant''s traditional use by the North American indigenous population and early European settlers. In principle quality aspects of the herbal material have to be affirmed by establishing modern pharmacopoeial control methods to guarantee constant and reliable quality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological context: This review explores the medicinal and therapeutic applications of Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) in curtailing different types of acute as well as chronic maladies. The plant is being used in different parts of the world for its nutritional and medicinal properties. Materials and methods: Sea buckthorn based preparations have been extensively exploited in folklore treatment of slow digestion, stomach malfunctioning, cardiovascular problems, liver injury, tendon and ligament injuries, skin diseases and ulcers. In the recent years, medicinal and pharmacological activities of Sea buckthorn have been well investigated using various in vitro and in vivo models as well as limited clinical trials. Results: Sea buckthorn has been scientifically analyzed and many of its traditional uses have been established using several biochemical and pharmacological studies. Various pharmacological activities such as cytoprotective, anti-stress, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, radioprotective, anti-atherogenic, anti-tumor, anti-microbial and tissue regeneration have been reported. Conclusion: It is clear that Sea buckthorn is an important plant because of its immense medicinal and therapeutic potential. However, several knowledge gaps identified in this paper would give impetus to new academic and R&D activities especially for the development of Sea buckthorn based herbal medicine and nutraceuticals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Traditional medicine is believed to constitute a crucial healthcare option for poor or remote households in developing countries that have limited access to allopathic medicine and/or a strong cultural attachment to traditional medicine. However, little research has been performed on medicinal plant reliance in developing countries, and the determinants of medicinal plant consumption at the household level in these countries have not been empirically studied. Quantifying the use of traditional medicine at the household level is, therefore, essential to the development of sustainable healthcare policies in the developing world. This paper quantifies household-level use of traditional medicine and identifies determinants of the choice of traditional treatment in the south central region of Burkina Faso. Structured household interviews (n = 205) were conducted in nine villages of rural Burkina Faso from November 2007 to November 2008 and in November 2009 to collect data on household characteristics (e.g., income, education, demographics), illness frequencies, illness types, and treatment strategies employed. Comprehensive analysis of treatment choice was performed through bivariate analyses. Results indicate that traditional medicine was primarily relied on by middle-aged individuals from relatively uneducated households who were living in villages with limited allopathic medicine service provision. Moreover, a differential approach to medicinal plant consumption was used to distinguish between patients using traditional medicine as a self-care treatment and those visiting a traditional healer. Although poorer households were shown to use traditional medicine as a self-treatment, traditional healers’ services were relied on by wealthier households. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: India has a population with high degree of medical pluralism. Siddha system of Indian traditional medicine is practiced dominantly by the people in Tamil Nadu. The traditionally trained Siddha healers still play an important role in the rural health care. Their knowledge is comparatively more vulnerable than the documented traditional knowledge. Thus, the present study was aimed to document and quantitatively analyze the local knowledge of the traditional Siddha healers in Virudhunagar district of Tamil Nadu, India. Materials and methods: The results presented in this paper are the outcome of series of interviews conducted between January and August, 2010 consisting of 196 field days. After getting prior informed consent, interviews were conducted and successive free-listing was used in the interviews in order to make informants cite the medicinal plants that they have used. By this way 96 healers were interviewed and their data were quantitatively analyzed using various indices such as Informant Consensus Factor (F ic), Fidelity Level (FL), Informant Agreement on Remedies (IAR) and Cultural Importance Index (CII). Results: This study recorded the ethno-medicinal usage of 227 species which were used to prepare 611 formulations for the treatment of 36 illness categories. The knowledge holders had the experience of minimum 20 years. There was unevenness in male–female ratio. Regarding the medicinal plants, easily available plants were holding significantly high number of citations, IAR and CII values. Nine illness categories had a high F ic value, compared to others. Species with high citations in these groups were Moringa oleifera (aphrodisiacs), Acalypha indica (dermatological ailments), Dodonaea viscosa (musculo-skeletal disorders), Solanum trilobatum (pulmonary ailments), Phyllanthus amarus (jaundice), Piper nigrum (adjuvant) Allium cepa (hemorrhoids), Azadirachta indica (antiseptic) and Tribulus terrestris (urinary ailments). Conclusion: Quantitative analysis of the data had revealed that the easily available species hold a high consensus and cultural importance. Future biomedical studies using the medicinal plants enumerated in this study, particularly those with high number of citations and high F ic values might yield some novel prototypes. Such studies will also be useful to assess the efficacy and safety of these herbal treatments to take decisions on the health care of rural India. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Middle Navarra (Iberian Peninsula). Collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in this area with 3622.2km2 and 404,634 inhabitants. Materials and methods: We performed semi-structured interviews with 276 informants (mean age 72; 46% women, 54% men) in 111 locations, identified the plant reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results: The informants reported data on 198 medicinal plants belonging to 60 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 98% of the pharmaceutical uses (1401 use reports). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Jasonia glutinosa and Chamaemelum nobile with a long tradition of use in Navarra. All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The most common mode of administration is oral, while the second most common is topical. Conclusions: The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, wounds and dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 80 new or scarcely cited uses for 14 medicinal plants. For 36% of the species (5) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 64% (9) have only one to three references. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Shilajit is a multi-component natural occurring mineral substance used in Ayurveda and Siddha systems of medicine which originated in India. Its source can be traced to the mountainous regions, where the hilly tribes first identified its beneficial use. Shilajit is aptly referred to as ‘rasayana’/‘rasayanam’ in Ayurveda and Siddha literature which means rejuvenator because it prevents ailment and enhances the quality of life. Materials and Methods: An attempt has been put forth to review shilajit pertaining to its origin, synonyms, varieties, physical properties, chemical constituents, therapeutic properties and important biological properties to affirm its rasayana property. All relevant information on shilajit was collected from classical texts including pharmacopoeias, formularies, etc. Moreover, select doctoral thesis from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi and Gujarat Ayurved University, Jamnagar were also scanned. Published papers on shilajit were collected from important databases for biomedical sciences. Amongst, the various biological properties of shilajit, antioxidant activity and immuno-modulatory activity were focused as it is closely related to its rasayana potential. Results: This review finds that shilajit is used in twenty Sastric formulations and twenty-four proprietary drugs for extraneous indications. Even-though, there is a long history of use of shilajit in traditional Indian materia medica, shilajit unfortunately lacks scientific evaluation and systematic documentation. In vivo antioxidant activity of shilajit has been studied at an irrelevant dose and without using a positive control. The immuno-modulatory activity does not stand the test of critical assessment and currently may be considered as unproven. Conclusion: Based on the earlier studies, the bioactivity of shilajit lacks substantial evidence. Nevertheless, further studies are imperative to overcome the lacuna in establishing the antioxidant property of shilajit and more specific assays are needed to vouch shilajit as an immuno-modulator which may be of use to establish its rasayana potential. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: The study was done to establish medicinal plants used in the treatment of various diseases by the people in the Northern sector of Kibale National Park in western Uganda. It was also aimed at establishing the plant parts used and the mode of preparation of remedies. These plants create a basis for phytochemical evaluation which can lead to the discovery of biologically active compounds that can be used as starting materials in the development of new drugs targeting selected diseases such as malaria. Materials and methods: The required information was obtained using open interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions and transect walks. Results: Different medicinal plants (131 species) distributed over 55 families were observed to be used by the local communities around the Northern sector of Kibale National Park. The plants as reported in this paper are used to treat 43 physical illnesses/diseases. The most used parts of the plants are the leaves. Water is the main medium used for the preparation of the remedies which are mostly administered orally. Conclusion: The people in the study area have a rich heritage of traditional plants that are used in the health care system to treat diseases. These medicinal plants have contributed significantly to several disease therapies. The most common diseases treated are malaria and cough, which are mostly treated by Vernonia amygdalina Del. and Albizia coriaria Welw. respectively. The main sources of medicinal plants include bush land, home gardens, grasslands, and the forest. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aim of the study: The aim of this paper is to compare the changes in the utilization of species from various hemeroby categories (indicating the degree of sensitivity of the plant to human impact) using historical data concerning the years 1888–1994. Materials and methods: The authors digitised 8808 handwritten reports, reflecting local ethnopharmacological knowledge from 8 selected collections from the Estonian Folklore Archives of the Estonian Literary Museum. They were semi-quantitatively analyzed according to the sensitivity to human impact of 540 taxa that could possibly be related to the plant vernacular names given in the reports. Results: Although in different periods of time the number of ethnopharmacologically used plants has changed, the proportion of plants utilized from each group has remained relatively same, consisting on average of: 23% anthropophytes, 42% apophytes, 32% hemeradiaphores and 3% hemerophobes. Comparison of the application of the most used plants revealed considerable changes of plant utilization, in which the varied use of the most popular anthropophytes increased and the applied scope of the most popular hemeradiaphores and hemerophobes decreased almost by twofold in one century. Case studies on seven taxa are presented, of them, use of Allium sativum L., Aesculus hippocastanum L. and Mentha xpiperita L. increased, whereas the use of Hordeum L., Orchidaceae, Paris quadrifolia L. and Briza media L. decreased greatly. Conclusions: This research contributes to the better understanding of the cognitive and human ecological concepts underlying the use of medicinal plants in Estonia. Strong increase in the ethnomedical utilization of plants depending on human influence, and a decrease in the use of taxa that do not prefer human activities indicates that, despite some of the population still have access to natural resources and diverse knowledge of the medical use of plants, the majority relies on a very narrow selection and a rather restricted herbal landscape. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The use of aphrodisiacs dates back thousands of years in Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, Roman, and Greek cultures. Although the scientific basis of these substances was not understood, aphrodisiacs were valued for their ability to enhance the sexual experience. Their use allowed for human procreation and the ability to obtain a sexually fulfilling relationship. Aphrodisiacs used historically include ambrein, Bufo toad, Spanish fly, yohimbine, Tribulus terrestris, horny goat weed, muira puama, MACA root, Panax ginseng, nutmeg, saffron, and cacao. Previous studies on these substances have shown potential aphrodisiac properties using animal models and in human clinical trials. Aphrodisiacs were shown to relax corpus cavernosum smooth muscle tissue in animals, improve erection quality in humans and animals, or increase sexual behavior and satisfaction in humans and animals. Although most studies showed positive effects of aphrodisiacs on sexual enhancement, more studies are needed to understand their mechanism of action. The need for clinical trials using larger populations is also evident to prove the effectiveness of aphrodisiacs for human use. This paper will review recent scientific studies conducted on these commonly used aphrodisiacs, and determine whether the results support or refute their use for human sexual enhancement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aim of the study: We present and discuss a particular group of plants used by a diversity of healers in the initiation process and apprenticeship of traditional medicine, as practiced by Amazonian societies in East-Central Peru. Often, these plants are locally called plantas con madre (plants with a mother), and are thought to guide initiates in the process of seeking sacred knowledge, learning about plant usage, and understanding traditional medicine practices. We illustrate the diversity of plants used in the apprenticeship and practice of traditional medicine, and nurture the discussion to better understand the terminology used by Indigenous healers to describe plant uses and their practices. Materials and methods: The study was conducted between 2003 and 2008 with the participation of 29 curanderos (healers; 23 men, 6 women), 3 apprentices and 4 herbalists. The participants belonged to four ethnic groups: 17 Mestizos, 15 Shipibo-Konibo, 1 Ashaninka, and 1 Matsiguenga; a Spanish apprentice and an Italian herbalist were also included in the study. The field data were collected using semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and the witnessing of numerous healing sessions. Oral informed consent was obtained from each participant. Results: We identified 55 plant species belonging to 26 botanical families, which are used in initiation processes and apprenticeships of traditional medicine. This group of plants is administered under strict conditions during training and healing sessions called dietas (shamanic diets), with the supervision of one or more maestros curanderos (master healers). We observed that during the shamanic diets, maestros curanderos administered plants depending on the teachings or tools he/she was passing on, and were based on a particular sequence during the initiation process: (I) purification and cleansing species; (II) sensitivity and intuition; (III) strengthening; and (IV) protection and defence. Conclusions: Traditional healers continue to be a primary source of health care for the majority of the population in the Amazon region. Our research suggests that the system of dietas and the plantas con madre are fundamental components of the everyday practice of traditional medicine, maintenance of cultural continuity and Indigenous cosmovisions in the Amazonian societies in East-Central Peru. This paper contributes to filling the gap in the understanding of the process of initiation among healers in this area of the world. The study offers evidence of the need to collaborate with Indigenous healers to improve the recognition of their medical practices, role in their societies, and the value of their tools and medicines. A respectful attitude and open exchange of ideas and information may contribute to a better understanding of the language used by traditional medical practitioners, their practice, and their worldviews. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Researchers examining the relationships between traditional medicine and biomedicine have observed two conflicting tendencies. Some suggest that the use of biomedicine and biomedical concepts displaces the use of traditional medicine and medical beliefs. Other scholars have found that traditional medicine and biomedicine can co-exist, complement, and blend with each other. In this paper we use an econometric model and quantitative data to test the association between individual knowledge of pharmaceuticals and individual knowledge of medicinal plants. We use data from a survey among 136 household heads living in a rural indigenous community in Oaxaca, Mexico. Data were collected as a part of long term fieldwork conducted between April 2005 and August 2006 and between December 2006 and April 2007. We found a significant positive association between an individual’s knowledge of medicinal plants and the same individual’s knowledge of pharmaceuticals, as well as between her use of medicinal plants and her use of pharmaceuticals. We also found a negative association between the use of medicinal plants and schooling. Our results suggest that, in the study site, individual knowledge of medicinal plants and individual knowledge of pharmaceuticals co-exist in a way which might be interpreted as complementary. We conclude that social organization involved in the use of medicines from both traditional medicine and biomedicine is of particular significance, as our findings suggest that the use of pharmaceuticals alone is not associated with a decline in knowledge/use of medicinal plants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: For demographic reasons and as a result of a number of high profile health incidents in recent years, much of the health research and policy focus is on the younger cohorts of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. A critical examination of recent demographic trends reveals, however, that older cohorts of the Aboriginal population are increasing at a faster rate than younger cohorts, primarily due to improvements in life expectancy and declining fertility rates. Yet, there are surprisingly few health studies that have recognized the aging of the Aboriginal population. The overall goal of this paper is to examine differences in health status, use of conventional health care and traditional approaches to healing between older and younger cohorts of the Aboriginal population as well as to examine the importance of age as a determinant of health and health care use. Using data from the 2001 Statistics Canada Aboriginal Peoples Survey and contingency tables and logistic regression, the results demonstrate that older Aboriginal people face unique challenges – e.g. loss of traditional approaches to healing, geographic isolation, identity politics, constitutional and legal divisions within the Aboriginal community – with respect to their health and access to health services. These outcomes result from a colonial past and contemporary policies that affect all Aboriginal people. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aim of the study: This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in Northern Navarra from an area known both for its high biological diversity and its cultural significance, suggesting the survival of uses lost elsewhere. Collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in Northern Navarra (Iberian Peninsula) with 4243km2 and 71,069 inhabitants. Material and methods: We performed semi-structured interviews with 253 informants (mean age 69; 61% women, 39% men) in 120 locations, identified the plant reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results: The informants reported data on 174 medicinal plants belonging to 63 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 98% of the pharmaceutical uses (1725 use reports). The species with the highest number of cites are Chamaemelum nobile, Sambucus nigra and Verbena officinalis, with a long tradition of use in The Mountain (Navarra). All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. Usually, the administration is primarily oral followed by topical applications. Conclusions: The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, wounds and dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 24 new or scarcely cited uses for 23 medicinal plants. For 35% of the species (8) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 48% (11) have only one to three references. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aim of the study: To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnopharmacologic knowledge in Nor-Yauyos in order to protect it. This paper reports the results of an ethnopharmacological survey on the uses of medicinal plants by inhabitants of the Andean region Nor-Yauyos, Peru. In this region one surviving ethnic group, the Jaqaru-Quichuas, has been identified. Methodology: Field work was concluded between October 1999 and March 2000, using semi-structured questionnaire and participant observation as well as transects walks in wild herbal plant collection. Interviews with 68 informants (mean age: 54; 100% men, 0% women) were performed in 12 farmers’ communities: Huancaya, Vilca, Vitis, Miraflores, Piños, Carania, San Lorenzo De Alis, Santa Rosa De Tinco, Tomás, Huancachi, Laraos and Huantán. Results: 63 species of plants belonging to 29 families were reported. More than a half of reported plants were native, endemic of the studied area. Leaves and their mixtures were the most (67.26%) commonly used plant part. Most of the remedies were prepared in infusion, and 90.08% were administered orally. Most treated disorders were the gastrointestinal (18.59%) and respiratory ones (18.22%). Conclusions: 6 species (9.52%) without pharmacological references in international scientific literature, 21 species (33.33%) with 1–2 references, 16 species (25.40%) with 3–6 references, and 20 species (31.75%) that have been already widely studied were found. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aim of the study: Based on the authors’ collection of specimens used as Jie-Ji in local Tibetan areas, China, and taxonomic determination, this paper aims to give a list of medicinal plants as Jie-Ji, formally identify the ones recognized as Jie-Ji Ga-Bao or Jie-Ji Na-Bao and to offer basic data for further studies on these Tibetan herbs. Materials and methods: Local herbalists were visited in Tibetan areas, China to observe which plants were being used as Jie-Ji. Samples of the indigenous plants were collected at the same time. Also, the medicinal plants as Jie-Ji were taxonomically identified. Results: A list of medicinal plants including 10 species of Jie-Ji in local Tibetan areas is given, including their morphological pictures used for identification. Conclusions: The origin of Jie-Ji is from 10 species of the Section Cruciata, Genus Gentiana (Gentianaceae). five species with dark blue flowers are used as Jie-Ji Na-Bao, the other five with white flowers are used as Jie-Ji Ga-Bao. Also, Gentiana macrophylla Pall. with dark blue flowers in the Section Cruciata, Genus Gentiana is not the original plant of Jie-Ji Na-Bao. The species endemic to the province are used as the original plants of Jie-Ji only in local Tibetan area of the province. Finally, the drug use of Jie-Ji in Traditional Tibetan Medicine is reasonable and it is efficacious. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In many Western societies, alternative healing options, including Chinese medicine, have started to move from the marginal to mainstream. In China, Chinese medicine has been an established component in the official health care system, but its relevance and effectiveness have often been challenged in a society committed to modernization. Despite abundant speculation, little research has established empirical facts regarding the use of Chinese medicine in China. This paper uses a longitudinal dataset to examine the trends from 1991 to 2004, and explore the extent to which changing population demographic and socioeconomic characteristics contributed to the observed trends. It finds that in the formal medical sector, the use of Chinese medicine has contracted, particularly in cities. Changing population demographic and socioeconomic characteristics cannot entirely account for the contraction. Rather, shifts in cultural values and structural changes in the health care system may have led to the observed decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim of the study: The present paper documents the uses of plants in traditional herbal medicine for treatment of human and veterinary ailments in four village development committees in the Humla district of western Nepal. It also determines the homogeneity of informant''s knowledge on medicinal plants suitable for different ailment categories and the most preferred plant species used to treat each ailment category in the study areas. Materials and methods: The ethnobotanical information was collected through semi-structured interviews and key informant discussion. The data were analyzed through informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL) and use value (UV). Results: We documented 161 plant species belonging to 61 families and 106 genera used for treating 73 human and 7 veterinary ailments. We also documented culinary uses and additional uses for 67 and 33 species of medicinal plant species respectively. Most medicines were prepared in the form of powder and used orally. Roots were most frequently used plant parts. The uses of 93 medicinal plants were not mentioned in any previous studies. Gastro-intestinal ailments have the highest ICF (0.40) whereas opthalmological uses have the lowest (zero) ICF. Mentha spicata and Rumex hastatus has the highest FL (100% each) both being used for gastro-intestinal ailments and Delphinium himalayai has the lowest (47.4%) for veterinary uses. Conclusions: ICF values indicated that there was high agreement in the use of plants in gastro-intestinal ailment category among the users. FL or UV values indicated the most preferred plant species used in study areas. These preferred plant species could be prioritized for conservation and subjected to further studies related to chemical screening for their authenticity. Most of the medicinal plants of the region are collected in the wild and are often harvested for trade. Sustainable harvesting methods and domestication of the highly traded species is thus needed in the study areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aim of the study: Seven extracts and eight compounds from four selected Cameroonian medicinal plants, Solanecio mannii Hook f. (Asteraceae), Monodora myristica Dunal (Annonaceae), Albizia gummifera (J.F. Gmel) C.A. Smith (Fabaceae/Mimosoideae) and Glyphaea brevis (Spreng) Monachino (Tiliaceae), traditionally used for the treatment of hepatitis, parasites and other infectious diseases, were tested in vitro for their antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive (5 species) and Gram-negative (4 species) bacteria species and pathogenic yeasts (2 Candida species), to establish whether or not they have antimicrobial activity and to validate scientifically their use in traditional medicine. Materials and methods: The agar disc diffusion and the microbroth dilution methods were used to determine the zone of inhibition between the edge of the filter paper and the edge of the inhibition area (IZ) and the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) respectively. Results: The most active extracts against Candida albicans and Candida krusei were respectively the cyclohexane extract from the fruits of Monodora myristica and the ethyl acetate extract from the stem bark of Albizia gummifera (MIC=6.3μg/ml for both extracts). The lowest MIC value (1.6μg/ml) for purified compounds was obtained on Candida albicans with a mixture of linear aliphatic primary alcohols (n-C24H50O to n-C30H62O), with n-hexacosanol (1b) as major compound and mixture of fatty acid esters of diunsaturated linear 1,2-diols (6). Conclusion: These results afford ground informations for the potential use of the crude extracts of these species as well as of some of the isolated compounds in bacterial and fungal infections. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Scutellaria (HUANG QIN) (Lamiaceae), which includes about 350 species commonly known as skullcaps, is widespread in Europe, the United States and East Asia. Some species are taken to clear away the heat-evil and expel superficial evils in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The present paper reviews the ethnopharmacology, the biological activities and the correlated chemical compounds of Scutellaria species. More than 295 compounds have been isolated, among them flavonoids and diterpenes. Studies show that Scutellaria and its active principles possess wide pharmacological actions, such as antitumor, anti-angiogenesis, hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anticonvulsant, antibacterial and antiviral activities. Currently, effective monomeric compounds or active parts have been screened for pharmacological activity from Scutellaria in vivo and in vitro. Increasing data supports application and exploitation for new drug development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The use of kinos, a class of polyphenol-rich, characteristically coloured astringent plant exudates, is a feature of many ethnomedical systems. Though once well-regarded in formal health care systems, since the mid 20th century they have declined in popularity. In view of the current interest in traditional medicines as a source of new therapeutic agents and the information published in the past 30 years in respect of the bioactivity of compounds known to occur in kinos, a review of the current knowledge of this class of plant exudates is overdue. This paper therefore presents information on the history, botany, natural formation, chemistry and pharmacology as well as technical and potential medical applications of kinos, with particular reference to those of Australian Eucalyptus species and Aboriginal ethnomedical and also early European settlers’ practices. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In an attempt to promote patient agency and foster more egalitarian relationships between patients and doctors, discourse concerning health and wellbeing in the UK has increasingly centred around the notion of informed and ‘expert’ patients who are able to effectively input into the direction and management of their own health care and treatment. While the relationship between a patient and their doctor can play a vital role in influencing the treatment decisions and health-related outcomes of people living with long term illness, little is known about the ways in which people living with HIV actually perceive their relationship with their doctors, nor the implications this may have for the types of treatment they may seek to use and the related information that they share. Drawing on 11 focus group discussions and 20 repeat interviews undertaken in 2008–2009 with HIV-positive adult migrants from Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa living in the UK, this paper argues that patient-doctor relationships can be heavily influenced by the perceived legitimacy of different forms of medical knowledge and treatments and by culturally influenced ideas regarding health, wellbeing and agency. Despite a desire amongst some migrants to use ‘traditional’ medicines from southern Africa as well as other non-biomedical treatments and therapies, the research found that the perceived lack of legitimacy associated with these treatments in the UK rendered their use a largely clandestine activity. At the same time, many patients made clear distinctions concerning issues affecting their immediate health and factors influencing their more general wellbeing, which in turn, impacted upon the information that they chose to share with, or conceal from, their doctors. Such findings challenge assumptions underpinning policy promoting patient agency and have significant and, in cases, potentially adverse implications for the safety and effective administration and management of HIV treatments in African migrant populations and possibly more generally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aim of the study: When people migrate, they tend to bring along their medicinal plants. In order to improve migrant health, we need information on their traditional health beliefs and practices. This paper investigates medicinal plant use among Surinamese migrants in the Netherlands. Materials and methods: Data from 210 semi-structured interviews among 1st and 2nd generation Surinamese migrants were analysed to determine which medicinal plants were used, for what purposes, which demographic, socio-economic or psycho-social factors play a role in the choice for traditional medicine and to clarify people''s personal motives to use herbs. Variables associated with medicinal plant use were identified by using the Pearson γ2 test and the two-sample t-test. After selecting significant variables by means of bivariate analyses, multinomial logistic regression with stepwise forward selection was used to assess whether medicinal plant use could be explained by a combination of these variables. Results: More than 75% of the respondents used herbal medicine, and 66% did so in the past year. Herbs were more frequently employed for health promotion (39%) than for disease prevention or cure (both 27%). Almost half of the respondents who had been ill the last year had used herbal medicine. More than 140 herb species were mentioned during the interviews. Plant use was often related to certain culture-bound health beliefs. Spiritual baths were the most popular traditional practice, followed by genital steam baths, bitter tonics, and the consumption of bitter vegetables. Afro-Surinamers more frequently used herbal medicine than Hindustani. The WINTI belief strongly influenced plant use, as well as the occurrence of an illness in the past year, and frequent visits to Suriname. Age, gender, income and education had no significant effect on the use of traditional medicine. Surinamers stated that they used medicinal herbs because they grew up with them; herbs were more effective and had fewer side effects than conventional therapies. Conclusions: As long as certain culture-bound beliefs and health concepts remain prevalent among Surinamese migrants, and ties with their home country remain strong, they will continue using medicinal herbs from their country of origin. More research is needed on the health effects of frequently used medicinal plants by migrants in the Netherlands. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a scientific discipline, which develops the related theories from the long-term clinical practices. The large-scale clinical data are the core empirical knowledge source for TCM research. This paper introduces a clinical data warehouse (CDW) system, which incorporates the structured electronic medical record (SEMR) data for medical knowledge discovery and TCM clinical decision support (CDS). Materials and methods: We have developed the clinical reference information model (RIM) and physical data model to manage the various information entities and their relationships in TCM clinical data. An extraction-transformation-loading (ETL) tool is implemented to integrate and normalize the clinical data from different operational data sources. The CDW includes online analytical processing (OLAP) and complex network analysis (CNA) components to explore the various clinical relationships. Furthermore, the data mining and CNA methods are used to discover the valuable clinical knowledge from the data. Results: The CDW has integrated 20,000 TCM inpatient data and 20,000 outpatient data, which contains manifestations (e.g. symptoms, physical examinations and laboratory test results), diagnoses and prescriptions as the main information components. We propose a practical solution to accomplish the large-scale clinical data integration and preprocessing tasks. Meanwhile, we have developed over 400 OLAP reports to enable the multidimensional analysis of clinical data and the case-based CDS. We have successfully conducted several interesting data mining applications. Particularly, we use various classification methods, namely support vector machine, decision tree and Bayesian network, to discover the knowledge of syndrome differentiation. Furthermore, we have applied association rule and CNA to extract the useful acupuncture point and herb combination patterns from the clinical prescriptions. Conclusion: A CDW system consisting of TCM clinical RIM, ETL, OLAP and data mining as the core components has been developed to facilitate the tasks of TCM knowledge discovery and CDS. We have conducted several OLAP and data mining tasks to explore the empirical knowledge from the TCM clinical data. The CDW platform would be a promising infrastructure to make full use of the TCM clinical data for scientific hypothesis generation, and promote the development of TCM from individualized empirical knowledge to large-scale evidence-based medicine. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Yanesha, also called Amuesha, is a group of amerindian people, belonging to the arawak linguistic family. They dwell in the central region of Peru, at the oriental foothills of the Andes. Their territory covers a large range of ecological settings, and communities spread from 1800 down to 400m/snm. The Yanesha culture is vivid to this day, and people strongly rely on traditional medicine in their everyday life. An exhaustive ethnopharmacological survey leads us to collect 249 species with medicinal uses. An overview of the Yanesha pharmacopoeia, linked with ethnomedicinal practices is presented in this paper. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A review is made of chemical, ethnopharmacological and pharmacological papers dealing with Senna alata (L.) Roxb., a plant that belongs to the Creole traditional system of medicine and that has recently been introduced in the French Pharmacopoeia. The proofs existing for its various usages are presented. The species is mainly used against constipation and skin diseases. The laxative activity is supported by scientific findings. In contrast the dermatologic use requires further investigation. The species can be considered as safe for short-term or topical use. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: India has an eclectic health system that incorporates biomedical as well as traditional, complementary and alternative medicine (TCAM). Our understanding of the co-existence of these therapeutic modalities in this diverse, postcolonial and developing nation is extremely limited, and in the context of cancer care, to our knowledge no sociological work has been carried out. Contemporary Indian oncology represents a fascinating site for examining the interplay and articulation of forms of tradition/modernity, economic progress/structural constraint and individual beliefs/cultural norms. In a context of an increase in the prevalence and impact of cancer in an ageing Indian population, this paper reports on a qualitative investigation of a group of oncology clinicians'' accounts of ‘pluralism’ in India. The results illustrate the embeddedness of patient disease and therapeutic trajectories in vast social inequalities and, indeed, the intermingling of therapeutic pluralism and the politics of social value. We conclude that notions of pluralism, so often espoused by global health organisations, may conceal important forms of social inequality and cultural divides, and that sociologists should play a critical role in highlighting these issues. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Myrrh is an herbal product that has been used since ancient ages for traditional medication and other purposes. The revolution of myrrh as an antiparasitic agent in Egypt began in the 1990s through scientific evidence-based research. The human trematode infections in Egypt were the main focus of research with stories of success and disagreement, at times. The present paper reviewed the antiparasitary activity of myrrh with stress on its possible mode of action, its safety, efficacy and effectiveness on trematode infections in experimental studies and clinical trials in Egypt as well as its molluscicidal effects on the intermediate hosts of trematodes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses from a tourist and industrialised region, where some degree of acculturation exists, so that there is urgency in recording such data. Aim of the study: To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in a north-eastern Iberian region (Alt Empordà, 1358km2, 129,160 inhabitants). Methodology: We performed 101 semi-structured interviews with 178 informants (mean age 69; 71% women, 29% men), identified the plant taxa reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results: The informants reported data on 518 species. Of these, 335, belonging to 80 botanical families, were claimed as medicinal. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 98% of the pharmaceutical uses (3581 out of 3643 use reports). Around 800 medicinal uses, concerning 200 species, have not, or have very rarely been cited as medicinal; of these, 32 uses of 30 species have been reported by three or more independent informants. Conclusions: The folk knowledge about medicinal plant use is still alive in the studied region, and a number of scarcely reported plant uses has been detected, some of them with promising phytotherapeutical applications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Approximately 60 species of Bridelia, (Phyllanthaceae) are found throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world, mainly in Africa and Asia. Several Bridelia species are used in popular medicines as antiamebic, antianemic, antibacterial, anticonvulsant, anti-diabetic, antidiarrhoeal, antihelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antinociceptive, antiviral, hypoglycemic and for abdominal pain, cardiovascular, gynecological and sexual diseases. The present paper reviews the traditional usage, the biological activities and the correlated chemical compounds of Bridelia species with emphasis on the validation of the ethnopharmacological uses. The findings in some Bridelia species of, for example, gallocatechin-(4′-O-7)-epigallocatechin (1), quercetin (2), myricetin glycosides (5–6), bridelone (11), bridelonine (12), isoflavone may justify the uses of these species against pains in African and Asian traditional medicines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bidens pilosa L. var. radiata (BPR), B. pilosa L. var. pilosa (BPP), and B. pilosa L. var. minor (BPM) are common variants of a plant often used as a folk remedy for diabetes in Taiwan. However, the three variants are often misidentified and little is known about their relative anti-diabetic efficacy and chemical composition. In this paper, we have first developed a method based on GC–MS and cluster analysis with visualization to assist in rapidly determining the taxonomy of these three Bidens variants. GC–MS was used to determine the chemical compositions of supercritical extracts, and differences and similarities in the variants were determined by hierarchical cluster analysis. Next, the HPLC profiles of the methanol crude extracts in the Bidens plants and evaluated anti-diabetic effects of methanol crude extracts were compared, as well as three polyacetylenic compounds of the Bidens plants using db/db mice. Single-dose and long-term experiments showed that the BPR extract had higher glucose-lowering and insulin-releasing activities than extracts from the other two variants, and that cytopiloyne was the most effective pure compound among the three polyacetylenic compounds. BPR extract and cytopiloyne also significantly reduced the percentage of the glycosylated hemoglobin A1c in db/db mice. Besides, both animal studies and HPLC analysis demonstrated a good correlation between anti-diabetic efficacy of the Bidens extracts and the particular polyacetylenes present. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aim of the study: Withania aristata is an endemic plant used traditionally in Canary Islands as a diuretic. In this paper, we report on this pharmacological activity in several extracts of the dry vegetal material collected and the identification and diuretic activity of two withanolides, one of them previously not reported, isolated from the most active fraction. Material and methods: Four Whitania aristata extracts at 100mg/kg were orally administered to laboratory animals to evaluate their diuretic activity. From the most active fraction, two withanolides were isolated. Both and a mixture of them at 5 and 10mg/kg were analyzed too as diuretics. Water excretion rate and content of Na+ and K+ electrolytes were measured in the urine of saline-loaded animals. Results: Whitania aristata water fraction, the two withanolides and the mixture of these compounds displayed high diuretic activity, with a significant excretion of sodium and potassium ions in laboratory animals. Conclusions: This research supports the ethno-medicinal use of Whitania aristata as diuretic. This activity seems to be associated to the presence of a new type of natural diuretic agents, such as withaferin A and witharistatin. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: Previous work has found that the Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) form aggregates in the aqueous solution, and the activities of two Chinese herbal formulae against three cardiovascular targets were aggregates-related. This paper further studied the molecular morphology composed of aggregation and single active molecule in TCM. Methods: We take Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi (PUE) as an example. By means of dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and high performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS), the mechanism and active components of the aggregates in PUE have been studies. Besides the relationship between aggregation and therapeutic activities in the vivo level has been studied by hemorheological method. Results: Puerarin, daidzein, daidzin, genistein, these cardiovascular bioactive compounds existed in the aggregates. Three kinds of aggregation processes by the bioactive molecules in the solution were elucidated: (1) the aggregation of single molecule oneself; (2) the aggregation between different single molecules; (3) the aggregation between different single molecules and the primary metabolites. Furthermore, the therapeutic activity of PUE solution was aggregates-related in vivo level. Conclusions: The aggregation morphology of molecules in TCM might be a promising way to study the mechanism of TCM, even to develop an approach of new nanomedicine of TCM. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reviews burns that occur because of specific social habits and traditions; religious beliefs and activities; social events and festivals; and traditional medical practices. A literature review did not reveal any article that specifically reviews such burns. These injuries are not only interesting (being nation-specific) but are also important with regards to implementation of preventive measures in various countries around the world. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Documentation of ethnomedicinal use of plants has been considered a high priority to support the discovery of new drugs to benefit mankind. This paper deals with the field observations recorded on the use of medicinal plants in traditional health care systems of the Tharus of three Villages of Nawalparasi district of central Nepal. The Tharus are isolated forest dwellers who have lived harmoniously with nature over the centuries and accumulated a vast knowledge of plant use to cure various ailments. First-hand information on the ethnomedicinal uses of 110 plants species belonging to 52 families were documented from the study. These plant species are used by the Tharus to treat ailments ranging from fever and headache to cough and cold, rheumatic pain and fracture to urinary tract infection and menstrual disorders. The scientific names of these plants are presented in tabular format according to alphabetic order, family, parts used, medicine preparation process and use and method of application. Increasing accessibility of modern health care facilities, low recognition of traditional healers and decreasing interest amongst the young generation has resulted in declining trends in the use of traditional medicine among the Tharus. Thus, the documentation of such knowledge is an important step for preservation of traditional knowledge, conservation and management of valuable plant resources and commercialization of ethnomedicines. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Acetophenones in Cynanchum species, especially cynandione A and its derivatives, whose utilization and toxicity in herbal drugs and folk medicines has caused great interest in the chemical investigation, have extensive biological activities. In this paper, a facile method based on high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS n ) was developed for the analysis of cynandione A derivatives in the roots of the Cynanchum wilfordii and C. auriculatum. ESI-MS/MS and ESI-MS n analysis of cynandiones A and B in negative ion mode were firstly performed employing two mass spectrometers each equipped with an ion-trap and a quadrupole time-of-flight (Q-TOF) mass analyzer. The results drawn from both instruments were similar to each other. Characteristic fragmentation pathways were proposed by comparing the spectra of two standards acquired in the experiments. The fragment ions at m/z 283 and 268 were obtained, and then were used as diagnostic ions to screen and identify cynandione A derivatives from the roots of above two species, together with an HPLC-MS n method. Total of 28 cynandione A derivatives comprising 4 reported and 24 novel components were identified or tentatively identified. Furthermore, breakdown curves were constructed to distinguish two types of isomers among these compounds. To our knowledge, this is the first report on characterization of acetophenones by HPLC-ESI-MS n , which allows a rapid and complete analysis of cynandione A derivatives in roots of Cynanchum species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper reviews theory of DNB (Dynamical Network Biomarkers) and its applications including both modern medicine and traditional medicine. We show that omics data such as gene/protein expression profiles can be effectively used to detect pre-disease states before critical transitions from healthy states to disease states by using the DNB theory. The DNB theory with big biological data is expected to lead to ultra-early precision and preventive medicine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aim of the study: Chandauli district is one of the less studied regions of India for its ethnobotanical values. The present paper synthesizes the first report related to the documentation and conservation of ethnomedicinal plants of Chandauli district and their socio-economic relationship with the forests and its resources. Materials and methods: Ethnobotanical data were collected using semi-structured interviews, field observations, preference and direct matrix ranking with traditional medicine practitioners. Results: The use of 40 medicinal plants belonging to 27 families was documented in the tribal communities of Chandauli district in India. These species were used in combination of some exotic species such as Foeniculum vulgare, Prosopis spicigera, Crataeva nurvala, Curcuma longa, Punica granatum, Aloe vera, Cocos nucifera, Ocimum sanctum and Allium cepa and some medicinal stones, minerals, salts, etc. Most of the plants (94.6%) were reportedly used to treat human diseases. Conclusions: Documenting the eroding plants and associated indigenous knowledge can be used as a basis for developing management plans for conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants in the area. The principal threatening factors reported were deforestation (90%), agricultural expansion (85%) and overgrazing (53%). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports the results of a survey concerning folk uses of medicinal plants in Valvestino (Brescia, Italy). The features of this area, recognized by European Union as “Site of Community interest”, allowed the preservation of the ethnobotanical traditions. We have documented the use of 58 species belonging to 30 families by interviewing 54 villagers of a mean age of 72 years. The dominant families are Asteraceae (10 species), Pinaceae and Rosaceae (5 species, respectively); the most common preparations are infusion and decoction. Three plants have been mentioned for treatment of animals, some species are employed in cookery. The study, carried out for the first time in this valley, gathered information about traditional remedies, before they are completely lost. All the interesting species have been transplanted to the G. E. Ghirardi Botanical Garden for the ex situ conservation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The project of modernising Western herbal medicine in order to allow it to be accepted by the public and to contribute to contemporary healthcare is now over two decades old. One aspect of this project involves changes to the ways knowledge about medicinal plants is presented. This paper contrasts the models of Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) and Traditional Knowledge (TK) to illuminate some of the complexities which have arisen consequent to these changes, particularly with regard to the concept of vitalism, the retention or rejection of which may have broad implications for the clinical practice of herbal medicine. Illustrations from two herbals (central texts on the medicinal use of plants) demonstrate the differences between these frameworks in regard to how herbs are understood. Further, a review of articles on herbal therapeutics published in the Australian Journal of Herbal Medicine indicates that practitioners are moving away from TK and towards the use of EBM in their clinical discussions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aims of the study: In South Africa, the genus Helichrysum is widely used in traditional medicine. The uses are well documented although renaming of species and the resulting confusing taxonomic nomenclature may cause uncertainty as to which specific species was referred to in some reports. The aim of this paper is to present a collated and coherent overview of the documented traditional uses of Helichrysum species and to update the botanical identity of previously studied species. Materials and methods: Databases (Scifinder, ISI Web of Knowledge) and several books were used to collect in information on South African Helichrysum species. Results: The traditional uses, chemistry and biological activity of Helichrysum species have been summarized. It was attempted to give clarity as to exactly which species is refer to in the ethnobotanical literature. Conclusions: Although a large number of ethnopharmacological uses have been documented and the chemistry of the genus has been studied extensively, only a few South African species have been investigated for their biological activity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Mangrove and halophytic plants occur along the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, south India and these plants have been used in traditional medicine for centuries. Heavy metals are known to pose a potential threat to terrestrial and aquatic biota. However, little is known on the toxic levels of heavy metals found in mangrove and halophytic plants that are used in traditional medicine in India. To understand heavy metal toxicity, we investigated the bioconcentration factors (BCF) of heavy metals in leaves collected from eight mangroves and five halophytes in the protected Pichavaram mangrove forest reserve in Tamil Nadu State, south India. Data presented in this paper describe the impact of essential (Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn and Zn) and non-essential/environmentally toxic trace metals (Hg, Pb and Sn) in mangrove and halophytic medicinal plants. The concentrations of Pb among 13 plant species were higher than the normal range of contamination reported for plants. The average concentration of Hg in the halophytic plants (0.43±0.37μg/g) was seven times higher than mangrove plants (0.06±0.03μg/g) and it indicated pollutants from industrial sources affecting halophytes more than mangroves. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A novel type polysaccharide was isolated from the bark of Cola cordifolia (Cav.) R. Br. (Sterculiaceae), a plant used in traditional medicine in Mali (West Africa). The polysaccharide was isolated from the water extract by ion exchange chromatography. Structural studies showed that this was a highly complex new type polysaccharide containing 20% of 2,3- and 2,4-linked rhamnose, 24% of galacturonic acid mostly 4-linked, 15% of terminal, 3- and 4-linked galactose, 20% of terminal and 3-linked 2-O-methyl galactose, 18% of 4-O-methyl glucuronic acid which was also terminally linked, and 2% of terminal 2-O-methyl fucose. This paper reports in addition to structural features, physical property and complement fixating activity using human serum as target of this novel polysaccharide. This is a first report of a plant polysaccharide containing such a diverse composition and quantity of natively methylated monosaccharides. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The commodification of traditional knowledge is a lively topic for academic debate, with opinions ranging from categorical rejection of this process, to views that it could be a liberating act. This debate is often characterised by generalisations and a lack of empirical engagement. This paper presents a case study of the commercialisation of traditional medicinal knowledge of the San in Southern Africa. A scenario survey in 3 communities reveals a range of different views amongst individuals and communities, much of which could be linked to differing local and historic socio-economic factors. Although the survey indicates that commodification is widely accepted, the subsequent use of a ‘life story’ approach to examine the actual commercialisation of the Hoodia (Hoodia Gordonii—a plant with appetite suppressant properties), shows that this acceptance is problematic. San informants reflect on it as a pragmatic choice informed by experiences of deprivation and economic hardship, resulting in a process which changes the cultural meaning of the plant and undermine its traditional healing power for the San themselves. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to trace developments in Traditional Medicine (TM) and legislation concerning conservation and use of biodiversity in Africa, with Tanzania as a case study. Based on field trips, interviews with different actors, site visits, and literature we explored the history, current status, re-establishment, and development of TM. A summary of laws and regulations concerning forests, access and benefit sharing is presented. During the last decade the Government of Tanzania put forth legislation to address national health needs, traditional knowledge, and the resource base for TM (e.g., practitioners, biodiversity). Our findings indicate that TM is the most common form of health care, and that the HIV pandemic has highlighted the need to work across health sectors. New legislation has facilitated this need. In Tanzania TM is experiencing a renaissance in being formally recognized, integrated into mainstream health care, formal establishment of practitioners, and gaining the interests of different sectors. More studies on bioactivity, safety, domestication, and sustainability of use of medicinal plants are needed. Development of TM can also, other than making a significant contribution to health care and livelihoods, provide income possibilities. It is however yet to be seen if the recent regulations can be made fully operational and implemented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The seeds of Peganum harmala L. (Pgh) (Zygophyllaceae) have been used in Moroccan traditional medicine for treatment of a various diseases and to relieve dolorous process. The major objective of this paper was to investigate the mechanism of the analgesia induced by alkaloid extract of Peganum harmala. In the present work, the antinociceptive action was assayed in several experimental models in mice: writhing, formalin, and hot plate tests. The alkaloid extract (12.5 and 25mg/kg) and in a dose-dependent manner significantly reduced the nociception by acetic acid intraperitoneal injection (p <0.001). In the formalin test, the extract also significantly reduced the painful stimulus in both phases of the test (p <0.001). Treatment with the extract when given by (i.p. or i.c.v.) or with morphine (10mg/kg, i.p.) produced a significant increase of the reaction time in hot plate test. These result showed that the alkaloid extract of Pgh contains active analgesic principles acting both centrally and peripherally. Furthermore, this antinociceptive effect has been avoided by naloxone at a dose of 1mg/kg in the first phase of formalin and hot plate tests indicating that this extract act partly through an opioid-mediated mechanism. In conclusion, the alkaloid extract of Peganum harmala seems to have both central and peripheral antinociceptive activities which may be mediated by opioid receptors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper describes the herbal remedies used by ethnic groups from Sonora, Mexico, for treatment of gastrointestinal diseases. Twelve types of these illnesses are cured using 85 different species which belong to 38 families. Thirty nine spp. are used to treat diarrhea, 28 for stomach-ache, 12 for constipation, 9 for intestinal parasites, 6 for indigestion, 3 for stomach or intestinal cancer, 3 for stomach inflammation and only 1 to treat gastrointestinal sicknesses, ulcers, gastritis, colitis and colic. Regarding the use of species of plant per ethnic group the following was observed: Mayo 47; Seri, 27; Yaqui, 13; Guarijio, 12, Pima, 5 and Papago, 3. The plants are used by two or more tribes, for the same or different illness but always related to the gastrointestinal system. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Aim of the study: Based on the authors’ fieldwork in a Sundanese village, Indonesia, this paper aimed to elucidate the roles of herbal medicine in treatment of illnesses and to report medicinal plants and their uses, comparing with those mentioned in the encyclopedic book series of Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA). Materials and methods: Interview survey was conducted for all of the 19 herbalist healers about their therapies for the past 1-month period, and the medicinal plants used were botanically identified. For 70 non-healer households, treatments for all members’ illness episodes in the past 1-month period were asked. Results: Medicinal plants were used in two-thirds of illness cases, either through the villagers’ self-treatment (60.9%) or by the healers (6.5%). The healers made 96 therapies for illnesses (classified into 23 categories), using 117 plant species. There were 257 types of illness–plant pairs, and only 114 of them (44.4%) were judged conformed to those mentioned in the PROSEA. Conclusion: Sundanese villagers have depended heavily on herbal medicine, and high proportion of non-conformed illness–plant pairs suggests necessity of further studies about Sundanese medicinal plants, particularly their pharmacological effects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Clinical studies with human subjects represent the only assessment of effectiveness and safety that can translate into medical practice, and national or local health policy. There are several reasons why traditional medicines (in fact medicinal plants and other alternative or complementary medicines) should be subjected to more clinical research with patient observation and follow-up: firstly, this would help to select products of interest for further investigations in ethnopharmacology; secondly, it could translate into immediate recommendations for the population using the assessed local treatments. Contrary to a commonly held myth, clinical studies can be conducted at relatively low cost, if one works with local/regional research institutes and with doctoral students, focusing on meaningful clinical measures rather than sophisticated laboratory analyses. This paper describes special designs of clinical studies, appropriate for traditional medicines and tested in the field, including: the retrospective treatment – outcome population survey, the prognosis – outcome method (with modern physicians observing progress of patients treated by a traditional healer), the dose – escalating prospective study (detecting a dose–response phenomenon in humans). It is suggested that this approach offers the best cost-effective course of action for obtaining maximal benefits from traditional medicines, especially those used for treating endemic diseases. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Asian cultures have different belief systems and health seeking behaviors and they believe strongly in the holistic approach to medicine and health. Asian traditional medicine emphasizes the importance of prevention of illnesses and development of natural resistance to disease, and thus believes in the promotion of general well-being. Asian traditional medicine predominates in the Asian countries, and it is used for the treatment of various physical and mental illnesses. It has also been used for the treatment of sexual dysfunction, namely erectile dysfunction (ED) in men. However, the majority of research into the safety and efficacy of medicinal plants or herbs are mainly based on animal models and very limited studies on humans, probably due to negative clinical trial results, drug interactions or toxic reactions. It is generally very difficult to identify the actual ingredient of a herbal medication that is effective for the treatment of ED. Various traditional medicines, such as herbal medicine or animal products, which are used for the treatment of ED are discussed in this paper. It is important for physicians treating ED to know about the various traditional medicines and the perception and beliefs of ED sufferers regarding traditional therapies. Physicians should understand the potential associated health risks of various traditional medicines because of possible adverse events, drug interactions, contamination or adulteration of the medicine. Finally, practitioners treating ED should recognize and emulate the emphatic and approachable qualities of traditional therapists. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Panax ginseng (P. ginseng) has been used as a traditional medicine for thousands of years. It includes P. ginseng root, leaf, root-hair, rhizome and stem. P. ginseng root is usually considered to be the main part for medicine, and other parts of P. ginseng are neglected. In this paper the content of ginsenosides in different parts and ages of P. ginseng was determined. Separation and determination of seven major ginsenosides, including Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rb3 and Rd, has been achieved by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with UV detector at 203nm. The extraction of ginsenosides from P. ginseng material was performed by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). The results indicate that the content of ginsenosides is higher in the leaf and root-hair, and lower in stem than that in other parts of P. ginseng. The content of ginsenosides in root and root-hair increases with increase in age of P. ginseng from one to five years. However, the total content of ginsenosides in P. ginseng leaf decreases with the increase in age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]