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Fructus Choerospondiatis is the dried and mature fruit of Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) Burtt et Hill. It has been used for a long time in Tibetan and Mongolian medicine, first recorded in the ancient Tibetan medicine book "Medicine Diagnosis of the King of the Moon" in the early 8th century. Fructus Choerospondiatis shows multiple pharmacological activities, especially in treating cardiovascular diseases. This paper reviews the progress in research on the botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological activity, clinical studies, and quality control of Fructus Choerospondiatis. This review aims to summarize current research and provide a reference for further development and utilization of Fructus Choerospondiatis resources. The sources for this review include the Pharmacopeia of the People's Republic of China (2020), theses, and peer-reviewed papers (in both English and Chinese). Theses and papers were downloaded from electronic databases including Web of Science, PubMed, SciFinder, Scholar, Springer, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure.The search terms used were " Choerospondias axillaris ", " C. axillaris ", " Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) Burtt et Hill", "Fructus choerospondiatis", "Guangzao", "Lapsi", and "Lupsi". Fructus Choerospondiatis contains polyphenols, organic acids, amino acids, fatty acids, polysaccharides, and other chemical components. These ingredients contribute to its diverse pharmacological activities such as antioxidant activity, protection against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, anti-myocardial fibrosis, heart rhythm regulation, anti-tumor, liver protection, and immunity enhancement. It also affects the central nervous system, with the ability to repair damaged nerve cells. Fructus Choerospondiatis , with its various chemical compositions and pharmacological activities, is a promising medicinal resource. However, it remains under-researched, particularly in pharmacodynamic material basis and quality control. These areas require further exploration by researchers in the future. [Display omitted] • This is the first review systemically summarized Choerospondiatis Fructus (CF). • The cardiovascular effect of CF was reviewed, which accords to its traditional use. • The structure-activity relationship of chemical constituents in CF was summarized. • The clinical uses of major prescriptions containing CF were summarized. • The possible quality control components of CF were summarized for the first time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medicinal plants have been incorporated into various traditional medicine systems worldwide to reduce disease risk, treat illnesses, and provide medicinal remedies. Today, the pharmaceutical industry uses the most active plant compounds in drug synthesis. Possible high levels of naturally occurring radionuclides in medicinal plants have raised public concern about the consequent radiological impact on the consumption of medicinal plants and herbs. This paper reports the first study of soil-to-plant mobilities of natural radionuclides in native medicinal plants in Malaysia. Representative samples of soils and organically grown traditional medicinal plants from western Malaysia were collected and studied using HPGe gamma-ray spectrometry. Average activity concentrations for 226Ra, 228Ra, and 40K in the soils are respectively 57, 84, and 520 Bq/kg, and the respective values in the medicinal plants are 10, 4, and 498 Bq/kg. The respective transfer factors (TFs) for the medicinal leaves are 0.18, 0.05, and 1.18. The TFs of 40K were higher than others due to higher uptake and its essentiality in plant growth. These findings indicate that plant growth habits greatly influenced the radionuclides' uptake. The radioactivities in soils and their corresponding mobilities are in accordance with literature data. To discard any radiological hazards to human health, the estimated threshold consumption rate is found to be approximately 46 kg/y. Annual effective doses and excess lifetime cancer risk for adult members of the public due to the consumption of medicinal plants are found to be negligible. It is suggested that the use of traditional medicinal plants may provide a risk-free and safe means of maintaining public health. • Baseline data on radioactivity is reported for native traditional herbal plants. • Plant growth habits and soil properties greatly influenced activity levels and TFs. • Local geology and oil palm plantations influenced the 226Ra and 228Ra activities in soils. • Creeper herbs and trees are the greatest contributors to plant radioactivity and risk. • The current intake made the investigated medicinal plants safe for adult Malaysians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance :The genus L. has high medicinal value and has traditional been used to treat a variety of gastrointestinal disorders, as well as diabetes, edema, colds, arthritis, asthma, and traumatic injuries. Aim of the review : This work addresses the missing information by conducting a comprehensive analysis of the traditional uses, chemical components, and pharmacological applications of the more reported species of the genus L. The origin of the genus, its toxicology, and the use of classical therapies in modern medicine were also discussed. It provides references for historical evidence, resource development, and medical research on the genus. ology : Data about the genus L. were gathered via Web of Science, PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, Connected Papers, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), electronic ancient books and local chronicles. The WFO Plant List (wfoplantlist.org) and Flora of China (www.iplant.cn) confirmed L.'s Latin name, and the species information. The program ChemBioDraw Ultra 14.0 was used to create the molecular structures of the compounds that were displayed in the text. Currently, at least 740 constituents have been isolated and identified from L. These include 9 groups of chemicals, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids. They have been shown to have over 20 biological properties in vivo and in vitro , such as antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidant effects. Based on pharmacological investigations, chemical components, and traditional folk applications, L. is considered a medicinal plant having a variety of pharmacological actions. However, although the pharmacological activity of the L. genus has been preliminary demonstrated, most have only been assessed using simple in vitro cell lines or animal disease models. In order to fully elucidate the pharmacological activity and mechanisms of L., future studies should be conducted in a more comprehensive clinical manner. [Display omitted] • A textual study of the origin of Litsea and the main species (L. cubeba) was carried out. • Summarizes the traditional uses of Litsea in different countries. • 740 chemical constituents of the genus Litsea were summarised. • Over 20 pharmacological applications of the genus Litsea are summarised. • The genus Litsea's classical prescriptions play an important role in modern pharmacology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. belong to the genus Vitex , and Vitex rotundifolia L. f. evolved from Vitex trifolia L. Both are essential ethnic medicinal plants with a long history, commonly used to treat headaches, fever, diarrhea, hair loss, wound recovery, and other diseases. The research status of Vitex trifolia L. and its relative species Vitex rotundifolia L. f. were reviewed from the aspects of traditional medicinal use, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities, to provide a reference for the further development and utilization of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. In this paper, a comprehensive search of published literature was conducted through various books and online databases to obtain relevant information on Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. The search terms "(Vitex rotundifolia) OR (Vitex trifolia) OR (Fructus viticis)" were entered in PubMed, Web of Science, China national knowledge infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data, Baidu Scholar, respectively. In addition to setting the year threshold of "2018–2022" on Baidu Scholar, other databases searched all fields and found 889, 283, 1263, 1023, and 147 articles, respectively. Among them, review, repetition, overlapping data, and other reasons were excluded, and finally, a total of 164 articles were included in the review study. A total of 369 compounds have been identified, including 159 terpenoids, 51 flavonoids, 83 phenylpropanoids, and 76 other compounds. Pharmacological studies have shown that Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. have a variety of pharmacological activities, such as anti-tumor, analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and estrogen-like activity. Modern clinical use for treating cold headaches, diarrhea dysentery, irregular menstruation, and other diseases. As traditional medicinal plants, Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. have wealthy chemical constituents and extensive pharmacological activities and are widely used in clinical practice from traditional to modern times. However, the research on the pharmacological activities of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. is not in-depth, and the potential active components still need to be explored. [Display omitted] • Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. belong to the genus Vitex , and the single leaf Vitex rotundifolia L. f. evolved from Vitex trifolia L. Both are essential ethnic medicinal plants used worldwide to treat various diseases, such as headache, fever, diarrhea, hair loss, and wound recovery. • From the traditional point of view, the ethnic medicine of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. was collected. • In this paper, the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. were listed. • It provides a theoretical basis for further utilization and research of Vitex rotundifolia L. f. and Vitex trifolia L. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Himalayan region possesses a vast diversity of medicinal plants for ethnodermatological use. There is increasing scientific interest regarding the chemical, microbiological and clinical evidence. The aim of the present review is to compile fragmented literature on ethnodermatology, anti-dermatophytic activities of the Himalayan flora, their active phytoconstituents and to discover gaps in the research for further studies that may provide targeted drug development. Relevant literature between the years 1990–2021 was searched using online databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, Google scholar and Research Gate. About 200 research papers were downloaded. Among them, only 49 papers were reviewed, which were published in English and contain maximum information on Himalayan medicinal plants being tested in-vitro against the selected dermatophytes and their inhibitory activity was mentioned in number. The knowledge of medicinal plants in the Himalayan region has great potential to cure skin infections. Activity of plant species were reported against eight selected dermatophytes of Trichophyton and Microsporum genera. Root extract of Coleus forskohlii has shown potent inhibition zones (10–25 mm) against Trichophyton ru brum and Microsporum gypseum. Phytochemical investigation of these plants showed a variety of secondary metabolites, such as saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids and iridoid. Except for α-Pinene and δ-3-Carene extracted from Juniperus communis , the rest of the compounds were not tested directly against dermal fungi. T. rubrum has been reported to be the most tested pathogen in in vitro studies. Scarce data is available on the mode of action of the plant extracts or their active compounds against dermal fungi. It is concluded that very scarce literature has been found on the toxicity level, isolation of pure compounds and their mechanism of action for these traditionally used plant species. Thus, the authors invite the attention of chemists, pharmacists and pharmacologists to further explore anti-dermatophytic plants for the isolation of pure compounds, mechanism of action and development of targeted drugs or medicines from most effective compounds against dermatomycosis. • Traditional usage of Himalayan medicinal plants against skin problems. • In vitro activities of Himalayan medicinal plants against dermatophytes. • Identification of compounds in the studied plants. • Activities of isolated compounds against dermatophytes. • Possible mechanism of action reported in literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Crinum macowanii is a deciduous bulbous plant which grows in east, central and southern Africa. Crinum macowanii has been used as herbal medicine by the indigenous people of east and southern Africa has for several centuries. The bulb, leaves and roots of C. macowanii are reported to possess diverse medicinal properties and used to treat or manage various human and animal diseases and ailments throughout its distributional range. Crinum macowanii is used traditionally as a remedy for boils, diarrhoea, fever, inflammation, respiratory system problems, skin rashes, tuberculosis, wounds and urinary tract problems. Aim of the review The present review aims to summarize comprehensively the research that has been done on the ethnomedicinal uses, botany, phytochemistry and pharmacology of C. macowanii in different locations throughout its geographical range in east, central and southern African region so as to highlight research gaps and provide a foundation for further investigations on the plant species. Materials and methods A review of the literature was undertaken and an in-depth analysis of previous research on ethnobotany, therapeutic value, phytochemistry and pharmacology of C. macowanii throughout its distributional range in east, central and southern Africa. Literature sources included papers published in international journals, reports from international, regional and national organizations, conference papers, books, theses, websites and other grey literature. Electronic search engines such as Google, Google scholar, publishing sites such as Elsevier, scienceDirect, BMC, PubMed and other scientific database sites such as ChemSpider, PubChem were used as well as searching the library collections of the National Herbarium and Botanic Gardens (SRGH), Harare, Zimbabwe and the University of Fort Hare, South Africa. Results A total of 32 ethnomedicinal uses of C. macowanii are documented in literature, which can be grouped into seven major ethnomedicinal general purpose usages, namely “fever”, “wounds, sores and skin rashes”, “boils and inflammation”, “respiratory system problems”, “blood cleansing”, “urinary tract problem” and “veterinary uses”. The chemical composition of C. macowanii is dominated by various isoquinoline alkaloids, which have been isolated from the bulbs, flowering stalks, leaves and roots. Major biological activities demonstrated by C. macowanii include antifungal, antiviral and antiplasmodial activities, cardiovascular effects as well as effects on the central nervous system. The population of C. macowanii is declining in the wild as the bulbs are over-collected for sale in medicinal ( muthi ) markets in southern Africa. Conclusion A literature search revealed that C. macowanii has a lot of potential as a possible source of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of a wide range of human and animal diseases and ailments. Some of the alkaloids isolated from C. macowanii have demonstrated various biological activities when investigated in in vitro assays. However, some of the ethnomedicinal uses of C. macowanii still require pharmacological investigations. Therefore, further studies are required to improve our knowledge about the mechanisms of action, efficacy, toxicity and clinical relevance of the plant species as well as its bioactive compounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper illustrates the results of an ethnobotanical study carried out in the Vesuvio National Park (VNP) (Campania, Southern Italy). It describes the medicinal uses of the plants in an ancient area rich in ethnobiodiversity investigated for the first time. Aim for the study The main aim of the study was to understand at what extent current knowledge on medicinal plant uses is still alive in VNP. Materials and methods The informations were collected using semi-structured and unstructured interviews performed on 136 persons living in the investigated area from March to November 2014 and from April to October 2015. The age of the informants ranged from 47 to 85 years old; more than half of the informants aged between 61 and 70. Local plant uses were listed and analyzed in a table and compared with uses in other localities in Italy and in other regions of the Mediterranean basin. Results In VNP were recorded a total number of 132 plant species, belonging to 110 genera and 51 families mentioned for medicinal purposes. Among the recorded 132 plant species, 70 are spontaneous or subspontaneous and 62 are cultivated above all in the kitchen gardens or in the apartments, as food or as ornamental. Herbs represent the majority, followed by trees and shrubs or subshrubs. The investigated plants were used to cure 116 different human health diseases and 4 veterinary problems. The majority of plants are used in the treatment of gastrointestinal, skin and respiratory problems. Conclusion The number of medicinal plants reported in this paper reflects a well-preserved traditional popular knowledge (TPK) of the elderly people living in the rural areas and in the small villages of VNP. The conservation of TPK is owed to the persistence of an oral tradition that safeguard the use of plants as herbal medicine. We realized that while the use of some wild plants is decreasing, people continue to gather some cultivated and invasive plants for preparing remedies. Researches like this are necessary to protect ancient memories, to promote the transfer of information to the younger generations, to preserve ethno-biodiversity and to provide a starting point fur further biochemical investigations on medicinal entities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malaria continues to be a serious global public health problem in subtropical and tropical countries of the world. The main drugs used in the treatment of human malaria, quinine and artemisinin, are isolates of medicinal plants, making the use of plants a widespread practice in countries where malaria is endemic. Over the years, due to the increased resistance of the parasite to chloroquine and artemisinin in certain regions, new strategies for combating malaria have been employed, including research with medicinal plants. This review focuses on the scientific production regarding medicinal plants from Brazil whose antimalarial activity was evaluated during the period from 2011 to 2022. For this review, four electronic databases were selected for research: Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Scielo and Periódicos CAPES. Searches were made for full texts published in the form of scientific articles written in Portuguese or English and in a digital format. In addition, prospects for new treatments as well as future research that encourages the search for natural products and antimalarial derivatives are also presented. A total of 61 publications were encountered, which cited 36 botanical families and 92 species using different Plasmodium strains in in vitro and in vivo assays. The botanical families with the most expressive number of species found were Rubiaceae, Apocynaceae, Fabaceae and Asteraceae (14, 14, 9 and 6 species, respectively), and the most frequently cited species were of the genera Psychotria L. (8) and Aspidosperma Mart. (12), which belong to the families Rubiaceae and Apocynaceae. Altogether, 75 compounds were identified or isolated from 28 different species, 31 of which are alkaloids. In addition, the extracts of the analyzed species, including the isolated compounds, showed a significant reduction of parasitemia in P. falciparum and P. berghei , especially in the clones W2 CQ-R (in vitro) and ANKA (in vivo), respectively. The Brazilian regions with the highest number of species analyzed were those of the north, especially the states of Pará and Amazonas, and the southeast, especially the state of Minas Gerais. Although many plant species with antimalarial potential have been identified in Brazil, studies of new antimalarial molecules are slow and have not evolved to the production of a phytotherapeutic medicine. Given this, investigations of plants of traditional use and biotechnological approaches are necessary for the discovery of natural antimalarial products that contribute to the treatment of the disease in the country and in other endemic regions. [Display omitted] • Malaria continues to be a serious global public health problem. • Malaria is endemic in the Amazon and, in Brazil, 99.9% of notifications of cases and deaths from malaria occur in this region. • A total of 61 papers on Brazilian plants with antimalarial activity were published from 2011 to 2022. • 75 compounds were identified or isolated from 23 different species, 31 of which are alkaloids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Connarus semidecandrus Jack (Family: connaraceae) is a medicinal plant known for its wide distribution throughout Southeast Asia. Renowned for its diverse therapeutic properties, it has been traditionally used for treating fever, skin irritation, and colic. Numerous individuals suffer from skin issues, including wrinkles, hyperpigmentation, and inflammation, due to environmental factors. Although many drugs are available to treat skin problems, chemical drugs have many shortcomings and side effects. Therefore, natural products are attractive potential medicines for alleviating skin troubles. We recently showed that Connarus semidecandrus Jack ethanol extract (Cs-EE) has anti-alopecia potential. This paper aims to explore the potential skin-protective effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of Connarus semidecandrus Jack in UVB-induced human keratinocytes (HaCaT). Before utilization, Cs-EE was dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and was preserved at a temperature of −20 °C. The phytochemical constituents of Cs-EE were detected by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis (GC-MS). Sequentially, HaCaT cells were exposed to varying concentrations of Cs-EE prior to ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation. Evaluations of cellular responses in HaCaT cells, including assessments of cell viability, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) damage, and gene and protein expressions, were carried out. To explore the specific signaling pathway involved, we conducted a luciferase assay in addition to validating these pathways using Western blot analysis. Nitric oxide (NO) and intracellular reactive oxygen species were decreased. Melanin production through the activation of melanocytes by α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) was also inhibited by Cs-EE. Furthermore, the mRNA expression levels of key factors such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), MMP-1, MMP-3, and MMP-9 exhibited a remarkable decrease. In addition, the phosphorylation of TAK1 within the signaling cascade exhibited a decline, and the activities of the transcription factor AP-1 were decreased according to a luciferase reporter assay. Taken together, these findings suggest that the anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, and anti-apoptotic effects of Cs-EE indicate the compound's potential usefulness as a natural component in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. [Display omitted] • Connarus semidecandrus Jack ethanol extract (Cs-EE) shows radical scavenging activity. • Cs-EE reduces UVB-induced cell death and apoptosis. • Cs-EE reduces the expression of genes involved in UVB-induced inflammatory response and wrinkle formation. • Cs-EE downregulates α-MSH-induced melanogenic responses of melanocyte. • Cs-EE inhibits AP-1 activity via suppression of TAK1/MKK3/6/p38 pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cancer stands as one of the leading causes of death worldwide according to the World Health Organization (WHO), and it has led to approximately 10 million fatalities in 2020. Medicinal plants are still widely used and accepted form of treatment for most diseases including cancer in Ghana. This review presented Cryptolepis nigrescens (Wennberg) L. Joubert. and Bruyns., Prosopsis africana (Guill. and Perr.) Taub. and Pterygota macrocarpa K. Schum. as medicinal plants that are traditionally used to treat tumour growth, amongst other diseases, in the Ashanti region of Ghana. This paper aims to present a comprehensive review on the botanical description, ecological distribution, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical composition and ethnopharmacological relevance of C. nigrescens , P. africana and P. macrocarpa. The review covers works published between 1962 and 2023 from various countries. Published books, thesis, scientific and medical articles on C. nigrescens , P. africana and P. macrocarpa were collected from the following databases: 'Scopus', 'Science Direct', 'Medline', 'PubMed', 'Research Gate' 'Google Scholar, and 'Springer link' using the keywords. Phytochemical analysis of C. nigrescens , P. africana and P. macrocarpa revealed the presence of some prominent bioactive compounds such as convallatoxin, 7,3,4-trihydroxy-3-methoxyflavanone and dioxane, respectively. Plant extracts and isolated compounds of these medicinal plants exhibited a wide range of ethnopharmacological activities including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, cytotoxic, antimalarial, antipyretic, haematinic, hepato-protective, aphrodisiac and antihypertensive properties. The present review on C. nigrescens , P. africana and P. macrocarpa provided a credible summary of the ethnopharmacological research conducted on these medicinal plants till date. The data also highligted the potential therapeutic profiles of these plants in Ghana that could serve as foundation for future studies. Additionally, the information significantly supported the traditional and commercial use of these plants among the people. [Display omitted] • A summarized up-to-date review of research activities on some common medicinal plants in Ghana. • Botanical description and traditional uses of Cryptolepis nigrescens, Prosopsis africana and Pterygota macrocarpa were presented. • Phytochemicals and ethnopharmacological activities of C. nigrescens , P. africana and P. macrocarpa were discussed. • Prominent bioactive compounds obtained from C. nigrescens , P. africana and P. macrocarpa were highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethno-pharmacological relevance Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae) is a medicinal herb traditionally used to treat various clinical conditions at home such as diarrhea, diabetes, pyresis, inflammation, malaria, and stomach and bowel disorders. Currently, it is one of the most widespread, problematic, and economically damaging agronomic weeds, growing wildly in various tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The present paper summarizes the available information that will aid in future medicine preparation by identifying active ingredients and their mode of action for a specific therapeutic activity using the latest technologies. Material and method This review article is based on the information available on the phytochemical, toxicological, and pharmacological studies on and traditional uses of C. rotundus . The present paper covers the literature available particularly from 2000 to 2015 online (Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, SpringerLink, and Web of Science) and in books on phytochemistry, ethnopharmacology, and botany of this plant. Results Phytochemical and pharmacological studies revealed the significance of C. rotundus as an antiandrogenic, antibacterial, anticancerous, anticonvulsant, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, antigenotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antilipidemic, antimalarial, antimutagenic, antiobesity, antioxidant, anti-uropathogenic, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, and nootropic agent. This is the most investigated plant worldwide due to the higher concentration of active ingredients in the form of essential oils, phenolic acids, ascorbic acids, and flavonoids in the tuber and rhizomes. Unfortunately, this significant plant species has not been assessed under improved cultivation conditions with the aim of conservation in natural habitats and high quality. Conclusion Reports can be found on the ehtnobotanical use of C. rotundus in atherosclerosis, aging, apoptosis, cancer, cystitis, epilepsy, hirsutism, nociception, prostatitis, and genotoxicity disorders. The phytochemical and pharmacological activities of C. rotundus have supported its traditional as well as prospective uses as a valuable Ayurvedic plant. Previous researches focuses on the phytochemistry, biological properties and clinical application of rhizomes and tubers of C. rotundus . However, such studies on the other parts of this medicinally important plant are still quest to be investigate. Furthermore, future study should aim at confirming the clinical activities and safety of this plant before being used for the development of new therapeutic agent in human subjects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance A survey was undertaken in Jamaica to document medicinal plants frequently used in the treatment or prophylaxis of illness and trends in their use, following the methodology established by the TRAMIL network. TRAMIL, a Caribbean-wide applied research programme, scientifically evaluates and documents the efficacy and safety of medicinal plant remedies used for primary health care. Initial results from this survey, on an aspect of safety, focusing on the concomitant use and prevalence of medicinal plant use in combination with pharmaceutical drugs in Jamaica, were published in an earlier paper in 2011. This paper now reports survey results on the ethnobotanical use of medicinal plants by Jamaicans. Materials and methods A survey using a structured and modified TRAMIL questionnaire was administered to 407 adults selected randomly from systematically selected households within randomly selected clusters. The clusters were selected from each of the three areas that were purposefully selected. Key findings Respondents identified their use of 107 botanically identified medicinal plants distributed in 51 plant families to treat illnesses or maintain health in the previous twelve months. Fourteen plants, with significant use equal to or greater than 20% for a specified health issue were shortlisted, representing Jamaica׳s first submission to the TRAMIL database. Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees (Rice Bitters) was reported as a plant remedy with significant use for the first time in a TRAMIL survey. Informant consensus factor (ICF) values were high for a number of health issues such as mental health (nerves, insomnia, etc.), respiratory system (cold/flu/cough etc.) and for health maintenance with tonics (washout and blood cleanse), indicating strong cultural coherence in medicinal plant selection for these categories. Forty two per cent (113/270) of medicinal plant users utilised mixtures, combining more than one plant. Leaf material was the most commonly used plant part (69%), with fresh material (98%) most commonly prepared as a tea for internal use by decoction (87%). The majority of medicinal plant respondents sourced plants from their backyards (75%) and cited grandmothers (33%) and mothers (32%) as their main sources of information. Jamaicans reported limited use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), supporting the assertion that a significant number of citizens in developing countries continue to rely on the use of medicinal plants for primary healthcare. Conclusions Medicinal plant use continues to play an important role in primary healthcare in Jamaica. Fourteen plant remedies with significant use are reported, five previously reported elsewhere and recommended (REC) for the same health condition. Eight plant remedies, including one Jamaican endemic, are reported for different health issues for the first time to TRAMIL and will be investigated (INV) for the new health conditions, together with one plant remedy reported for the first time. This latest survey will be followed by literature reviews, appropriate laboratory screens (TRIG) and community outreach activities (TRADIF) in Jamaica. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The history of Chinese spices has received increasing attention in recent years, but little research been carried out on where they fit on the food-medicine continuum for early China, during the formation of the classical medical system. This paper describes how the synaesthetic qualities of spices attracted a particular analysis in that emerging system which serves to mark them as different to other medical materials and foodstuffs. We aim to clarify the special role created for spices to accommodate their boundary-crossing synaesthetic action on the body. Material and methods This paper analyses the contents of several spice bags excavated in 1972 from a tomb that was closed in the second century BCE. It uses archaeological reports of material culture together with the early Chinese textual record, extant in both manuscripts and received texts, to bring out the role of spices in ritual, food and medicine. Results Noting that the flavours and aromas of early China were assigned physiological potency in the first centuries BCE, we argue that by medieval times the unique synaesthetic role that spices played in mediating the senses was systematically medicalised. While being deployed for the purpose of curing disease in medicine, they also remained within the realm of everyday healthcare, and religious practice, deployed both as aromatics to perfume the environment, attracting benign spirits, but also to ward off the agents of disease, as well as for enhancing health through their use in cookery. Conclusion While foodstuffs entered the digestive system spices were all considered ‘pungent’ in the emerging clasical medical system. They acted on the body through the nose and lungs, making them neither food nor drug. This implicit categorisation medicalised spices which, like music, could affect the passions and lighten the spirit, codifying observations about the impact on the body of the ritual environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Bangladesh has a rich traditional plant-medicine use, drawing on Ayurveda and Unami medicine. How these practices translate into people׳s homes and lives vary. Furthermore, the overlap between food and medicine is blurred and context-specific. This paper explores the food–medicine interface as experienced by Bengali women in their homes, in the context of transnational and generational changes. Aim and objectives The aim is to explore the overlap of food and medicines in homes of Bengali women in Sylhet. The objectives are to explore the influences on medicinal plant practice and to scrutinise how catagories of food and medicine are decided. Material and methods The paper draws on in-depth ethnographic research conducted in Sylhet, North-east Bangladesh as part of a wider project looking at food and medicine use among Bengali women in both the UK and Bangladesh. Methods included participant observation, unstructured interviews and semi-structured interviews with a total of thirty women. Results The study indicates that the use of plants as food and medicine is common among Bengali women in Sylhet. What is consumed as a food and/or a medicine varies between individuals, generations and families. The use and perceptions of food–medicines is also dependent on multiple factors such as age, education and availability of both plants and biomedicine. Where a plant may fall on the food–medicine spectrum depends on a range of factors including its purpose, consistency and taste. Conclusions Previous academic research has concentrated on the nutritional and pharmacological properties of culturally constructed food–medicines ( Etkin and Ross, 1982; Owen and Johns, 2002, Pieroni and Quave, 2006 ). However, our findings indicate a contextualisation of the food-plant spectrum based on both local beliefs and wider structural factors, and thus not necessarily characteristics intrinsic to the products׳ pharmacological or nutritional properties. The implications of this research are of both academic relevance and practical importance to informing health services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae), widely distributed in South and Southeast Asia, is a popular traditional herbal medicine that can be chewed for the purpose of dispersing accumulated fluid in the abdominal cavity and killing worms. The present paper aims to provide an up-to-date review on the traditional uses and advances in the botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of this plant. Furthermore, the possible trends and a perspective for future research of this plant are also discussed. Materials and methods A literature search was performed on A. catechu based on classic books of herbal medicine, PhD. and MSc. dissertations, government reports, the state and local drug standards, scientific databases including Pubmed, SciFinder, Scopus, the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and others. Various types of information regarding this plant are discussed in corresponding parts of this paper. In addition, perspectives for possible future studies of A. catechu are discussed. Results The seeds of A. catechu (areca nut) have been widely used in clinical practice in China, India and other South and Southeast Asian Countries. Currently, over 59 compounds have been isolated and identified from A. catechu , including alkaloids, tannins, flavones, triterpenes, steroids, and fatty acids. The extracts and compounds isolated from A. catechu have many pharmacological activities. These include antiparasitic effects, anti-depressive effects, anti-fatigue effects, antioxidant effects, antibacterial and antifungal effects, antihypertensive effects, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, anti-allergic effects, the promotion of digestive functions, suppression of platelet aggregation, regulatory effects on blood glucose and lipids, etc . Although arecoline is the primary active constituent of A. catechu , it is also the primary toxic compound. The main toxicities of arecoline are the promotion of oral submucosal fibrosis (OSF) and cytotoxic effects on normal human cells, which involve inducing apoptosis. Conclusion As an important herbal medicine, A. catechu has potential for the treatment of many diseases, especially parasitic diseases, digestive function disorders, and depression. Many traditional uses of A. catechu have now been validated by current investigations. However, further research should be undertaken to investigate the clinical effects, toxic constituents, target organs, and pharmacokinetics and to establish criteria for quality control for A. catechu- derived medications. In addition, it will be interesting to investigate the active macromolecular compounds and active constituents other than alkaloids in both raw and processed products of A. catechu . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actinidia Lindl. belongs to the family Actinidiaceae. Plants of this genus are popularly known as kiwifruits and are traditionally used to treat a wide range of ailments associated with digestive disorders, rheumatism, kidney problems, cardiovascular system, cancers, dyspepsia, hemorrhoids, and diabetes among others. This review discusses the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical profile, and known pharmacological properties of Actinidia plants, to understand their connotations and provide the scientific basis for future studies. The data were obtained by surveying journal articles, books, and dissertations using various search engines such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, Springer Link, and Web of Science. The online databases; World Flora Online, Plants of the World Online, International Plant Names Index, and Global Biodiversity Information Facility were used to confirm the distribution and validate scientific names of Actinidia plants. The isolated metabolites from these species were illustrated using ChemBio Draw ultra-version 14.0 software. Ten (10) species of Actinidia genus have been reported as significant sources of traditional medicines utilized to remedy diverse illnesses. Our findings revealed that a total of 873 secondary metabolites belonging to different classes such as terpenoids, phenolic compounds, alcohols, ketones, organic acids, esters, hydrocarbons, and steroids have been isolated from different species of Actinidia. These compounds were mainly related to the exhibited antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antiproliferative, anti-angiogenic, anticinoceptive, anti-tumor, and anticancer activities. This study assessed the information related to the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical compounds, and pharmacological properties of Actinidia species, which indicate that they possess diverse bioactive metabolites with interesting bioactivities. Actinidia plants have great potential for applications in folklore medicines and pharmaceuticals due to their wide ethnomedicinal uses and biological activities. Traditional uses of several Actinidia species are supported by scientific evidences, qualifying them as possible modern remedies for various ailments. Nonetheless, the currently available data has several gaps in understanding the herbal utilization of most Actinidia species. Thus, further research into their toxicity, mechanisms of actions of the isolated bioactive metabolites, as well as scientific connotations between the traditional medicinal uses and pharmacological properties is required to unravel their efficacy in therapeutic potential for safe clinical application. [Display omitted] • This paper reviewed the botanical characterization, ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical profile, and pharmacological properties of Actinidia species. • It also established correlation between the isolated secondary metabolites, pharmacological effects, and ethnomedicinal uses. • The present study demonstrates the ethnopharmacological evidence that can aid in development of new drugs for future clinical application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epimedium koreanum Nakai (E. koreanum), a member of the genus Epimedium in the family Berberidaceae, is a well-known and well-liked traditional herb used as a "kidney tonic". For thousands of years, it has been utilized for renal yang deficiency, impotence, spermatorrhea, impotence, weakness of tendons and bones, rheumatic paralysis and discomfort, numbness, and constriction. The paper aims to comprehensively in-depth, and methodically review the most recent research on the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity of E. koreanum. Scientific databases including Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Elsevier, Springer, ScienceDirect, Baidu Scholar, and CNKI and medicine books in China were searched for relevant information on E. koreanum. In traditional uses, E. koreanum is frequently used to treat various diseases like erectile dysfunction, infertility, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, asthma, kidney-yang deficiency syndrome, etc. To date, more than 379 compounds have been discovered from various parts of E. koreanum , including flavonoids, lignans, organic acids, terpenoids, hydrocarbons, dihydrophenanthrene derivatives, alkaloids, and others. Research has revealed that the compounds and crude extracts have a wide range of pharmacological effects on the reproductive, cardiovascular, and nervous systems, as well as anti-osteoporosis, anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, and antiviral properties. Besides, the crude extracts show potential hepatotoxicity. Based on recent domestic and international research investigations, E. koreanum contains a wealth of chemical components with pronounced pharmacological activities. Its traditional uses are numerous, and the majority of these traditional uses have been supported by contemporary pharmacological investigations. Crude extracts, on the other hand, can result in hepatotoxicity. Therefore, additional in vivo and in vitro experimental research on the pharmacology and toxicology of E. koreanum are required in the future to assess its safety and efficacy. This will give a firmer scientific foundation for its safe application and the development of new drugs in the future. [Display omitted] • More than 379 chemical constituents of E. koreanum are first reviewed. • Flavonoids are the predominant bioactive constituents of E. koreanum. • Traditional uses, pharmacology, and toxicity of E. koreanum are comprehensively discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renal disease is a significant public health concern that affects people all over the world. The main limitations of conventional therapy are the adverse reaction on human health and the expensive cost of drugs. Indeed, it is necessary to develop new therapeutic strategies that are less expensive and have fewer side effects. As a consequence of their natural compounds, medicinal plants can be used as an alternative therapy to cure various ailments including kidney diseases. of the study: This review paper has two principal goals: (1) to inventory and describe the plants and their ancestral use by Moroccan society to cure renal problems, (2) to link traditional use with scientific confirmations (preclinical and clinical). To analyze pharmacological effects, phytochemical, and clinical trials of plants, selected for renal therapy, a bibliographical search was undertaken by examining ethnobotanical investigations conducted in Morocco between 1991 and 2019 and consulting peer-reviewed papers from all over the world. Approximately 290 plant species, spanning 81 families and 218 genera have been reported as being utilized by Moroccans to manage renal illness. The most frequently mentioned species in Morocco were Herniaria hirsuta subsp. cinerea (DC.), Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss and Rosmarinus officinalis L. The leaves were the most frequently used plant parts, followed by the whole plant. Decoction and infusion were the most popular methods of preparation. A record of 71 plant species was studied in vitro and/or in vivo for their therapeutic efficacy against kidney disorders, including 10 plants attempting to make it to the clinical stage. Twenty compounds obtained from 15 plants have been studied for the treatment of kidney diseases. Medicinal herbs could be a credible alternative therapy for renal illness. However, additional controlled trials are required to confirm their efficiency in patients with kidney failure. Overall, this work could be used as a database for future exploration. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Many wild and cultivated plants are rich in mineral elements and bioactive compounds and are consumed for health purposes. Studies have demonstrated the curative properties of many of these food plants. In this paper, we discuss the properties of several plants with potential health benefits that have previously received little attention. Aim of the study: This review provides an overview and critical discussion of food plants perceived by informants (emic view) as healthy or used as ‘food medicine’ in Italy. Pharmacological activity of these plants is explored, based upon published scientific research (etic view). Preparation methods, taste perception, toxicity and various potentialities of some food plants are also discussed. Materials and methods: The present review includes literature available from 1877 to 2012. The information was collected from books, scientific papers, and abstracts that reported any plants used as food medicine in Italy. The perceived health properties were analyzed in the framework of recent international phytochemical and phytopharmacological literature. Results: A total of 67 edible wild plants and 18 cultivated vegetables, distributed into 20 families, were reported by informants (in literature). Several plants were highly cited (e.g., Taraxacum officinale Webb., Crepis vesicaria L., Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L.). The most frequent health properties attributed to edible plants by the informants were: laxative (22 species), diuretic (15), digestive (11), galactagogue (8), antitussive (cough) (8), hypotensive (7), tonic (7), sedative (7), hypoglycemic (6). Conclusions: Some edible plants are promising for their potential health properties, such as Crepis vesicaria L., Sanguisorba minor Scop. and Sonchus oleraceus L. Several wild species were perceived by informants to maintain health but have never been studied from a phytochemical or pharmacological point of view: e.g., Asparagus albus L., Crepis leontodontoides All., Hyoseris radiata L. subsp. radiata, Phyteuma spicatum L. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance: Inspite of tremendous advances made in allopathic medical practices, herbs still play an important role in the management of various liver diseases. A large number of plants and formulations have been claimed to have hepatoprotective activity. Jaundice is a symptom, indicative of the malfunctioning of the liver. This paper provides ethnomedicinal information on the plants used to treat jaundice by three important indigenous communities, i.e., nomadic Gujjars, Tharu and Bhoxa of Sub-Himalayan region, Uttarakhand, India. Aims of the study: To record herbal preparations used by the studied indigenous communities in treatment of jaundice and discuss hepatoprotective properties of the recorded plants. Research strategy and methods: The traditional knowledge of the studied indigenous communities on herbal preparations used for treating jaundice was collected through structured questionnaire and personal interviews. The interviews were conducted with 91 traditional healers (29 Bhoxa, 35 Tharu and 27 nomadic Gujjars) in Sub-Himalayan region of Uttarakhand, India. More than 250 research papers reporting ethnomedicinal information on the hepatoprotective plants used by various communities from different parts of India were extensively reviewed. Results: A total of 40 medicinal plants belonging to 31 families and 38 genera were recorded to be used by the studied communities in 45 formulations as a remedy of jaundice. Bhoxa, nomadic Gujjars and Tharu communities used 15, 23 and 9 plants, respectively. To our knowledge eight plants reported in the present survey viz., Amaranthus spinosus L., Cissampelos pareira L., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Holarrhena pubescens Wall., Ocimum americanum L., Physalis divaricata D. Don, Solanum incanum L. and Trichosanthes cucumerina L. have not been reported earlier as remedy of jaundice in India. Literature review revealed that a total of 214 (belonging to 181 genus and 78 families), 19 (belonging to 18 genus and 12 families) and 14 (belonging to 14 genus and 11 families) plant species are used as internal, external and magico-religious remedies for jaundice, respectively by various communities in different parts of India. Most widely used hepatoprotective plant species for treatment of jaundice in India is Boerhavia diffusa L. followed by Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers, Saccharum officinarum L., Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn., Ricinus communis L., Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Nees., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, Lawsonia inermis L. and Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Conclusions: The plants recorded in the present survey have also been discussed in relation to pharmacological studies and hepatoprotective phytoconstituents present in them. Most of the recorded plants have shown hepatoprotective effects on experimental animals in earlier studies but more studies are needed to assess hepatoprotective properties of some recorded medicinal plants viz., Averrhoa carambola L., Ehretia laevis Roxb., Holarrhena pubescens Wall., Mangifera indica L., Ocimum americanum L., Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz, Physalis divaricata D. Don, Solanum incanum L., Sphaeranthus senegalensis DC. and Tribulus terrestris L.. The plants enumerated in this study with high number of citations and wider distributions have given some useful leads for further biomedical research. Nevertheless more phytochemical, pharmaceutical and clinical studies are needed to evaluate hepatoprotective properties, efficacy and safety of all the claimed medicinal plants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Background and aims: GP-TCM is the 1st EU-funded Coordination Action consortium dedicated to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) research. This paper aims to summarise the objectives, structure and activities of the consortium and introduces the position of the consortium regarding good practice, priorities, challenges and opportunities in TCM research. Serving as the introductory paper for the GP-TCM Journal of Ethnopharmacology special issue, this paper describes the roadmap of this special issue and reports how the main outputs of the ten GP-TCM work packages are integrated, and have led to consortium-wide conclusions. Materials and methods: Literature studies, opinion polls and discussions among consortium members and stakeholders. Results: By January 2012, through 3 years of team building, the GP-TCM consortium had grown into a large collaborative network involving ∼200 scientists from 24 countries and 107 institutions. Consortium members had worked closely to address good practice issues related to various aspects of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) and acupuncture research, the focus of this Journal of Ethnopharmacology special issue, leading to state-of-the-art reports, guidelines and consensus on the application of omics technologies in TCM research. In addition, through an online survey open to GP-TCM members and non-members, we polled opinions on grand priorities, challenges and opportunities in TCM research. Based on the poll, although consortium members and non-members had diverse opinions on the major challenges in the field, both groups agreed that high-quality efficacy/effectiveness and mechanistic studies are grand priorities and that the TCM legacy in general and its management of chronic diseases in particular represent grand opportunities. Consortium members cast their votes of confidence in omics and systems biology approaches to TCM research and believed that quality and pharmacovigilance of TCM products are not only grand priorities, but also grand challenges. Non-members, however, gave priority to integrative medicine, concerned on the impact of regulation of TCM practitioners and emphasised intersectoral collaborations in funding TCM research, especially clinical trials. Conclusions: The GP-TCM consortium made great efforts to address some fundamental issues in TCM research, including developing guidelines, as well as identifying priorities, challenges and opportunities. These consortium guidelines and consensus will need dissemination, validation and further development through continued interregional, interdisciplinary and intersectoral collaborations. To promote this, a new consortium, known as the GP-TCM Research Association, is being established to succeed the 3-year fixed term FP7 GP-TCM consortium and will be officially launched at the Final GP-TCM Congress in Leiden, the Netherlands, in April 2012. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance There are insufficient safe and effective treatments for chronic pain in pets. In cases such as osteoarthritis there is no commercially available cure and veterinarians use NSAIDs to manage pain. Pet owners may have to plan for a lifetime of plant-based treatment for the conditions that lead to chronic pain in pets. Phytopharmacotherapies have the advantage of being less toxic, cheap or free, readily available, are more likely to be safe for long-term use and have the potential to reset the immune system to normal functioning. Aim of the study To examine the recently published medicinal plant research that matches unpublished data on ethnoveterinary medicines (EVM) used for pets in Canada (British Columbia) to see if the EVM data can provide a lead to the development of necessary drugs. Materials and methods In 2003 semi-structured interviews were conducted with 60 participants who were organic farmers or holisitic medicinal/veterinary practitioners obtained using a purposive sample. A draft manual prepared from the data was then evaluated by participants at a participatory workshop that discussed the plant-based treatments. A copy of the final version of the manual was given to all research participants. In 2018, the recently published research matching the EVM data was reviewed to see if the EVM practices could serve as a lead for further research. Results and conclusion Medicinal plants are used to treat a range of conditions. The injuries treated in pets in British Columbia included abscesses (resulting from an initial injury), sprains and abrasions. Dogs were also treated with medicinal plants for rheumatoid arthritis, joint pain and articular cartilage injuries. More than 40 plants were used. Anal gland problems were treated with Allium sativum L., Aloe vera L., Calendula officinalis L., Plantago major L., Ulmus fulva Michx., Urtica dioica L. and Usnea longissima Ach. Arctium lappa , Hydrangea arborescens and Lactuca muralis were used for rheumatoid arthritis and joint pain in pets. Asthma was treated with: Linum usitatissimum L., Borago officinalis L., Verbascum thapsus L., Cucurbita pepo L., Lobelia inflata L., and Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Pets with heart problems were treated with Crataegus oxyacantha L., Cedronella canariensis (L.) Willd. ex Webb & Berth, Equisetum palustre L., Cypripedium calceolus L., Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex Lawson, Humulus lupulus L., Valeriana officinalis L., Lobelia inflata L., Stachys officinalis (L.) Trev., and Viscum album L. The following plants were used for epilepsy, motion sickness and anxiety- Avena sativa L., Valeriana officinalis , Lactuca muralis (L.) Fresen., Scutellaria lateriflora L., Satureja hortensis L., and Passiflora incarnata L. Plants used for cancer treatment included Phytolacca decandra , Ganoderma lucidum , Lentinula edodes , Rumex acetosella , Arctium lappa , Ulmus fulva , Rheum palmatum , Frangula purshiana , Zingiber officinale , Glycyrrhiza glabra , Ulmus fulva , Althea officinalis , Rheum palmatum , Rumex crispus and Plantago psyllium. Trifolium pratense was used for tumours in the prostate gland. Also used were Artemisia annua , Taraxacum officinale and Rumex crispu s. This review of plants used in EVM was possible because phytotherapy research of the plants described in this paper has continued because few new pharmaceutical drugs have been developed for chronic pain and because treatments like glucocorticoid therapy do not heal. Phytotherapuetic products are also being investigated to address the overuse of antibiotics. There have also been recent studies conducted on plant-based functional foods and health supplements for pets, however there are still gaps in the knowledge base for the plants Stillingia sylvatica , Verbascum thapsus , Yucca schidigera and Iris versicolor and these need further investigation. Graphical abstract fx1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Ethnopharmacological relevance Polyalthia is one of the largest and notable genera in Annonaceae family. Polyalthia species have been widely used in folklore medicine for the treatment of rheumatic fever, gastrointestinal ulcer and generalized body pain. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies on Polyalthia Species have also corroborated the significant anti-inflammatory potential of its extracts and secondary metabolites. Aim of the study This review is an attempt to assess the anti-inflammatory activity of Polyalthia species by giving critical appraisal and establishing evidences of their traditional uses. Moreover this review will highlight the lead compounds for future drug development that can serve as a potential anti-inflammatory drug with comparative efficacy and minimum side effects. Materials and methods An extensive literature review, focusing the anti-inflammatory potential of Polyalthia species was conducted using the following databases:PubMed, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Ovid, Scopus and ProQuest, as well as the locally available books, journals and relevant documents. The reference lists of retrieved papers were also searched for additional studies. Results The Polyalthia species have shown significant anti-inflammatory activity through various mechanism of action. The most significant anti-inflammatory mechanism includes the inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), prostaglandins (PGs), pro-inflammatory cytokines, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The data suggests that hydroxycleroda-3,13-dien-15,16-olide and 16-oxocleroda-3,13-dien-15-oic acid, quercetin, rutin, spinasterol, α-spinasterol, goniothalamin and (−)−5-hydroxygoniothalamin are the most potent anti-inflammatory compounds from Polyalthia species with comparable IC 50 with positive controls. Conclusions Numerous pharmacological studies have supported the use of Polyalthia species against pain, rheumatic fever, haemorrhages and inflammation in traditional medicine. Flavonoids, diterpenoids, sterols and styrylpyrones from genus Polyalthia are the most significant class of compounds with potent anti-inflammatory activity. Secondary metabolites from these classes should be brought into further research to fill the gaps of knowledge in pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, bioavailability, and toxicity in order to convert the pre-clinical results into clinical data for further investigation. Graphical abstract fx1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Aim of the study: This paper provides significant ethnobotanical information on pharmaceutical plant uses in the Riverside of Navarra. Thereby, it will extend and complement a recent previous study carried out in the Northern Navarra. This paper aim to collect, analyse and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about medicinal plants in the Riverside of Navarra (Iberian Peninsula) with 2554.4km2 and 144,674 inhabitants. Material and methods: We performed semi-structured interviews with 147 informants (mean age 76years; the percentage of men and women was almost 50%) in 34 locations, identified the plants reported and analyzed the results, comparing them with those from other territories. Results: The informants reported data on 90 medicinal plants belonging to 39 botanical families. This work is focused on human medicinal plant uses, which represent 99% of the pharmaceutical uses (541). The species with the highest number of cites are Santolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa, Thymus vulgaris, Rosmarinus officinalis and Urtica dioica. All different plant parts are used; aerial part is exploited more frequently than other plant parts. Most of the listed remedies use a single ingredient, typically soaked in water. The percentage of internal uses is three times higher than external uses. Conclusions: The main ailments treated are digestive troubles, dermatological problems, and respiratory affections. Informants reported 11 new or scarcely cited uses for 8 medicinal plants. For 50% of the species (4) we have not found bibliographical references in the scientific literature and 50% have only one or two references. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aim of the study: We investigated the ethnomedical practices and knowledge of medicinal plant and fungus species of contemporary Yuracaré and Trinitario ethnic groups from Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Sécure (TIPNIS), located in the Bolivian Amazon region. Our aim was to identify the culturally most significant medicinal plant families, growth forms and species, as well as to assess the current state of knowledge regarding the bioactivity of the most important species, based on available literature data. Materials and methods: Medicinal plant and fungus species were inventoried during homegarden and swidden sampling, walk-in-the-woods and transect sampling. Data on medicinal uses were obtained from 12 Yuracaré and 14 Trinitario participants. Results: We commence by providing a brief overview of Yuracaré and Trinitario ethnomedical systems, highlighting the important shamanistic component of particularly Trinitario traditional medicine. The rest of the paper is dedicated to an analysis and discussion based on the 349 inventoried medicinal plant and fungus species. Contingency table and binomial analyses of medicinal plants used versus the total number of inventoried species per family showed that several plant families are significantly over (Piperaceae, Araceae, Solanaceae, Asteraceae and Siparunaceae) and underused (Chrysobalanaceae, Sapotaceae, Lauraceae, Celastraceae and Annonaceae) in traditional medicine in TIPNIS. Also herbaceous plants are significantly overrepresented in the medicinal plant inventory, which is in line with relevant literature. Our ranking of medicinal species according to cultural significance is based on the Quality Use Agreement Value (QUAV) index we developed and presented in a previous paper. Results indicate that the QUAV index's property to mainly select species that combine multiple ethnomedical uses with high informant consensus, justifies its use as a measure of cultural significance of medicinal plants in TIPNIS. Results of a literature search suggest, on the other hand, that the QUAVs score of a species could also be indicative of its bioactivity. Conclusions: In addition to the QUAV index's value as a tool for assessing the cultural significance of medicinal species, it might also be useful to identify species with a higher likeliness of being bioactive. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The genus Artemisia consists of about 500 species, occurring throughout the world. Some very important drug leads have been discovered from this genus, notably artemisinin, the well known anti-malarial drug isolated from the Chinese herb Artemisia annua. The genus is also known for its aromatic nature and hence research has been focussed on the chemical compositions of the volatile secondary metabolites obtained from various Artemisia species. In the southern African region, A. afra is one of the most popular and commonly used herbal medicines. It is used to treat various ailments ranging from coughs and colds to malaria and diabetes. Although it is one of the most popular local herbal medicines, only limited scientific research, mainly focussing on the volatile secondary metabolites content, has been conducted on this species. The aim of this review was therefore to collect all available scientific literature published on A. afra and combine it into this paper. In this review, a general overview will be given on the morphology, taxonomy and geographical distribution of A. afra. The major focus will however be on the secondary metabolites, mainly the volatile secondary metabolites, which have been identified from this species. In addition all of the reported biological activities of the extracts derived from this species have been included as well as the literature on the pharmacology and toxicology. We aim at bringing together most of the available scientific research conducted on this species, which is currently scattered across various publications, into this review paper. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Plants have provided Man with all his needs in terms of shelter, clothing, food, flavours and fragrances as not the least, medicines. Plants have formed the basis of sophisticated traditional medicine systems among which are Ayurvedic, Unani, Chinese amongst others. These systems of medicine have given rise to some important drugs still in use today. Among the lesser-known systems of medicines are the African and Australian, Central and South American amongst others. The search for new molecules, nowadays, has taken a slightly different route where the science of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacognosy are being used as guide to lead the chemist towards different sources and classes of compounds. It is in this context that the flora of the tropics by virtue of its diversity has a significant role to play in being able to provide new leads. Nonetheless the issue of sovereignty and property rights should also be addressed in line with the Convention for Biological Diversity (CBD). This paper highlights the above, provides an overview of the classes of molecules present in plants and gives some examples of the types of molecules and secondary metabolites that have led to the development of these pharmacologically active extracts. The paper also presents some data on the use of plant products in the development of functional foods, addresses the needs for validation of plant extracts and always stressing on safety, efficacy and quality of phyto-medications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the present paper, we analyze the past, present and future of medicinal plants, both as potential antimicrobial crude drugs as well as a source for natural compounds that act as new anti-infection agents. In the past few decades, the search for new anti-infection agents has occupied many research groups in the field of ethnopharmacology. When we reviewed the number of articles published on the antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants in PubMed during the period between 1966 and 1994, we found 115; however, in the following decade between 1995 and 2004, this number more than doubled to 307. In the studies themselves one finds a wide range of criteria. Many focus on determining the antimicrobial activity of plant extracts found in folk medicine, essential oils or isolated compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenes, triterpenes or naphtoquinones, among others. Some of these compounds were isolated or obtained by bio-guided isolation after previously detecting antimicrobial activity on the part of the plant. A second block of studies focuses on the natural flora of a specific region or country; the third relevant group of papers is made up of specific studies of the activity of a plant or principle against a concrete pathological microorganism. Some general considerations must be established for the study of the antimicrobial activity of plant extracts, essential oils and the compounds isolated from them. Of utmost relevance is the definition of common parameters, such as plant material, techniques employed, growth medium and microorganisms tested. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper presents the ethnomedical uses of wild species among nine rural communities managing local forest resources in the Bonch Village Development Committee (VDC), Dolakha district, Nepal. Local communities possess knowledge of 113 medical remedies derived from 58 species belonging to 40 families to treat a wide range of aliments. A review of literature indicated that 56 medical remedies reported in this paper are new. Most medicines were prepared in the form of juice and were administered orally. Roots and leaves were the most frequently used plant parts. Local people were familiar mostly with the species dealing with common ailments particularly cough/cold, digestive problems, fever, headache, and skin infections. Complex ailments were treated by traditional healers. Haphazard harvesting and over-exploitation of commercial species were also reported. Sustainable harvesting methods and domestication of potential commercial species require attention in the local forest operational plans.The present study indicates that the area harbors a high diversity of medicinal plants. Despite gradual socio-cultural transformation, local communities still possess substantial knowledge of plants and their uses. The reliance on folk medicines for health care is associated with the lack of modern medicines and medication, poverty and the traditional belief of its effectiveness. Since there is a lack of phyto-therapeutic evidence for many of the species, we recommend that phytochemical and pharmacological studies be carried out in order to confirm the validity of properties attributed to these species: this is particularly relevant for species with market potential beyond the district. With setting up management plans for their extraction, these medicinal resources can provide for both subsistence needs and income. This, however, requires detail assessment of resource quantities, productivity potential, sustainable harvesting methods, domestication possibilities, market value of potentially promising species, and importantly, equitable benefit sharing regimes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Ethnopharmacological relevance This research describes the ethnomedicinal plants as used by three Chin indigenous groups inhabiting areas at Natma Taung National Park (NTNP) in bio-culturally diverse Myanmar. The aim of this study was (1) to identify wild medicinal species and evaluate their local importance in local peoples’ healthcare as well as in protected area conservation; and (2) to compare traditional medicinal plant knowledge among the informants. Materials and methods A total of 206 Müün, Ng’gah and Daai informants from 20 villages were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. Species use-reports were computed to determine plant local importance and the informant consensus factor. Descriptive and the inferential statistics Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis tests were employed to evaluate and compare the informants' traditional medicinal knowledge. Results A total of 75 wild ethnomedicinal taxa in 40 plant families across 16 ICPC-based disease categories were recorded. Species which recorded the highest number of use-reports appeared to play an important role not only in informants’ primary healthcare and in park conservation, but also in local livelihood. Conclusion This study presents the diversity of ethnomedicinal plants and their local importance in Chin indigenous peoples’ healthcare. This paper also recognizes the value of these plants and the local traditional knowledge for the conservation and management of NTNP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Alpinia officinarum Hance is a perennial plant that has been traditionally used for many decades to treat several ailments including inflammation, pain, stomach-ache, cold, amongst others. Pharmacological studies over the years have demonstrated remarkable bioactivities that could be further explored for development of new therapeutic agents against various ailments. Aim of the study The paper critically reviewed the ethno-medicinal uses, pharmacology, and phytochemistry of A. officinarum . Methods Keywords including A. officinarum and its synonyms were searched using electronic databases including ISI web of knowledge, Science direct, Scopus, PubMed, Google scholar and relevant database for Masters and Doctoral theses. Results A. officinarum is prepared in Asia, Turkey, Morocco and Iran as a decoction, infusion or juice as a single preparation or in combination with other herbs, food or drinks for the treatment of general health problems including cold, inflammation, digestive disorders, etc . Pharmacological studies revealed the potent in vitro and in vivo bioactivities of various parts of A. officinarum that include anti-inflammatory, cytotoxicity, homeostasis, lipid regulation, antioxidant, antiviral, antimicrobial, antiosteoporosis, etc . Over 90 phytochemical constituents have been identified and isolated from A. officinarum comprising vastly of phenolic compounds especially diarylheptanoids isolated from the rhizome and considered the most active bioactive components. Conclusion In vitro and in vivo studies have confirmed the potency of A. officinarum. However, further studies are required to establish the mechanisms mediating its bioactivities in relation to the medicinal uses as well as investigating any potential toxicity for future clinical studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance From 1640–1796, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) occupied the island of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Several VOC officers had a keen interest in the medicinal application of the local flora. The Leiden University Library holds a two-piece codex entitled: Icones Plantarum Malabaricarum, adscriptis nominibus et viribus, Vol. I. & II . (Illustrations of Plants from the Malabar, assigned names and strength). This manuscript contains 262 watercolour drawings of medicinal plants from Sri Lanka, with handwritten descriptions of local names, habitus, medicinal properties and therapeutic applications. This anonymous document had never been studied previously. Aim of the study To identify all depicted plant specimens, decipher the text, trace the author, and analyse the scientific relevance of this manuscript as well as its importance for Sri Lankan ethnobotany. Materials and methods We digitised the entire manuscript, transcribed and translated the handwritten Dutch texts and identified the depicted species using historic and modern literature, herbarium vouchers, online databases on Sri Lankan herbal medicine and 41 botanical drawings by the same artist in the Artis library, Amsterdam. We traced the origin of the manuscript by means of watermark analysis and historical literature. We compared the historic Sinhalese and Tamil names in the manuscript to recent plant names in ethnobotanical references from Sri Lanka and southern India. We published the entire manuscript online with translations and identifications. Results The watermarks indicate that the paper was made between 1694 and 1718. The handwriting is of a VOC scribe. In total, ca. 252 taxa are depicted, of which we could identify 221 to species level. The drawings represent mainly native species, including Sri Lankan endemics, but also introduced medicinal and ornamental plants. Lamiaceae, Zingiberaceae and Leguminosae were the best-represented families. Frequently mentioned applications were to purify the blood and to treat gastro-intestinal problems, fever and snakebites. Many plants are characterised by their humoral properties, of which ‘warming’ is the most prevalent. Plant species were mostly used for their roots (28%), bark (16%) or leaves (11%). More Tamil names (260) were documented than Sinhalese (208). More than half of the Tamil names and 36% of the Sinhalese names are still used today. The author was probably a VOC surgeon based in northern Sri Lanka, who travelled around the island to document medicinal plant use. Less than half of the species were previously documented from Ceylon by the famous VOC doctor and botanist Paul Hermann in the 1670s. Further archival research is needed to identify the maker of this manuscript. Conclusions Although the maker of this early 18th century manuscript remains unknown, the detailed, 300-year-old information on medicinal plant use in the Icones Plantarum Malabaricarum represents an important ethnobotanical treasure for Sri Lanka, which offers ample opportunities to study changes and continuation of medicinal plant names and practices over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eurycoma longifolia is a herbal medicinal plant of South-East Asian origin, popularly recognized as ‘Tongkat Ali’. The root extracts have been used in indigenous traditional medicines for its unique antimalarial, anti-pyretic, antiulcer, cytotoxic and aphrodisiac properties. It is an important task that fast and effective analysis methods monitor the inherent qualities of traditional herbal medicines and its corresponding extracts products as a complicated mixture system. Owing to the unique fingerprint character and extensive applicability to test sample, infrared spectral method have been used in many research fields. In this paper, we use FT-IR, second derivative infrared spectroscopy and two-dimensional correlation infrared spectroscopy (2D-IR) step by step to analyze E. longifolia and its different extracts (extracted by hexane, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol in turn). The findings indicated that FT-IR and 2D-IR can provide many holistic variation rules of chemical constituents. The structural information of the samples indicated that E. longifolia and its extracts contain a large amount of quassinoids, since some characteristic absorption peaks of quassinoids, such as ∼1700 cm −1 , ∼1670 cm −1 , ∼1600 cm −1 ,∼1500 cm −1 , and ∼1270 cm −1 can be detected. This method, having its high resolution and excellent macroscopic fingerprint features, can not only supply lots of structural information of main components in the complicated system, but also can differentiate the tiny differences between the similar systems according to the macro-fringerprint characters. This method is highly rapid, effective, accurate and well repetitive for pharmaceutical research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Polygonatum (Asparagaceae) comprises 71 species distributed throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The medicinal plants of Polygonatum have been traditionally used as tonics in China, India, Pakistan, Iran and Japan, and have been demonstrated to be highly effective in clinical practice for treating age-related diseases, diabetes, lung diseases, fatigue, feebleness and indigestion. Aim of the review This paper aims to provide the links among traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological effects and toxicity to support their therapeutic potential and uncover opportunities for future research. Materials and methods The relevant information on the genus Polygonatum was gathered from scientific databases (Google Scholar, Web of Science, SciFinder, ScienceDirect, ACS Publications, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, CNKI). Information was also obtained from online databases, books, Ph.D. dissertations and M.Sc. theses. The literature cited in this review dates from 1917 to June 2017. Results At least 37 species and 1 variety of Polygonatum plants have been used as traditional medicine and functional food. The major chemical constituents of Polygonatum plants are steroidal saponins, triterpenoid saponins, homoisoflavanones, polysaccharides and lectins. A putative biosynthetic pathway of steroidal saponins and triterpenoid saponins has been established based on the compounds isolated from Polygonatum plants. The crude extracts and certain pure compounds from Polygonatum plants have shown a wide range of pharmacological effects such as anti-aging, anti-diabetic, anti-fatigue, and anticancer effects. The rhizomes of Polygonatum plants have a low degree of toxicity after processing. Conclusions Based on this review, some traditional uses of Polygonatum species have been confirmed by pharmacological studies, such as its anti-osteoporosis, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-diabetic and anti-fatigue effects. Most of the pharmacological effects of this genus can be attributed to its polysaccharides, saponins and lectins. However, to clarify the chemical differences that lead to the different traditional uses between “Huangjing” (derived from P. sibiricum , P. kingianum , P. cyrtonema ) and “Yuzhu” (derived from P. odoratum ), a systematic comparison of the small molecule compositions and polysaccharides of these four species is needed. In addition to these four species, other locally used medicinal Polygonatum species should be the subject of research, and the chemical and pharmacological relationships of these species should be investigated to expand the medicinal resources and standardize the use of Polygonatum species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The full bibliometric records of data retrieved from ethnobotanical field studies carried out in Morocco (1991–2015) was quali-quantitatively analysed. Despite the importance of traditional medicinal uses in Morocco, any comments about the methodologies and approaches adopted by reviewed studies have been undertaken. Include more data about the importance of traditional medicinal uses in Morocco. Three key points were targeted in this review: (i) to contribute to original compilation of medicinal plants traditionally used by people at whole Morocco, by gathering and documenting the current status of these ancestral medical practices, (ii) to provide a novel insight into the relationship between local and biomedical disease concepts in Moroccan society, taking into account health-related beliefs, and their influences on medicinal plant uses, (iii) to figurout the weaknesses and the strengths of the conceptual approches and methods adopted by researchers in ethnobotanical field works. With the help of a computerized database querying, we conducted an extensive literature search respecting our integration criteria. We performed this bibliographic research by using the following search engines available over the Web: Google Scholar, PUBMED, Sciencedirect, Current Content Connect, SCOPUS, SPRINGER LINK, GLOBAL PLANTS, Cochrane Library and SCIRUS. The scientific names listed in the present paper have been validated according to the "The Plant List" and the African Plants Database in order to standardize ethnobotanical data on an international level. For the analysis of data gathered, quali-quantitative analyses have been performed. A total of 905 medicinal plant species belonging to 116 families and 726 genera have been selected from 63 published articles. The dominant families were ASTERACEAE (111 species) followed by the FABACEAE (77 species), LAMIACEAE (75 species) and APIACEAE (46 species). The plant species listed are used to cure several public ailments. The digestive ailments represented the most important category (494 species) followed by dermatological diseases (407 species), diabetes (315 species) and urinary diseases (277 species). We assigned the importance of the plant species by several measures (including Frequency Cited (FC), Number of Uses (NU), Number of Respondents (NR) and Index of Performance (IP). The ICF (Informant Consensus Factor) calculated was important in all categories of diseases averaging 47%. The results obtained, which cover the whole country, delineate the profile of rich wealth of indigenous knowledge on traditional uses of medicinal plants heald by Moroccan society. The total number of 905 plant species listed in this paper, are currently being utilized as medicines and the number is expected to grow as infrastructure allows greater access to unexplored parts of the country. Furthermore, the know how, regarding the plants used, is consistent because the ICF has recorded important values for most diseases treated. Furthermore, in the present paper, we suggested, for authors, some useful recommendations for ethnobotanical field works such as the respect of ethnobotanical standards including checklist of plants with international data base, the deposited voucher specimens, sampling and collection methods. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pistacia atlantica (wild pistachio) belongs to the Anacardiaceae family, and growing from the Mediterranean basin to central Asia, especially in Iran, Turkey, Iraq and Saudi Arabia where it is extensively used in traditional medicine for a wide range of ailments related to relieving upper abdominal discomfort and pain, dyspepsia and peptic ulcer. Despite the diverse biological activities of P. atlantica , there is no current review summarizing medicinal properties of its subspecies, including cabulica , kurdica and mutica. Thus, this paper aims to explore the current understanding of the chemical, pharmacological, and biochemical properties of the extracts and the main active constituents found in each subspecies of this plant. Peer-reviewed articles, using " Pistacia atlantica " as search term (″all fields″), were retrieved from Scifinder, Pubmed, Science direct, Wiley, Springer, ACS, Scielo, Web of Science and other web search instruments (Google Scholar, Yahoo search). Papers published until July 2020 are considered. In addition, various books were consulted that contained botanical and ethnopharmacological information. The information provided in this review is based on peer-reviewed papers in English and French. Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of numerous valuable compounds, including volatile compounds, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, tocopherols and phytosterols. P. atlantica contains also minerals and trace elements, like iron, lead, copper, potassium, sodium and calcium; fatty acids, like oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acid; fat-soluble vitamins, such as α, β, γ and δ tocopherols; phytosterols, like betasitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol and Δ5-avenasterol. Crude extracts and isolated compounds from P. atlantica show a wide range of pharmacological properties, such as antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antinociceptive, wound healing, anticancer, cytotoxic, anticholinesterase, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, urease inhibition, antihypertension, nipple fissure healing, antileishmanial and antiplasmodial activities. However, there are no reports summarizing the P. atlantica bioactivity, its therapeutic value, and the roles played by each of the numerous phytoconstituents. Many traditional uses of P. atlantica and its subspecies have now been confirmed by pharmacologic research. Systematic phytochemical investigation of the P. atlantica subspecies and the pharmacological properties, especially the mechanisms of action and toxicology, to illustrate their ethnomedicinal use, to explore the therapeutic potential and support further health-care product development, will undoubtedly be the focus of further research. Therefore, detailed and extensive studies and clinical evaluation of P. atlantica subspecies should be carried out in future for the safety approval of therapeutic applications. Image 1 • Comprehensive literature overview on P. atlantica. • Phytochemical analysis: discussion of various herbal compounds. • Pharmacological information in relation to diverse activities. • Clinical trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Transmission of traditional knowledge over time and across culturally and historically related territories is an important topic in ethnopharmacology. Here, we contribute to this knowledge by analysing data on medicinal uses in two neighbouring areas of the Western Mediterranean in relation to a historical text that has been scarcely mentioned in historical studies despite its interest. Aim of the study This paper discusses the sharing of popular knowledge on the medicinal uses of plants between eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia (Spain), focusing on one of the most useful plant families in the Mediterranean area: Lamiaceae. Moreover, we used the classical work of Ibn al-Baytar (13th century CE) The Compendium of Simple Medicaments and Foods as a basis to contrast the possible link of this information, analysing the influence of this historical text on current popular tradition of medicinal plant use in both territories. Materials and methods For data collection, we performed ethnobotanical field research in the eastern part of Morocco, recording current medicinal uses for the Lamiaceae. In addition, we systematically reviewed the ethnobotanical literature from eastern Andalusia, developing a database. We investigated the possible historical link of the shared uses and included in this database the information from Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium . To compare the similarity and diversity of the data, we used Jaccard's similarity index. Results Our field work provided ethnobotanical information for 14 Lamiaceae species with 95 medicinal uses, serving to treat 13 different pathological groups. Of the total uses recorded in Morocco, 30.5% were shared by eastern Andalusia and found in Ibn al-Baytar's work. There was a higher similarity when comparing current uses of the geographically close territories of eastern Morocco and eastern Andalucía (64%) than for eastern Morocco and this historical text (43%). On the other hand, coincidences between current uses in eastern Andalusia and the ones related in the Compendium are lower, 28%. Conclusions The coincidence of the current ethnobotanical knowledge in the two territories is high for the Lamiaceae. Probably the shared historical background, recent exchanges, information flow, and the influence of the historical herbal texts have influenced this coincidence. In this sense, there is a high plant-use overlap between Ibn al-Baytar's text and both territories: nearly half of the uses currently shared by eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia were included in the Compendium and are related to this period of Islamic medicine, indicating a high level of preservation in the knowledge of plant usage. The study of 14 species of Lamiaceae suggests that this classical codex, which includes a high number of medicinal plants and uses, constitutes a valuable bibliographical source for comparing ancient and modern applications of plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Mitragyna (Rubiacaeae) has been traditionally used in parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania. In recent years, there has been increased interest in species of Mitragyna with the introduction of products to western markets and regulatory uncertainty. Aim of the study This paper reviewed the traditional ethnomedicinal uses of leaves for species belonging to the genus Mitragyna with reference to the botany and known chemistry in order to highlight areas of interest for products currently being sold as kratom. Materials and methods A literature search was conducted using Web of Science, Google Scholar, the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Internet Archive, Hathi Trust, and Biodiversity Heritage Library search engines in the spring of 2015, fall of 2016 and winter of 2017 to document uses of bark, leaf and root material. Results Leaves of M. speciosa (kratom) had the most common documented ethnomedicinal uses as an opium substitute or remedy for addiction. Other species of Mitragyna were reportedly used for treating pain, however the mode of preparation was most often cited as topical application. Other uses of Mitragyna included treatment of fever, skin infections, and as a mild anxiolytic. Conclusions Mitragyna species have been used medicinally in various parts of the world and that there is significant traditional evidence of use. Modern products that include formulations as topical application of liniments, balms or tinctures may provide effective alternatives for treatment of certain types of pains. Future research is required to establish safety and toxicology limits, medicinal chemistry parameters and the potential for different physiological responses among varying genetic populations to support regulatory requirements for Mitragyna spp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance This paper has two overarching aims: (1) presenting the results of studying the Albacete tariff of medicines of 1526 and (2) broadly analyzing the origin and influences of medicinal traditional knowledge in the region of Albacete, Spain. We use historical and modern literature that may have influenced this knowledge. Our primary goal was to determine the ingredients used in the pharmacy in the 16th century CE in Albacete through the analysis of the tariff, and our secondary goal was to investigate until when ingredients and uses present in pharmacy and herbals persisted in later periods. Methods The identity of medicines and ingredients was determined by analyzing contemporary pharmacopoeias and classical pharmaceutical references. We analyzed further 21 sources (manuscripts, herbals, and books of medicines, pharmacopoeias, pharmacy inventories, and modern ethnobotanical records) for the presence/absence of ingredients and complex formulations of the tariff. Using factorial and cluster analysis and Bayesian inference applied to evolution models (reversible-jump Markov chain Monte Carlo), we compared textual sources. Finally, we analyzed the medicinal uses of the top 10 species in terms of frequency of citation to assess the dependence of modern ethnobotanical records on Renaissance pharmacy and herbals, and, ultimately, on Dioscorides. Results In Albacete 1526, we determined 101 medicines (29 simple drugs and 72 compound medicines) comprising 187 ingredients (85% botanical, 7.5% mineral, and 7.5% zoological substances). All composed medicines appear standardized in the pharmacopoeias, notably in the pharmacopoeia of Florence from 1498. However, most were no longer in use by 1750 in the pharmacy, and were completely absent in popular herbal medicine in Albacete 1995 as well as in Alta Valle del Reno (Italy) in 2014. Among the ingredients present in different formulation are the flowers of Rosa gallica , honey ( Apis mellifera ), the roots of Nardostachys jatamansi , and Convolvulus scammonia , pistils of Crocus sativus , grapes and raisins ( Vitis vinifera ), rhizomes of Zingiber officinale , bark of Cinnamomum verum , leaves and fruits of Olea europaea , mastic generally of Pistacia lentiscus , and wood of Santalum album . The statistical analysis of sources produces four well-separated clusters (Renaissance Herbals and Pharmacopoeias, Ethnobotany and Folk Medicine, Old phytotherapy, and Modern phytotherapy including Naturopathy) confirming our a priori classification. The clade of Renaissance Herbals and Pharmacopoeias appears separated from the rest in 97% of bootstrapped trees. Bayesian inference produces a tree determined by an initial set of two well-distinct core groups of ingredients: 64, locally used in Mediterranean Europe during centuries; and 45, imported, used in pharmacy during centuries. Complexity reached its maximum in Albacete 1526 and contemporary pharmacopoeias, gradually decreasing over time. The analysis of medicinal uses of the top 10 ingredients showed low coincidence between Dioscorides and different Renaissance herbals or medical treatises and of all of them with ethnobotany in Albacete. Conclusions Regarding our question: is there something new under the sun? In some aspects, the answer is “No”. The contrast between expensive drugs, highly valued medicines, and unappreciated local wild medicinal plants persists since the Salerno's school of medicine. Old medicine in Mediterranean Europe, as reflected by Albacete 1526 tariff of medicines, involved strict formulations and preferences for certain ingredients despite other ingredients locally available but underappreciated. This confirms the fact that any system of medicine does not get to use all available resources. Ethnobiological records of materia medica, in rural areas of Albacete, describe systems with a high degree of stability and resilience, where the use of local resources, largely wild but also cultivated, is predominant in contrast with the weight of imported exotic products in pharmacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), commonly known as "Pygeum" or "African cherry", occurs in mainland montane forests scattered across sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and some surrounding islands. Traditionally, decoctions of the stem-bark are taken orally for the treatment of a wide variety of conditions, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, heart conditions, and gonorrhoea, as well as urinary and kidney diseases. The timber is used to make axe handles and for other household needs. The dense wood is also sawn for timber. The fragmented information available on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and biological activities of the medicinally important P. africana was collated, organised, and analysed in this review, to highlight knowledge voids that can be addressed through future research. A bibliometric analysis of research output on P. africana was conducted on literature retrieved, using the Scopus® database. The trend in the publications over time was assessed and a network analysis of collaborations between countries and authors was carried out. Furthermore, a detailed review of the literature over the period 1971 to 2021, acquired through Scopus, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Pubmed, Scirp, DOAJ and Google Scholar, was conducted. All relevant abstracts, full-text articles and various book chapters on the botanical and ethnopharmacological aspects of P. africana , written in English and German, were consulted. A total of 455 documents published from 1971 to 2021, were retrieved using the Scopus search. Analysis of the data showed that the majority of these documents were original research articles, followed by reviews and lastly a miscellaneous group comprising conference papers, book chapters, short surveys, editorials and letters. Data were analysed for annual output and areas of intense research focus, and countries with high research output, productive institutions and authors, and collaborative networks were identified. Prunus africana is reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti-asthmatic, anti-androgenic, antiproliferative and apoptotic activities amongst others. Phytosterols and other secondary metabolites such as phenols, triterpenes, fatty acids, and linear alcohols have been the focus of phytochemical investigations. The biological activity has largely been ascribed to the phytosterols (mainly 3- β -sitosterol, 3- β -sitostenone, and 3- β -sitosterol-glucoside), which inhibit the production of prostaglandins in the prostate, thereby suppressing the inflammatory symptoms associated with BPH and chronic prostatitis. Many of the ethnobotanical assertions for the biological activity of P. africana have been confirmed through in vitro and in vivo studies. However, a disparity exists between the biological activity of the whole extract and that of single compounds isolated from the extract, which were reported to be less effective. This finding suggests that a different approach to biological activity studies should be encouraged that takes all secondary metabolites present into consideration. A robust technique, such as multivariate biochemometric data analysis, which allows for a holistic intervention to study the biological activity of a species is suggested. Furthermore, there is a need to develop rapid and efficient quality control methods for both raw materials and products to replace the time-consuming and laborious methods currently in use. [Display omitted] • Prunus africana is distributed in Sub-Saharan Africa and some offshore islands. • Traditionally, the stem-bark is commonly used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia. • Prunus africana is composed of phytosterols, phenols, triterpenes, and fatty acids. • Prunus africana has anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antiviral activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Bupleurum includes approximately 200 species that are widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, Eurasia and North Africa. Certain species of this genus have long been used as antiphlogistic, antipyretic and analgesic agents in traditional folk medicine. As described in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, the roots of Bupleurum chinense DC. and B. scorzonerifolium Willd. are the herbal materials that compose Chaihu ( Radix Bupleuri ), a well-known TCM herb. Aim of the review This review aims to provide up-to-date and comprehensive information regarding the distribution, toxicity, molecular mechanism and relatively new methods for the qualitative and quantitative determination of polyacetylenes in different Bupleurum species. Method The information needed for this paper were sourced from publishing sites such as Elsevier, science Direct, PubMed; electronic search engines such as Scopus and Web of Science, Google scholar; other scientific database sites for chemicals such as ChemSpider, PubChem, SciFinder, and also from on line books. Results Polyacetylenes, which are widely distributed in genus Bupleurum of the Apiaceae family, have high toxicity. Among polyacetylenes, bupleurotoxin, acetylbupleurotoxin and oenanthotoxin have strong neurotoxicity. Through previous research, it was found that the toxicity of Bupleurum polyacetylenes manifested as epileptic seizures, with the target of toxicity being the brain. The neurotoxicity of polyacetylenes exhibits a relationship with the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor pathway, and polyacetylenes have been shown to inhibit GABA-induced currents ( I GABA ) in a competitive manner. Conclusions The plants of genus Bupleurum have been used in traditional medicine for thousands of years. However, certain species of this genus are poisonous, and it was attributed to the high content of polyacetylenes. The present review indicates that certain polyacetylenes in the genus Bupleurum have highly neurotoxic effects. The major challenge with regard to toxic polyacetylenes is to test their neurotoxic effects in vivo as well as in further preclinical studies, which will require large amounts of purified polyacetylenes. More reference substances should be prepared, and sophisticated analytical technologies should be developed to comprehensively assess the quality of Radix Bupleuri herbs. These investigations will be helpful for further utilization of the plants of genus Bupleurum . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The rich floral and ethnic composition of eastern Nepal and the widespread utilization of locally available medicinal plants offer remarkable opportunity for ethnomedicinal research. The present paper aims to explore medicinal plant diversity and use in the remote villages of eastern Nepal. It also aims to evaluate ethnopharmacological significance of the documented use reports and identify species of high indigenous priority. Materials and methods The study was undertaken in four villages located in the Sankhuwasabha district in eastern Nepal. Ethnomedicinal information was collected through structured interviews. The homogeneity of informant's knowledge and the relative importance of documented medicinal plants were validated by informant consensus factor and use value, respectively. Species preference for treatment of particular diseases was evaluated through fidelity level. Results We reported medicinal properties of 48 species belonging to 33 families and 40 genera, for the treatment of 37 human ailments. The uses of 10 medicinal plants were previously undocumented. The informant consensus factor (F IC ) ranged between 0.38 and 1 with about 50% of values greater than 0.80 and over 75% of values greater than 0.70, indicating moderate to high consensus among the informants on the use of medicinal plants in the region. Swertia chirayita was the most preferred species with significantly high use values, followed by Paris polyphylla and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora. Conclusions The remote villages in eastern Nepal possess rich floral and cultural diversity with strong consensus among informants on utilization of plants for local healthcare. The direct pharmacological evidence for medicinal properties of most species indicates high reliability of documented information. Careful and systematic screening of compounds isolated from these plants could possibly provide good opportunity for the discovery of novel medicines to treat life-threatening human diseases. We recommend prioritization of medicinal plants and reinforcement of existing cultivation practices for sustainable management of high-priority species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Schult. (Apocynaceae) is widely used in traditional medicine in the different parts of the Indian subcontinent due to the various biological activities attributed to its different parts, especially the roots. It has traditionally been used for treating snakebites, scorpion stings, diabetes, urinary diseases, dyspnea, menorrhagia, oligospermia, anorexia, fever, abdominal colic and pain, dysentery, diarrhea, cough, rheumatism, headache, inflammation, pyrosis, skin diseases, leprosy, sexually transmitted diseases and cancer. In Ayurveda, the plant is used in the treatment of bone-loss, low body weight, fever, stress, topical wound and psoriasis. Besides, Ayurvedic literature also depicts its use as anti-atherogenic, anti-spasmodic, memory enhancing, immunopotentiating and anti-inflammatory agents. In this review, we aim to present a comprehensive update on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, specific pharmacology, and toxicology of H. indicus and its bioactive metabolites. Possible directions for future research are also outlined in brief. Popular and widely used international databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, Google Scholar and JSTOR were searched and traditional literature were consulted using the various search strings to retrieve a number of citations related to the ethnopharmacology, biological activity, toxicology, quality control and phytochemistry of H. indicus. All studies on the ethnobotany, phtochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of the plant up to 2019 were included in this review. H. indicus has played an important role in traditional Indian medicine (including Ayurveda) and also in European medicine. The main pharmacological properties of H. indicus include hepatoprotective, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-ophidian, cardioprotective, nephroprotective, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Phytochemical evaluations of the root have revealed the presence of aromatic aldehydes and their derivatives, phenolics, triterpenoids and many other compounds, some of which were attributed to its bioactivity. This review also compiles a list of Ayurvedic formulations and commercial preparations where H. indicus has been used as an active ingredient. We have included the critical assessment of all the papers cited in this manuscript based on experimental observation and other important points which reflect the loop-holes of research strategy and ambiguity in the papers reviewed in this manuscript. The study presents an exhaustive and updated review on the traditional, pharmacological and phytochemical aspects of H. indicus with notes on its quality control and toxicological information. Although the crude extracts of H. indicus exhibit an array of pharmacological activities, it is high time to identify more active phyto-constituents by bioactivity-guided isolation besides elucidating their structure-activity relationship. More designed investigations are needed to comprehend the multi-target network pharmacology, to clarify the molecular mode of action and to ascertain the efficacious doses of H. indicus. Moreover, H. indicus is not fully assessed on the basis of its safety and efficacy on human. We hope this review will compile and improve the existing knowledge on the potential utilization of H. indicus in complementary and alternative medicine. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A strain of Fusarium oxysporum fungus is killing coca plants in the Chapare coca growing region of Bolivia. Coca farmers are already constrained in the amount of coca they can grow under the government's community-based coca control approach, "social control." Coca leaf is the main ingredient in cocaine, but it is also a traditional medicine and food, is economically vital to household incomes, and is a political symbol of the current government administration. Bolivia's approach to coca control, now administered without any United States military intervention, is an innovative example of experimentation with drug policy reform.Methods: This paper is based on ethnographic research including semi-structured interviews and observation.Results: Coca growers are worried about the dire economic, social, and political consequences of the fungus' appearance and spread since summer 2013. They have two explanations for its origins: First, that it was sent by the United States government, which in the past was developing a strain of F. oxysporum for use in the drug war; Second, and the explanation of scientists, is that the outbreak is caused by the overuse of agrochemicals and other intensive agricultural practices.Conclusion: More than a matter of agroecology, the practices identified in the second explanation must be understood in terms of the persistence of the international drug prohibition regime. Bolivia's social control approach is a successful alternative to violent eradication measures, however the country is constrained to uphold the fundamental principles of supply-side control in order to be a respected partner in global drug control. The supply-side logics restricting social control make intensive agriculture practices attractive, but may have contributed to the fungus' proliferation and its continued spread. The fungus draws attention to the challenges of policy reform, new collateral damages of drug control, and role environmental factors can play in drug control politics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Recent studies have shown that groups sharing the same or very similar environments, but with diverse cultural backgrounds (e.g. different ethnos and/or religion) have considerably different knowledge of folk (medicinal) plant uses. Yet, it is not clear to what extent various factors (such as culture, economy, isolation, and especially social and political situations) contribute to such differences in the utilization of the same natural resources. Aim of the study This paper addresses the effect of border created in 1940 and subsequent separation of a single ethnic group on changes in their folk use of medicinal and wild food plants. The Hutsuls of Bukovina had been homogenous for centuries, but were separated in 1940 as a result of the formation of state borders between Romania and the former Soviet Union (now Ukraine). The aim of the study is to analyse if the belonging to this different states for 75 years have induced different changes in local plant use within communities that share a common historical legacy and environment. Materials and methods In depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 42 people in May 2015. Collected data were analysed, and comparisons were made between the data gathered on the two sides of the border for different use categories: medicinal, wild food and veterinary plants, as well as other remedies. Recently collected data were also compared with historical data obtained for the region, medicinal plant folk uses in Romania and medicinal plant uses of The State Pharmacopeia of the Soviet Union. Results Divergences in current medicinal plant use are much greater than in the use of wild food plants. The majority of the wild food taxa, including those used for making recreational teas, are also used for medicinal purposes and hence contribute to the food-medicine continuum, representing emergency foods in the past and serving as memory markers for possible future food shortages. Compared with the historical data, considerable changes have occurred within specific medicinal applications and less in the taxa used. The influence of the Soviet State Pharmacopeia on present ethnomedicine on the Ukrainian side is minimal. Conclusions Hutsul herbal ethnomedicine on the Ukrainian side of the border has continued to evolve (the abandonment of some uses and the adoption of others), whereas on the Romanian side it has undergone significant erosion with a proportionally smaller adoption of new uses and the leaving behind of possibly more “traditional” uses than on the Ukrainian side. In sum, current ethnomedicinal practices of Hutsuls living on both sides of the border are more extensive than those reported in historical sources. Yet the unknown sampling method employed to collect the historical data and possible skipping of “ordinary” uses by folklorists and ethnographers does not allow for definitive conclusions to be drawn. Cross-cultural and cross-border ethnobotany represents one of the most powerful means for addressing the issue of change and variability of medicinal plant uses and heritage, and further studies in other areas of Eastern Europe and beyond need to address the trajectory proposed by the present study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Boerhavia is widely distributed in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world including Mexico, America, Africa, Asia, Indian Ocean Islands, Pacific Islands and Australia. The genus Boerhavia is extensively used by local peoples and medicinal practitioners for treatments of hepatitis, urinary disorders, gastro intestinal diseases, inflammations, skin problems, infectious diseases and asthma. Present review focused on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Boerhavia genus to support potential scope for advance ethnopharmacological study. Materials and methods Information on the Boerhavia species was collected from classical books on medicinal plants, pharmacopoeias and scientific databases like PubMed, Scopus, GoogleScholar, Web of Science and others. Also scientific literatures based on ethnomedicinal surveys, Ph.D. and M.Sc. dissertations, published papers from Elsevier, Taylor and Francis, Springer, ACS as well as Wiley publishers and reports by government bodies and documentations were assessed. Results A total of 180 compounds from Boerhavia genus were isolated of which B. diffusa alone shared around 131 compounds and for most of which it is currently an exclusive source. In the genus, phenolic glycosides and flavonoids contribute approximately 97 compounds. These includes eupalitin, rotenoids like boeravinones, coccineons, alkaloid i.e. betanin and punarnavine etc., showing vital pharmaceutical activities such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory. Conclusion Boerhavia is an important genus with wide range of medicinal uses. However, most of the available scientific literatures have lacked relevant doses, duration and positive controls for examining bioefficacy of extracts and its active compounds. In some studies, taxonomic errors were encountered. Moreover, there is need for accurate methods in testing the safety and ethnomedicinal validity of Boerhavia species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Being one of the most common types of life threatening diseases in Southern Assam, India, the digestive system disorders (DSD) have gained much attention in recent decades. Traditional beliefs and inadequate income of mass population result in the use of alternative phytotherapies to treat the diseases. Aim of the study The present paper documents the medicinal knowledge and utilization of plants for treatment of digestive system disorders in Southern Assam, India by Disease Consensus Index (DCI). It also determines the most suitable plant species used to treat digestive system disorders in the study area. Materials and methods The study was based on ethnomedicinal field survey covering a period of 1 year from 2014–2015. The ethnomedicinal information was collected by using semi-structured questionnaires from different traditional Bengali people having knowledge on medicinal plants. Collected data were analyzed by calculating DCI. Results During the survey, 29 informants were interviewed and a total of 49 plants under 46 genera belonging to 33 families were listed. Data analysis revealed that Litsea glutinosa , Momordica charantia , Andrographis paniculata , Lawsonia inermis , Cleome viscosa , Psidium guajava , Ageratum conyzoides , Cuscuta reflexa , Cynodon dactylon and Carica papaya are the most prominent plants among the people of Southern Assam for treating DSD. Conclusion This explorative survey emphasizes the need to preserve and document the traditional healing practices for managing DSD inviting for more imminent scientific research on the plants to determine their efficacy as well as safety. With the help of statistical analysis (DCI), we propose 10 priority plants for DSD in present work. Systematic pharmacological study with these plants may contribute significant result. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Complementary and alternative medicine has been increasingly used to treat chronic illnesses, such as diabetes mellitus. However, various limitations in terms of their application and efficacies exist. Furthermore, there is still much to be done to discover the right herbal medicine for diabetes. Aim of the study This paper aims to evaluate previous herbal studies on the management of diabetes mellitus, to address their strengths and weaknesses and propose a general framework for future studies. Approach and methods Data sources such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, Scopus, SpringerLink, and Wiley were searched, limited to Iran, using 36 search terms such as herbal, traditional, medicine, and phytopharmacy in combination with diabetes and related complications. Reviewed articles were evaluated regarding the use of botanical nomenclature and included information on (1) identity of plants and plant parts used, (2) the processing procedure, and (3) the extraction process. The main outcomes were extracted and then surveyed in terms of the efficacies of herbs in the management of diabetes mellitus. Then a comparative study was performed between Iranian and non-Iranian studies with respect to herbs best studied in Iran. Results Of the 82 herbs studied in Iran, only six herbs were endemic and 19 were studied in detail. Although most of the reviewed herbs were found to decrease the level of blood glucose (BG) and/or glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C) in both Iranian and non-Iranian studies, information on their pharmacological mechanisms is scarce. However, the level of HbA1C was measured in a limited number of clinical trials or animal studies. Available information on both short- and long-term use of studied herbs on diabetes related complications and functions of involved organs as well as comorbid depression and/or simultaneous changes in lifesyle is also insufficient. Furthermore, little or no information on their phytochemical, toxicological, and herb–drug interaction properties is available. It is worth noting that the efficacy of the reviewed herbs has been studied scarcely in both humans and animals regarding both Iranian and non-Iranian studies. A significant number of reviewed articles failed to cite the scientific name of herbs and include information on the processing procedure and the extraction process. Conclusions Treatment of diabetes mellitus as a multifactorial disease using herbal medicines requires a comprehensive approach. In order to discover the right herbal medicine for the management of diabetes many other important factors than the levels of BG, HbA1C and insulin should be considered. According to our criteria, all the reviewed herbs suffered from inadequate investigation in human, animal and in vitro models in this respect, whereas they are worth investigating further. However, more research on endemic plants and the traditional history of herbal medicine is warranted. In our opinion, the pharmacological, toxicological, and phytochemical information should be obtained before clinical trials. Furthermore, information such as botanical scientific nomenclature, side effects, and toxicity will improve the quality and validity of publications in herbal research. In particular, designing a database covering all valid information about herbs and/or diseases will decrease unnecessary costs and increase the efficiency of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnobotanical relevance Turkey is one of the richest countries in terms of plant diversity, owing to its unique geographical location with different climatic and geomorphological structures. For this reason interest in ethnobotanical studies has been rising. The goal of this study is to document traditional uses of medicinal plants and supply phytomedicines with efficacy and safety for use in primary health care in Bozüyük in Bilecik district, located in the nortwestern part of Anatolia in Turkey. Materials and methods The ethnomedicinal data was collected during 2009–2010 using semi-structured questionnaires, personal interviews and group discussion with 60 informants (22 men and 38 women). As a statistical method, informant consensus factors ( F IC ) and fidelity level (FL) values were calculated to analyze the importance of ethnobotanical plant species. Results 104 Plant species belonging to 47 families were found in this study. Among them 59 species were wild and 45 species were cultivated plants. The most common wild species belongs to Lamiaceae (15.3%), Apiaceae (6.8%), Fabaceae (5.1%), Asteraceae (5.1%), Polygonaceae (5.1%) and the most common cultivated species belongs to Rosaceae (24.4%), Apiaceae (11.1%), Fabaceae (11.1%), Brassicaceae (8.9%) and Poaceae (6.7%) families. The most common preperation method is infusion with the rate of 45%. According to use value (UV) the most important plant is Linum usitatissimum L. (0.86). The highest Consensus Informants Factor ( F IC ) of the ailments are skeletomuscular and conjunctivitis diseases with the same value of 0.80. The most frequent species is Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson which is used for diuretic ailments with the amount of 88.33% fidelity level. Conclusions This paper reserves valuable ethnobotanical information for research area. The importance of traditional medicines and indigenous knowledge should be conserved and encouraged. In addition to this further laboratory investigations should be conducted on plants to produce pharmaceutical output. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ethnopharmacological relevance Sokoto is known for its diverse traditional medicinal wealth and international market of traditional medicines in Africa. However, information of the folk knowledge, especially for the treatment of diabetes, is not documented. Aim of the study This survey identified and documented the information on traditional medicinal plants used by Hausa–Fulani community of Sokoto for the treatment of diabetes. Materials and method Demographic data and information about the medicinal plants were collected via administration of semi-structured oral questionnaires. Willing herbal medical practitioners/traditional healers were interviewed. The medicinal plants mentioned by herbalists were collected and authenticated by a taxonomist and the voucher specimens were preserved. Results Fifty one informants across the state divulged information on traditional medicinal plants and practices used in diabetes and revealed 54 species, belonging to 33 families, with Cassia sieberiana being cited the most (19 times) and ranked first (39%). Azadirachta indica , Ficus exasperata and Schwenckia americana ranked second (15%), each cited 8 times. Conclusion The survey documented the rich wealth of knowledge and usage of plants for the treatment of diabetes in Sokoto. The paper will not only serve as a source of information but will also help to make the knowledge accessible for further drug screening and development, and at the same time underlines the need for biodiversity conservation of this traditional wealth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]