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Mycotoxins are group of toxic secondary metabolites and found in food and agricultural commodities which leads to illness in human and animals and economic loss to the country. During harvesting, processing, transportation, storage and handling, the substrates are very prone to fungal growth and leads to the subsequent production of secondary harmful metabolites called mycotoxins. As per Food and Agriculture Organization report, merely 25% of World’s agricultural products are contaminated with mycotoxins and the contaminated products are unfit for human consumption and leads to various chronic illness and fatal diseases. Mycotoxins affected the diversified food substrates and processed products like cereals, grains, cured meat, dairy products, beverages, infant foods, nuts and ready-to eat foods. Aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochrotoxins and zearalenone, toxins are frequently affected the agricultural and food products. There are various efforts rendered towards the prevention and control of the mycotoxins in food and agricultural products. Efforts are continuing to control the mycotoxins using the biocontrol approaches mediated through microorganisms, enzymes, nano based tools and the early detection of mycotoxins using biosensors.

In the future, abiotic stress will be a chief danger with respect to fulfilling the needs of agricultural crops in terms of their production for feeding the world's population. Abiotic stress includes heat, cold, salinity, flooding, drought, UV radiation, and nutrient stress. These stresses are causing a huge effect on the production and productivity of agricultural crops leading to a reduction in average yields. Under abiotic stress conditions, crops decrease their growth and cause slower development. As a response to abiotic conditions, alterations in physiological, anatomical, morphological, and molecular parameters have been observed in plants. In accordance to this, phytohormones control signaling of such responses in abiotic stress conditions. Various sorts of phytohormones are known in plants (auxins, CKs, ethylene, gibberellins, brassinosteroids, jasmonates, and strigolactones), and many more are being investigated. Involvement of theses messengers in growth and development of crops are now gaining importance with respect to developing tolerant varieties for such conditions. Thus, this chapter focuses on various sorts of phytohormones and their functioning, transporters involved in abiotic stresses, and how they respond in such conditions to provide tolerance to crops.

Highlights • Biofertilizer was produced by aerobic composting method. • Actinomycetes isolated was found to be good agents for biofertilizer synthesis. • Organic matter and Carbon content of the composts was found to be decreasing. • Nitrogen contents increased significantly with time. • Leaf area index revealed 10th week as the optimum growth period for Maize and Okra., In this work, biofertilizer was synthesized by mixing sawdust and other nitrogenous agricultural wastes into composites in the following ways: S1 (sawdust + chicken litter + vegetable waste), S2 (sawdust + sewage sludge + vegetable waste) and S3 (sawdust only as the control) respectively using actinomycetes as the microbial inoculums. In-vessel method of composting was employed with 120 L capacity polyethylene (PET) container as the bioreactor for the pilot scale study. Microorganisms were isolated from landfill extracts. Aeration was accomplished through turning of the compost twice weekly. Nitrogen, Carbon, Organic Matter and pH were determined at 5days intervals till the end of composting exercise. Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (FAAS), was used for determination of the mineral composition of the raw materials and end products. American Society for Testing and Materials was used in the Analysis of Nitrogen, Carbon, and Organic Matter contents. Biofertilizer was analyzed more for activeness as organic fertilizer in the field studies using two crops (Maize and Okra). Biochemical test revealed that six genera of Actinomycetes were isolated. Inorganic salt starch agar medium was noticed to be effective isolation media for Actinomycetes. Actinomycetes were found to be good agents for biofertilizer synthesis due to their ability to mineralize nitrogen during composting. Preliminary investigation revealed that Rothia spp gave the highest percentage degradation of cellulose (21.6 %) as well as highest percentage mineralization of nitrogen (6.87 %) after 21days of incubation. Dosage ratio of 2:1:1 w: w, moisture content of 50–60 % and 25 days was found to be the optimum condition for nitrogen mineralization. Organic matter content of composts S1 and S2 decreased significantly with time while total kjeldahl nitrogen (TkN) content of the composts increased except compost S3 which on the contrary, reduced. The maximum temperature achieved at the end of 25 days compositing of substrate S2 was 64.6 ℃. Analysis of the leaf area index (LAI) revealed 10th week after transplant to be the period of optimum growth for both crops. In addition to, all the analysis conducted pointed to the fact that influence of biofertilizer on Okra and Maize growth performance is equivalent to the growth performance of chemical fertilizer on the same crops, affirming that organic fertilizer can comfortably replace chemical fertilizer in future.

Metabolomics is a critical instrument for the determination of the molecular foundations of macroscopic biological phenomena. It is quite useful to analyze the property of plant species before their genomes were fully sequenced due to its applicability for species with incomplete genomic data. Metabolomics is a fast-growing interdisciplinary field of science by the combination of biochemistry, analytical chemistry, bioinformatics, medicine, and so on. It enables a high degree of biological system information and is highly promising to develop new diagnostic tests and therapies, including personalized medicine. Though analytical and computer systems are powerfully integrated, many metabolic and analytical challenges remain. Metabolomics, in combination with other technologies, enables us to solve key agricultural performance issues, which have been unresolved to date. It also becomes a valuable instrument for monitoring and evaluating the gene function and for the broad characterization of postgenomic processes. Many efforts can be concentrated on crop plants with detailed performance information in various environments. In addition to various networking approaches, this chapter details the role of metabolomics in improving different agricultural crops, including GMO varieties. The role of plant bioactive substances in soil microbial communities is also elaborated in the final section.

Nanotechnology incorporated in agriculture can pave the way to modernized agricultural practices promoted by the advances made in the crop protection research, particularly in the plant disease management. In current era, crop protection research has been focusing more so on the approaches to use of nanomaterials to empower the utilization of herbicides and to the development of novel antimicrobials for the management of pathogenic microbes affecting agricultural crops. Nanoactive herbicides are the futuristic approaches for contending the complications of conventional herbicides. The nanoactive herbicides consist of metallic and polymeric nanoparticles and its formulation executes action via regulated mechanism. Nanomaterials may also be as effective as chemical pesticides on pathogens and involve in the activation of defense mechanisms by altering the nutritional status of the host. The advantages of nanotechnology applications in weed control and plant disease management would boost potency, accelerate uptake by the plant, increase solubility, and diminish the amount of product used and toxicity of herbicide or pesticides treatments. In this chapter, we have highlighted the current developments in plant disease management using nanoparticles for insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides that can revolutionize in the area of plant disease management without substantial environmental harm.

With the advancement of nanotechnology, the application of carbon-based nanomaterials (NMs) is increasing due to their specific features. In agricultural crops, it desirable to have a comprehensive idea of their interaction and response. Studies have shown that the entrance of carbon-based NMs leads to changes in crop growth, physiological functions, and production. Their exposure has also influenced the production of metabolites, gene, and protein expression. It has been noticed that an appropriate size of carbon-based NMs and accurate concentration increased the crop yield. However, if these particles are taken up by root system and move up to the edible parts of crops, certainly they will get in the food chain and thus cause a risk to animal and human health. In addition, they may accumulate/enter the cellular organelles, interact with DNA, RNA, proteins, or other biomolecules and perhaps affects the functions of cell organelles. Thus, their adverse impact on these issues must be evaluated before recommending its extensive application in agricultural sectors. This chapter focuses the recent understanding in the applications and interactions of carbon-based NMs with some important agricultural crops. Their cellular uptake, translocation, accumulation in crops, underlying mechanisms of beneficial effects, as well as toxicity are discussed. Moreover, some important points are suggested, which should be considered for further investigation.

As natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems are major sources of the potent greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N$_{2}$O) and of the atmospheric pollutant nitric oxide (NO), predicting the source strengths of these ecosystems is central to understanding and sustainably managing the N-oxides fluxes. Here we reviewed 82 high temporal resolution datasets on N$_{2}$O and 57 on NO fluxes collected from multi-site and multi-year field measurements, including grasslands, forests, and agricultural crops, to assess whether soil N intensity, that is, the time-weighted sum of soil NH$_{4}$$^{+}$ and/or NO$_{3}$$^{-}$ concentrations, can be used to estimate annual N-oxides emissions. We show that soil N intensity alone can accurately predict annual N$_{2}$O and NO emissions, and that the N$_{2}$O emission strength is exponentially related to the soil inorganic N load. Thus, measuring soil inorganic N loads should improve current estimates of N-oxide emissions from global terrestrial ecosystems, and open possibilities for monitoring N$_{2}$O mitigation efforts.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi that contaminate foodstuff (e.g., maize, rice, peanuts, sorghum, and other food) and feed crops in the field and in grain during transportation and/or storage. The manifestation of mycotoxins occurs directly from contaminated plant-based food components and by the proliferation of toxigenic fungi with subsequent increase of mycotoxin in food. The consumption of mycotoxins-contaminated food or feed can cause chronic mycotoxicosis and in some instance acute toxicity in human and animals. Moreover, the ingestion of contaminated animal-derived food products (e.g., milk, meat, and eggs) can pose a problem to human health. Plants contain abundant bioactive phytochemicals that provide protection from cellular oxidative stress and increased antibacterial and antifungal activity. These phytochemicals are a reservoir of electrons to reduce metal precursors to their corresponding nanomaterials. Through Green Nanotechnology, eco-friendly solutions for controlling the manifestation of toxigenic fungi are possible. It is paramount to develop modalities that can alleviate toxigenic fungi within the agricultural crops that will limit mycotoxin production. This chapter discusses the use of the synergistic antifungal armamentarium activity of phytochemical-based nanofungicides. We further elaborated on challenges of phytofungicides that hinder translation into agricultural practices. The different formulations of metallic, polymeric, and hybrid nanofungicides are explored against fungi and allude to the development of next-generation bactericidal and fungicidal agents against toxigenic fungi.

The damage caused by agricultural pests is one that is devastating. On a global scale, the losses caused by pests in arable crops account for about 10%–15% of the total yield value. This chapter captures in detail the various types of agricultural pests of economic importance, the various pest control measures including the integrated pest management approach, and a comprehensive detail on pest biological control measures. It also details the biological protection of crops using microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and filamentous fungi, and the use of macroorganisms such as nematodes, predatory diptera, predatory ladybird, and so on.

The term “RNA silencing” refers to the processes that depend on small RNAs (approx. 18–24 nt) to regulate the mRNA expression in eukaryotes. In plants, small RNA regulation plays crucial roles in development, in responses to biotic or abiotic stress, in regulating metabolic pathways, in maintaining genome integrity, and in defense response mechanisms. In the last few years, small RNA manipulation has been used as a research tool to identify and validate gene expression, and studies now extensively focus on applying this technology in commercial applications, especially in medical therapeutics and flower color in ornamental plants. This chapter covers current progress on the application of RNA silencing to produce plants resistant to plant viruses, insects, and fungal pathogens, and also in applying these technologies toward the improvement of agricultural crops and medicinal plants. This chapter will also discuss the challenges, limitations, and biologic safety concerns related to small RNA manipulation in crops.

Lignocellulose is a major component of agricultural waste. It is abundantly available, and lack of proper utilization has led to wastage and disposal in the environment, leading to air, water, and land pollution. If this component can be utilized in a proper manner, it will prove to be the cheapest raw material for the production of clean energy. Therefore this review targets on the possible clean energy products that could be made from lignocellulose and its impact on the environment. This will ultimately help to meet the increasing demands for energy requirements and, in the long run, keeps the environment clean and sustainable for future generations.

Soil microorganisms are key players in determining the plant growth and crop productivity worldwide. Among different microorganisms, members of the genus Streptomyces are one of the major microorganisms which are either responsible for plant diseases suppression and growth regulation. In some cases, they are also reported for plant diseases. The plant beneficial roles involve the production of chitinases, glucanases, peroxidases, and other enzymes which can targets the plant pathogens. Moreover, the secretion of secondary bioactive metabolites such as siderophores, antibiotics and plant growth regulators, affects the plant development and immune responses, in which ultimately can alleviates the stress responses against biotic as well abiotic conditions. Moreover, Streptomyces spp. are found to significantly enhance the intensity of mycorrhizal root colonization in agricultural crops whereas root colonization by Streptomyces in legume crops, promote root nodulation frequency. Streptomyces spp. also help in minerals acquisition by the plants through organic acid production, phosphate solubilization, iron chelation, nitrogen fixation, and the elevation of mycorrhizal association with plants. The present book chapter highlights the different aspects of Streptomyces and their role the crop productivity and protection against environmental stresses.

Bioresources are the naturally occurring materials which are sustainably renewable and biodegradable. A variety of bioresources are present on the planet earth, which mainly includes agricultural crops, waste from agriculture, forest and various industries, marine resources like fishes and aquatic crustaceans, weeds, grasses, etc. All these bioresources are of huge significance and can be used as raw material or feedstocks for the production of a wide range of valuable products that are economically and industrially important. The bioresources are considered as one of the centers of bioeconomy. On the one hand, these are responsible for the generation of employment and sufficient income to individuals and industries that collectively contribute to the economy of the nation. However, on the other hand, overexploitation of bioresources can generate adverse impacts on the environment and can destroy the environment. Similarly, improper utilization of these bioresources can have adverse social and economic effects. The main aim of the present chapter is to discuss the type, composition, and properties of various bioresources and their applications in the production of a wide range of high-value products. Moreover, different environmental, social, and economic impacts due to the utilization of bioresources are also discussed.

Technologies are indispensable in our lives; one of the branches of the use of technologies is in agriculture. Today, sustainable and environmentally friendly technologies are necessary. In this task, the use of microorganisms is carried out which helps to provide a benefit to plant crops; in addition, there are biofertilizers, biostimulants, and biopesticides. Over the years, the consequences of the misuse of some chemicals and their bioaccumulation in the environment have been evidenced, affecting indispensable processes. For this reason, it is important to know the processes in the nature of microbial and takes advantage of its resources that are low impact and no toxic for the care of agricultural crops. This type of strategy has led new sciences to seek studies that provide this indispensable knowledge for the development of humanity taking care of its environment. We searched for information about science that seeks sustainable methods in agricultural crops, as well as several examples of the organisms used in these methods and the commercial form of how these available technologies can be found.

International and national organizations responsible for healthy food production and food consumers have too often neglected farmers, who are the producers in this cycle and are directly involved in environmental issues, integrating resources with their skills and producing agricultural crops to offer to civil society. Moreover, the health of farmers has also been neglected, when attending to their health would likely ensure a healthy environment and safe foods. Thus, the Farmer First Health Paradigm is seeking to address the fact that if international community expects a healthy environment and safe foods for future generations, then basic principles for producing healthy food in different countries should be considered and applied in their strategic plans. These principles are presented and discussed in this paper. Keywords: Food safety, Agricultural productions, Farmer health

The Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) cryptic species complex comprises important insect pests that cause devastating damage to agricultural crops worldwide. In China, the B. tabaci Mediterranean (MED) (or biotype Q) species is threatening agricultural production all over the country as resistance to commonly used insecticides has increased. This situation highlights the need for alternative pest control measures. Cyantraniliprole, a novel anthranilic diamide insecticide, has been widely employed to control Hemipteran pests. To monitor the levels of resistance to cyantraniliprole in B. tabaci field populations in China, bioassays were conducted for 18 field samples from nine provinces over two years. Compared with median lethal concentration (LC50) for the MED susceptible strain, all field samples had significantly higher resistance to cyantraniliprole. Furthermore, resistance factors (RFs) increased significantly in samples from Shanxi (from 5.62 in 2015 to 25.81 in 2016), Hunan (3.30 in 2015 to 20.97 in 2016) and Hubei (from 9.81 in 2015 to 23.91 in 2016) provinces. This study indicates a considerable decrease in the efficacy of cyantraniliprole against B. tabaci and establishes a baseline of susceptibility that could serve as a reference for future monitoring and management of B. tabaci resistance to cyantraniliprole.

Plant virus disease is one of the major causes of biological disasters in agriculture worldwide. Given the complexity of transmission media and plant disease infection mechanisms, the prevention and control of plant viral diseases is a great challenge, and an efficient green pesticide is urgently needed. For this reason, when developing candidate drug leads to regulate plant viruses, pesticide experts have focused on characteristics such as low pesticide resistance, eco-friendliness, and novel mechanism. Researchers have also theoretically investigated the molecular targets of viruses infecting agricultural crops. Antiviral screening models have been constructed based on these molecular targets, and the mechanisms of commercial drugs and high-activity compounds have been extensively investigated. After screening, some compounds have been applied in the field and found to have good commercial prospects; these drugs may be used to create new green antiviral pesticides to control plant viruses. This paper reviews the screening, mode of action, development and application of recently used plant-based antiviral agents.

Plant pathogens cause severe loss in terms of economics and production in agriculture sector. So, the crucial step toward disease management under natural field conditions is to appropriately detect the pathogen. Proper nursing of agricultural crops and early detection of disease incidence is crucial for maintaining sustainability. Though there are several reports that center around the detection and diagnosis of fungal and viral pathogens, little information is accessible on the subject of bacterial plant pathogen diagnosis. Hence, this book chapter especially focuses on the evolution from traditional microbiological tools to modern molecular methods for identifying bacterial plant pathogens. Apart from this, the chapter also highlights the futuristic nanodiagnostic approaches for on-site detection of bacterial pathogen. The implementation of these new high-throughput diagnostic technologies, based on the amalgamation of novel molecular techniques along with nanosciences, could be used to overcome age old issues related to pathogen diagnosis.

Plant–microbe interaction is the major driving force regulating the performance of an ecosystem by various mechanisms like solubilization of limiting nutrients, production of antibiotics, quorum sensing, phytohormones production, etc. In this context, plant growth-promoting microbes (PGPMs) have been widely used in agricultural crops as a potential replacement for toxic chemical fertilizers for the enhancement of growth and yield. However, less attention has been given to the microbial diversity, various functional attributes, and application of microbes to medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs). In addition to the augmented growth attributes, better nutrient absorption, restrainment of pathogens, and revamped stress tolerance capacity of plants, recent reports suggest an increment in the bioactive secondary metabolite content of MAPs by the application of beneficial rhizospheric microbes. Also, the focus at present is shifting due to the recognition that a considerable number of compounds of phytotherapeutic importance are actually produced by microbes either associated or having interaction with their host. In this chapter, therefore, we review current date progress in PGPMs research on MAPs and examine the potential viewpoint on the treatment of MAPs with “tiny revolutionizers” for the enhancement of bioactive secondary metabolites.

The contemporary fictional descriptions of harsh landscape and human consequences from the coal dust of surface mining in south Wales by A.J. Cronin in 1937 may have been more benign than the reality of dealing with more dust from extant results of other terrestrial ecosystem modifications in the 1930s. The Midwestern US top-soil losses and dust clouds over ~400,000 km 2 of Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, and Nebraska during 1935–40, which at times expanded 2500–2600 km to Washington, D.C., and New York City as downstream dust storms in May 1934 and March 1935, were not really a natural catastrophe but the result of prior land mismanagement— miles to water, miles to wood, and only 6 inches to hell . In an unwise attempt to convert a steady-state evolved climax community of prior arid-adapted plants to agricultural crops, US farmers had imprudently deep-plowed native soils. They then no longer trapped deep-rooted moisture, preserving short buffalo grasses Buchloe dactyloides , which used to be dominant members of those drought-resistant plant communities of the Western prairies.

The changing environmental conditions, especially global warming and climate variability, are major concerns and have an adverse impact over the future of agriculture. The changing climate has become a global issue which needs rapid policy development at national and international levels. The melting of massive Himalayan glaciers would considerably change the impact of temperature regimes which is necessary for blossoming of several crop plants. Thus, the current generation needs to find solutions to combat the negative impacts of environmental consequences on agricultural crops. Useful strategies include the conservation of the world’s huge biodiversity together with other natural resources. Modifications in currently used agricultural practices and the search for new plant species tolerant to different abiotic and biotic environmental stresses could help to mitigate the negative impact of climate change.

The success of nanoencapsulation in pharmaceutical sciences has led it to emerge as a multidisciplinary research field which is also being explored in other fields, including agriculture, for improved efficiency and sustainability. Generally, > 90% of agrochemicals run off during the process of application that results in economic loss and serious environmental hazards. Nanoencapsulation of fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, and herbicides ensures controlled release and targeted delivery of these agrochemicals required for efficient nutrient uptake, disease control, and enhanced growth of various plants and agricultural crops. This chapter will provide an insight into the preparation of nanoencapsulated agrochemicals. The application of various nano-delivery systems loaded with agrochemicals in agricultural practices will also be discussed.

Phenylpropanoids have an important role in plant adaptation in different environmental conditions. Abiotic stresses usually increase the phenylpropanoids pathway with increase of phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and lignin. These compounds can protect plants against diseases or pests. The chemical structures of phenylpropanoids can reduce the reactive oxygen species by reducing the free radicals. Therefore, the activation of phenylpropanoid genes contemporary occurs with stress sensing in plants. Understanding the regulation of phenylpropanoids pathway can be exploited in agricultural crops and expand the cultivation even where stressful conditions represent a limiting factor. High-light conditions, low temperatures, drought, salinity, and senescence are stressful conditions that positively activate the phenylpropanoids genes. Recently, microRNAs have been demonstrated to regulate the phenylpropanoids and the synthetic miRNAs can be exploited for regulating the expression of phenylpropanoid genes. The enhancement of plant tolerance against the abiotic stresses can be obtained through the genetic improvement of plants with higher ability to accumulate phenylpropanoids.

Biomass is the collective term used to identify organic matter generated either in the form of waste such as solid municipal waste or from living plants such as trees, grass, and agricultural crops and residues. The composition of these organic matters will affect how they are handled and processed. For appropriate handling, the composition of these wastes has to be characterized by means of available tools such as thermogravimetric analysis, ultimate analysis, proximate analysis, and stoichiometric calculations.

Weeds are among the most important pests of agricultural crops that not only decrease the crop yields but also severely damage the quality of produce. Herbicides are usually effective in suppressing weeds occasionally supplemented with other weed control methods. During recent times, a number of factors have increased the importance of non-chemical weed control methods. Some of these are environmental concerns arising by overuse of pesticides, rising demands for organic food, and an evolution of herbicide resistance in weeds. This chapter discusses «why non-chemical weed control is needed?» and also provides an overview of currently available non-chemical weed control techniques. © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Toxigenic fungi can colonize crops and may accumulate bioactive substances in the infected products. These compounds, called mycotoxins, occur widely in nature and pose a great risk to human and animal health. The most relevant toxigenic fungal species belong to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria and Fusarium. Mycotoxins are produced naturally in many agricultural crops. They can accumulate in food commodities in the field, after harvest, and during storage. Most of the important mycotoxins are resistant to most forms of food and feed processing. Several efforts are made to reduce mycotoxins in raw materials and processed food, both in pre-harvest stages inhibiting production of the toxins in the field, and in post-harvest by remediation strategies, reducing mycotoxin concentration in commodities. Fil: Patriarca, Andrea Rosana. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Micología y Botánica. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Micología y Botánica; Argentina Fil: Fernández Pinto, Virginia. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Oficina de Coordinación Administrativa Ciudad Universitaria. Instituto de Micología y Botánica. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Instituto de Micología y Botánica; Argentina

The competitiveness of a large number of Colombian agricultural crops and livestock products is evaluated by Track 1 methodologies, through trade-based and cost-price formulas for competitiveness. The cost-price analyses are carried out by the department to incorporate the spatial dimension of competitiveness. To illustrate the richness of competitiveness analysis the results are discussed and qualified, they are applied to scenarios for Colombian agricultural growth prospects, and Colombian agricultural policies are reviewed in light of the competitiveness analysis. The competitiveness of high-value crops is contrasted with that of basic grains. Quality and marketing constraints are reviewed for a number of products. To illustrate the role of competitiveness analysis for policy formulation, the policy areas discussed include export and pricing policies, agricultural fiscal policy, land tenure policy, agricultural research policy, and the incidence of policy by farm size group.

Raw materials used for production of nanocellulose are presented in this chapter. These include wood, agricultural crops and by-products, bacterial cellulose, animal cellulose, algae, and tunicates.

Worldwide, over 100 million tonnes of nitrogen (N) fertilizer is applied each year to maximize yields of agricultural crops and this is a major cost for farmers. Inefficient use of N fertilizer, as well as being an economic cost, leads to substantial environmental problems. Consequently, there is urgent need to improve the way N fertilizer is used in farming systems. The efficiency in which crops use applied N fertilizer, the nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), is currently poor for cereals. Multiple studies have attempted to identify the genetic basis of NUE but the utility of the results is limited because of the complex nature of the trait and the magnitude of genotype by environment interaction. Transgenic approaches have been applied to improve plant NUE but with limited success, perhaps due to combination of the complexity of the trait but also due to lack of accurate phenotyping methods. This chapter documents these two approaches and suggests future directions in improving NUE in crops.

Highlights • The challenges encountered in automating nematode motility. • Developments in machine vision, statistical imaging and tracking approaches. • The need for automated screening in the search for new anthelmintic drugs. • A possible roadmap for the development of automated phenotypic screening is suggested., The scale of the damage worldwide to human health, animal health and agricultural crops resulting from parasitic nematodes, together with the paucity of treatments and the threat of developing resistance to the limited set of widely-deployed chemical tools, underlines the urgent need to develop novel drugs and chemicals to control nematode parasites. Robust chemical screens which can be automated are a key part of that discovery process. Hitherto, the successful automation of nematode behaviours has been a bottleneck in the chemical discovery process. As the measurement of nematode motility can provide a direct scalar readout of the activity of the neuromuscular system and an indirect measure of the health of the animal, this omission is acute. Motility offers a useful assay for high-throughput, phenotypic drug/chemical screening and several recent developments have helped realise, at least in part, the potential of nematode-based drug screening. Here we review the challenges encountered in automating nematode motility and some important developments in the application of machine vision, statistical imaging and tracking approaches which enable the automated characterisation of nematode movement. Such developments facilitate automated screening for new drugs and chemicals aimed at controlling human and animal nematode parasites (anthelmintics) and plant nematode parasites (nematicides).

Microalgae, or microphytes, refer to a subgroup of algae with microscopic size and high photosynthetic efficiency. In recent years, the exploitation of microalgae as a source of alternative energy has attracted worldwide attention. Properties like rapid growth rates, high biomass accumulation, and great oil productivity, in combination with CO2 capture and recycling capacities, make microalgae the most promising cell factory for biofuel production with significant potential to beat the traditional sources such as agricultural crops. This chapter aims to give a mini review of the recent advances in microalgal oil biosynthesis and downstream technology. Obstacles and future research trends are also discussed.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was born in the late 1950s out of a crisis in agriculture resulting from an overuse of synthetic pesticides. Core concepts of IPM are grounded in the principles of ecology. IPM is practiced to some degree in all agricultural crops, but synthetic pesticides remain a dominant tactic in managing pests. Perennial crops represent unique challenges and opportunities for IPM and they represent a good model for examining its principles and implementation. This article provides a historical perspective of IPM in Washington apple production and discusses continuing challenges, barriers to implementation, and current efforts to address these issues.

Biological control occurs when the abundance of an insect pest is suppressed by the action of a living natural enemy. Natural biological control occurs in the absence of human intervention, whereas importation, conservation, and augmentative biological control are the three approaches taken to enhance the activity of natural enemies in agricultural crops. The concepts behind each of these aspects of biological control are discussed and examples are provided to illustrate their use in the management of insect pests.

Soil fumigation is used to rid the soil of diseases and pests before planting. Soil fumigation is globally employed wherever high-value agricultural crops are subjected to repeated monocultures. The chemical compounds used in soil fumigation have low boiling points, high vapor pressures, relatively high Henry's Law constants (a measure of their partition potential between air and water phases), and are toxic to a broad spectrum of biological organisms. Chemical fumigants have been subjected to intense public scrutiny and regulatory restrictions due to their impacts on human health and the environment. Recently, a set of good agricultural practices have been developed for soil fumigation to mitigate worker and bystander exposure to harmful concentrations of chemical fumigants and to alleviate their environmental disruption following application to the soil.

Animal pests are responsible for millions of pounds of damage to agricultural crops every year, although only a relatively small number of species in the animal kingdom are responsible. This chapter describes the structure of some common pests, identification characteristics, life-cycles and the type of damage that they can cause. There is a discussion on the various methods used to control pests as well as issues with pesticide resistance. Finally, there is a summary of the main pests found in UK crops, their symptoms and methods of control.

This chapter discusses several key points on the detection of genetically modified (GM) crops. Since the introduction of GM crops, the market volume has increased considerably and in parallel so have the regulations concerning the use of these crops as food or feed. Regulating novel crops requires monitoring of exports and imports of GM crops. The reliability of detection assays is heavily influenced by sampling errors, extent of feed/food processing, matrix effects and associated DNA/protein extraction protocols. In the future, novel and stacked GM traits are expected to replace or complement those that have already been introduced into agricultural crops. Consequently, methodologies and legislative approaches will have to continue to evolve to ensure the continued integrity and safety of the feed and food system.

Throughout human history, crops have been used for various purposes such as for making food, fuel and industrial products. Agricultural crops such as rice, wheat, beans, and others have been supplying food to humanity, which is considered as most significant contribution of crops. People have been using agricultural fibers for other applications such as producing materials and bioproducts for many years. In the past two decades, there have been rapid developments in composite materials and these developments have influenced the usage of the agricultural fibers in the polymeric materials in the form of composites. The use of agricultural fibers in polymeric matrices creates new biobased products for various applications such as in automotive, construction, packaging, and consumer products. These are manufactured from renewable resources and some of these bioproducts are compostable under certain specific conditions. The recent developments in biotechnology helped to create new biopolymers from agricultural feedstocks such as corn, wheat, and soybeans. The new application from crops is the production of biopolymers in the transgenic plants with the advancement of genetic engineering. The advancement in the nanotechnology also helps to process better composite materials from agricultural fibers.

Antifungal proteins are produced by a variety of organisms including plants, fungi, vertebrates, and invertebrates. They are used to protect these organisms from attack by pathogenic fungi. They are a subject of intense investigations because fungal invasion of agricultural crops and farm animals can increase enormous economic losses. Various plant tissues including seeds produce antifungal proteins. There is a diversity of plant antifungal proteins including chitinases, chitin-binding proteins, cyclophilin-like proteins, defensins, lipid transfer proteins, miraculin-like proteins, nucleases, thaumatin-like proteins, etc. These different types of antifungal proteins differ from one another in amino acid sequence although they all exhibit antifungal activity. The aforementioned antifungal proteins are produced by leguminous as well as by nonleguminous plants.

Publisher Summary Pathogenic microorganisms have shown the ability to infect humans, animals, or plants with devastating consequences; however, microbes can and have been spread deliberately by human activities either as biological warfare agents or more recently via bioterrorism. This chapter discusses the most likely microbial threats to humans and agriculture and the current approaches for detecting agents of concern. Among the numerous pathogenic agents, only a few are considered potentially serious that could be used as weapons and have been grouped into three different categories: A, B, and C. Category A includes the most dangerous and useful agents such as Bacillus anthracis. Category B includes potentially less dangerous and useful agents such as Brucella and other pathogens. Category C agents include emerging pathogens that may be potential future threats. Potable water can also be contaminated via terrorist activities through the deliberate injection of microbes into a utility distribution system. The spores of fungal pathogens could be sprayed into the air via small planes causing damage to specific agricultural crops such as soybean rust or wheat stem rust. Fomites can also play a significant role in the dissemination of bioterrorist agents such as Bacillus anthracis.

Publisher Summary Aflatoxins are found in fruits of tropical and subtropical regions, where typical environmental conditions support growth of aflatoxigenic aspergilli, and mycotoxin production. Aspergillus species are widespread in nature. They are regarded as soil fungi, frequently colonizing plant debris and decaying agricultural crops, and are among the commonest airborne fungi. They occur with high frequency as saprophytes on a wide range of substrates, including foods and feeds, and several species are among the typical pathogens of harvested fruits and vegetables. During their life cycle, several Aspergillus species are capable of producing a wide range of mycotoxins harmful to humans and animals that consume them. The major mycotoxins associated with Aspergillus species in fruits and vegetables are aflatoxins produced mainly by aflatoxigenic strains of A. flavus and A. parasiticus in figs and dates and ochratoxin A (OTA) produced by A. carbonarius and other ochratoxigenic aspergilli in grapes, dried vine fruits and wines. Some of the mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus species during their developmental stages in fruits and vegetables are among the most important carcinogenic mycotoxins; they include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA) and sterigmatocystin.