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An increasing number of studies has focused on the after-effects of acute aerobic exercise on executive function. To date, empirical evidence lacks consensus regarding whether acute aerobic exercise has beneficial effects on executive function. To identify possible sources of this discrepancy, the present study focused on executive function demands and pre-test cognitive performance, and performed the first meta-analysis of individual participant data (IPD meta-analysis) in this area of research. Results indicated that the beneficial after-effects of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive performance were greater in participants with lower cognitive performance at pre-test. Acute aerobic exercise offered general benefits to cognitive performance irrespective of executive function demands, when pre-test cognitive performance was appropriately controlled. Thus, the present IPD meta-analysis suggests that pre-test cognitive performance is one possible source of the conflicting findings in acute exercise studies. Future research is encouraged to consider pre-test cognitive performance to avoid underestimating the beneficial after-effects of acute exercise.

Background The use of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) to study anatomical and physiological dynamics and circuits supporting cognition and executive functions in particular has dramatically increased in recent years. However, its mechanisms of action remain only partially understood. Objective In this study we assess the cognitive and physiological effects of anodal tDCS to the DLPFC on executive function in order to understand (1) the role of DLPFC laterality, (2) the physiological dynamics sustaining the modulation of executive function by tDCS, and (3) the impact of state-dependent dynamics. Methods In a randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study, we applied anodal tDCS targeting the left vs. right DLPFC vs. sham in 20 healthy individuals (10 males, 10 females). Immediately before and after tDCS, subjects performed the Flanker Task while we measured behavioral (reaction time and accuracy) and neurophysiological (ERP) responses. Specifically, the amplitude of N200, P300, ERN and Pe is compared before and after stimulation. Results Anodal tDCS to the left DLPFC lead to a significant improvement in reaction time, an increase in P300 amplitude and a decrease in N200 amplitude in a state-dependent manner: baseline ERP amplitudes conditioned the effects of tDCS. Conclusion Given the role of these ERPs in conflict-related tasks, we speculate that tDCS is modulating the subconstructs of selective attention, conflict monitoring and response inhibition. These findings contribute to a further understanding of the role of left DLPFC in the modulation of executive function, and shed light into the mechanisms of action and the state dependent nature of tDCS.

Networks in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) that are important for executive function are also engaged in adaptive responding to negative events. These networks are particularly vulnerable to age-related structural atrophy and an associated loss of executive function, yet existing evidence suggests preserved emotion processing ability in aging. Using longitudinally acquired data from a battery of cognitive tasks, we defined a metric for the rate of decline of executive function. With this metric, we investigated relationships between changes in executive function and emotion reappraisal ability and brain structure, in older adults using functional and structural MRI. During task-based fMRI, participants were asked to cognitively reappraise negatively valenced images. We hypothesised one of two associations with decreasing executive function over time: 1) a decreased ability to reappraise reflected in decreased PFC and increased amygdala activation, or 2) a neural compensation mechanism characterised by increased PFC activation but no differential amygdala activation. Structurally, for a decreased reappraisal ability, we predicted a decrease in grey matter in PFC and/or a decrease of white matter integrity in amygdala-PFC pathways. Neither of the two hypotheses relating to brain function were completely supported, with the findings indicating a steeper decline in executive function associated with both increased PFC and increased left amygdala activity when reappraising negative stimuli. In addition, white matter integrity of the uncinate fasciculus, a primary white matter tract connecting the amygdala and ventromedial areas of PFC, was lower in those individuals who demonstrated a greater decrease in executive function. These findings highlight that when cognitive ability diminishes, active top-down emotional control is compromised.

The study aim was to characterize executive function in 114 children with Down syndrome from a reference institution in Bogotá, Colombia. Children were screened with the Battelle Developmental Inventory to establish their developmental age. Eighty children with an equivalent mental age of 2–5.11 years were allocated to groups of 20 according to their mental age. Parents and teachers then completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version. We found a high variability and a low correlation between parent and teacher ratings. In general, children showed a specific profile characterized by weakness in the domains of working memory, shifting, planning, and organization, and strengths in the emotional control domain. These findings indicate a characteristic pattern of executive function in children with Down syndrome. This profile could form the basis for the planning of clinical assessment programs., Executive function; Down syndrome; Children; BRIEF-P; Battelle behavioral phenotype; Behavioral neuroscience; Cognition; Emotion; Behavioral medicine; Pediatrics.

Background: Hoarding behavior may distinguish a clinically and possibly etiologically distinct subtype of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Little is known about the relationship between executive dysfunction and hoarding in individuals with OCD. Methods: The study sample included 431 adults diagnosed with DSM-IV OCD. Participants were assessed by clinicians for Axis I disorders, personality disorders, indecision, and hoarding. Executive functioning domains were evaluated using a self-report instrument, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version (BRIEF-A). We compared scores on these domains in the 143 hoarding and 288 non-hoarding participants, separately in men and women. We used logistic regression to evaluate relationships between executive function scores and hoarding, and correlation and linear regression analyses to evaluate relationships between executive function scores and hoarding severity, in women. Results: In men, the hoarding group had a significantly higher mean score than the non-hoarding group only on the shift dimension. In contrast, in women, the hoarding group had higher mean scores on the shift scale and all metacognition dimensions, i.e., those that assess the ability to systematically solve problems via planning and organization. The relationships in women between hoarding and scores on initiating tasks, planning/organizing, organization of materials, and the metacognition index were independent of other clinical features. Furthermore, the severity of hoarding in women correlated most strongly with metacognition dimensions. Conclusions: Self-reported deficits in planning and organization are associated with the occurrence and severity of hoarding in women, but not men, with OCD. This may have implications for elucidating the etiology of, and developing effective treatments for, hoarding in OCD. Keywords: Obsessive-compulsive disorder, OCD, Hoarding, Executive function

Highlights • Functional random forest identified transdiagnostic ASD and ADHD subtypes. • Subtypes are directly tied to ADHD symptoms, relevant to ASD and ADHD. • Neurocognitive subtypes do not map one to one with functional connectivity trends. • There may be multiple mechanistic “pathways” to observed phenotypes., Background Those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit symptoms of hyperactivity and inattention, causing significant hardships for families and society. A potential mechanism involved in these conditions is atypical executive function (EF). Inconsistent findings highlight that EF features may be shared or distinct across ADHD and ASD. With ADHD and ASD each also being heterogeneous, we hypothesized that there may be nested subgroups across disorders with shared or unique underlying mechanisms. Methods Participants (N = 130) included adolescents aged 7–16 with ASD (n = 64) and ADHD (n = 66). Typically developing (TD) participants (n = 28) were included for a comparative secondary sub-group analysis. Parents completed the K-SADS and youth completed an extended battery of executive and other cognitive measures. A two stage hybrid machine learning tool called functional random forest (FRF) was applied as a classification approach and then subsequently to subgroup identification. We input 43 EF variables to the classification step, a supervised random forest procedure in which the features estimated either hyperactive or inattentive ADHD symptoms per model. The FRF then produced proximity matrices and identified optimal subgroups via the infomap algorithm (a type of community detection derived from graph theory). Resting state functional connectivity MRI (rs-fMRI) was used to evaluate the neurobiological validity of the resulting subgroups. Results Both hyperactive (Mean absolute error (MAE) = 0.72, Null model MAE = 0.8826, (t(58) = −4.9, p

Executive function (EF) refers as to a set of high-level cognitive abilities that are critical to many aspects of daily life. Despite its importance in human daily life, the neural networks responsible for the development of EF in childhood are not well understood. The present study thus aimed to examine the development of task-dependent brain network organization and its relationship to age-related improvements in EF. To address this issue, we recruited eighty-eight Chinese children ranging in age from 7 to 12 years old, and collected their functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data when they performed an EF task. By utilizing graph theory, we found that the task-dependent brain network modules became increasingly segregated with age. Specifically, the intra-module connections within the default-mode network (DMN), frontal-parietal network (FPN) and sensorimotor network (SMN) increased significantly with age. In contrast, the inter-module connections of the visual network to both the FPN/SMN decreased significantly with age. Most importantly, modular segregation of the FPN significantly mediated the relationship between age and EF performance. These findings add to our growing understanding of how development changes in task-dependent brain network organization support vast behavioral improvements in EF observed during childhood.

Children in low- and middle-income countries are at high risk of cognitive deficits due to environmental deprivation that compromises brain development. Despite the high prevalence of unrealized cognitive potential, very little is known about neural correlates of cognition in this population. We assessed resting EEG power and cognitive ability in 105 highly disadvantaged 48-month-old children in rural Pakistan. An increase in EEG power in gamma frequency bands (21–30 Hz and 31–45 Hz) was associated with better executive function. For girls, EEG gamma power also related to higher verbal IQ. This study identifies EEG gamma power as a neural marker of cognitive function in disadvantaged children in low- and middle-income countries. Elevated gamma power may be a particularly important protective factor for girls, who may experience greater deprivation due to gender inequality. Keywords: EEG, Low- and middle-income countries, Poverty, Executive function, Cognitive development, Sex differences

Socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with executive function (EF) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) development. However, understanding of the specific aspects of SES that influence development of EF and the PFC remains limited. We briefly review existing literature on proposed mechanisms linking SES with EF. Then, we present a novel conceptual model arguing that early cognitive stimulation shapes EF and PFC development. We propose that cognitive stimulation drives lower-level sensory and perceptual processes that may impact EF and PFC development through reciprocal connections between the ventral visual stream and PFC. We argue that caregivers guide attention and associative learning, which provides children the opportunity to regulate attention and gain semantic knowledge. This experience in turn allows for opportunities to train the PFC to resolve conflict between stimuli with overlapping features and engage in increasingly complex computations as visual processing systems develop; this may lay the groundwork for development of EF. We review existing evidence for this model and end by highlighting how this conceptual model could launch future research questions. Keywords: Cognitive stimulation, Ventral temporal cortex, Cognitive development, Caregiver interactions, Language exposure

Highlights • Advances in neuroimaging have facilitated the study of EF development early in life. • Recent research continues to identify the pivotal role of the PFC in EF. • Important changes occur in the prefrontal cortex across development. • The importance of brain connectivity for EF is becoming increasingly clear. • Functional brain specialisation for EF continues to develop into adolescence., In the last decade, advances in neuroimaging technologies have given rise to a large number of research studies that investigate the neural underpinnings of executive function (EF). EF has long been associated with the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and involves both a unified, general element, as well as the distinct, separable elements of working memory, inhibitory control and set shifting. We will highlight the value of utilising advances in neuroimaging techniques to uncover answers to some of the most pressing questions in the field of early EF development. First, this review will explore the development and neural substrates of each element of EF. Second, the structural, anatomical and biochemical changes that occur in the PFC during infancy and throughout childhood will be examined, in order to address the importance of these changes for the development of EF. Third, the importance of connectivity between regions of the PFC and other brain areas in EF development is reviewed. Finally, throughout this review more recent developments in neuroimaging techniques will be addressed, alongside the implications for further elucidating the neural substrates of early EF development in the future.

Background: \ud Although executive function (EF) deficits are a recognised component of the cognitive phenotype of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), particularly in children without general intellectual delay, little is known about ecological measures of EF and their outcome correlates among individuals with ASD and co-occurring intellectual disability. This exploratory study examined every-day EF in the classroom among children and adolescents diagnosed with both ASD and intellectual disability (ASD-ID) and their correlations with social impairment anadaptive functioning.\ud \ud Method:\ud Teachers of 40 children and adolescents diagnosed with ASD-ID completed the\ud Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, and the Social Responsiveness Scale.\ud \ud Results:\ud A global executive dysfunction profile was found in ASD-ID, with most prominent deficits occurring in shifting. Results also showed that metacognitive executive processes predicted adaptive communication skills above and beyond IQ and social impairment in ASD-ID.\ud \ud Conclusions:\ud Our findings corroborate a specific metacognitive executive function-adaptive communication association in ASD. EF interventions might be important treatment targets for improving functioning, especially in the communicative domain, in ASD-ID.

Background There is evidence to suggest the existence of an executive dysfunction in people diagnosed with fibromyalgia, although there are certain inconsistencies between studies. Here, we aim to compare executive performance between patients with fibromyalgia and a control group by using subjective and objective cognitive tests, analyzing the influence of patient mood on the results obtained, and studying associations between the two measures. Method 82 patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia and 42 healthy controls, matched by age and years of education, were assessed using the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult Version (BRIEF-A) as a subjective measure of executive functioning. A selection of objective cognitive tests were also used to measure a series of executive functions and to identify symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results Patients with fibromyalgia perceived greater difficulties than the control group on all of the BRIEF-A scales. However, after adjustments were made for depression and anxiety the only differences that remained were those associated with the working memory scale and the Metacognition and Global Executive Composite index. In the case of the objective cognitive tests, a significantly worse overall performance was evidenced for the fibromyalgia patients. However, this also disappeared when adjustments were made for depression and anxiety. After this adjustment, fibromyalgia patients only performed significantly worse for the interference effect in the Stroop Test. Although there were no significant associations between most of the objective cognitive tests and the BRIEF-A scales, depression and anxiety exhibited strong associations with almost all of the BRIEF-A scales and with several of the objective cognitive tests. Conclusions Patients with fibromyalgia showed executive dysfunction in subjective and objective measures, although most of this impairment was associated with mood disturbances. Exceptions to this general rule were observed in the impairment of working memory evidenced on the BRIEF-A scale and the inhibition impairment exhibited by the interference effect from the Stroop Test. The two types of measurement provide different yet complementary information. We would like to thank the patients who accepted to participate in the study. We are also grateful to all colleagues of the fibromyalgia unit in GSS-Hospital Universitari de Santa Maria de Lleida (Spain).

Quality of life and social integration are strongly influenced by the ability to communicate and previous research has shown that pragmatic ability can be specifically impaired in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). In addition, TBI usually results in damage to the frontotemporal lobes with a consequent impairment of cognitive functions, i.e., attention, memory, executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). The role of the underlying cognitive deficits in determining the communicative-pragmatic difficulties of an individual with TBI is not yet completely clear. This study examined the relationship between the ability to understand and produce various kinds of communicative acts, (i.e., sincere, deceitful and ironic) and the above-mentioned cognitive and ToM abilities following TBI. Thirty-five individuals with TBI and thirty-five healthy controls were given tasks assessing their ability to comprehend and produce sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts belonging to the linguistic and extralinguistic scales of the Assessment Battery for Communication (ABaCo), together with a series of EF and ToM tasks. The results showed that, when compared to healthy individuals, participants with TBI performed poorly overall in the comprehension and production of all the pragmatic phenomena investigated, (i.e., sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts), and they also exhibited impaired performance at the level of all the cognitive functions examined. Individuals with TBI also showed a decreasing trend in performance in dealing with sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts, on both the comprehension and production subscales of the linguistic and extralinguistic scales. Furthermore, a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that — in patients with TBI but not in the controls — EF had a significant effect on the comprehension of linguistic and extralinguistic irony only, while the percentage of explained variance increased with the inclusion of theory of mind. Indeed, ToM had a significant role in determining patients’ performance in the extralinguistic production of sincere and deceitful communicative acts, linguistic and extralinguistic comprehension of deceit and the linguistic production of irony. However, with regard to the performance of patients with TBI in the various pragmatic tasks investigated, (i.e., sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts), EF was able to explain the pattern of patients’ scores in the linguistic and extralinguistic comprehension but not in production ability. Furthermore, ToM seemed not to be able to explain the decreasing trend in the performance of patients in managing the various kinds of communicative acts investigated.

a b s t r a c t Source memory involves recollecting the contextual details surrounding a memory episode. When source information is bound together, it makes a memory episodic in nature. Unfor- tunately, very little is known about the factors that contribute to its formation in early development. This study examined the development of source memory in middle child- hood. Measures of executive function were examined as potential sources of variation in fact and source recall. Continuous electroencephalogram (EEG) measures were collected during baseline and fact and source retrieval in order to examine memory-related changes in EEG power. Six and 8-year-old children were taught 10 novel facts from two different sources and recall for fact and source information was later tested. Older children were better on fact recall, but both ages were comparable on source recall. However, source recall performance was poor at both ages, suggesting that this ability continues to develop beyond middle childhood. Regression analyses revealed that executive function uniquely predicted variance in source recall performance. Task-related increases in theta power were observed at frontal, temporal and parietal electrode sites during fact and source retrieval. This investigation contributes to our understanding of age-related differences in source memory processing in middle childhood. © 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

Purpose Acute exercise has been linked to the facilitation of executive function, but little is known regarding executive function assessed by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). The present research consisted of two experiments aimed to determine whether acute aerobic exercise influences successive WCST performance. Methods In Study 1, 27 young adults were randomly assigned to the exercise or reading control group and then instructed to perform the WCST before and after assigned treatment. In exercise group, participants completed a single bout aerobic exercise with moderate intensity for 20 min on a stationary bike. A similar experimental protocol was replicated in Study 2 with 24 late middle-aged adults to look for age differences during adulthood and control for a potential ceiling effect at young adult age. Results Although a significant time effect was observed in young adults, both studies revealed that there was no main effect for treatment or an interaction between treatment and time on any of the WCST indices. Conclusion Acute aerobic exercise failed to influence executive function as assessed by the WCST, revealing that this classical neuropsychological test tapping executive function may not be sensitive to acute exercise. Our findings suggest that acute exercise does not broadly affect the entire family of executive functions, or its effect on a specific aspect of executive function may be task-dependent, as proposed by Etnier and Chang (2009).

The electroencephalogram (EEG) signal data were obtained from Yayasan Kita dan Buah Hati (YKBH), Jakarta, Indonesia and collected using a Brain Maker EEG machine with 19 channels. The sampling rate of the machine was 250 Hz. Fourteen participants (five females and nine males) participated in the data collection. A psychologist verified that seven of them were addicted to porn, and seven were healthy teenagers. The EEG data were recorded using one protocol with nine tasks for 10 min. The three stages were the baseline (tasks with eyes closed and open), emotional state (happy, calm, sad and fearful tasks) and main (15-words memorisation task, executive task and 15-words recall task) stages. The data obtained was used to analyse the signal pattern of pornography addiction amongst teenagers, as well as the emotional signal pattern and working memory capacity.

The 'Executive Functions' (EFs) of inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility enable us to think before we act, resist temptations or impulsive reactions, stay focused, reason, problem-solve, flexibly adjust to changed demands or priorities, and see things from new and different perspectives. These skills are critical for success in all life's aspects and are sometimes more predictive than even IQ or socioeconomic status. Understandably, there is great interest in improving EFs. It's now clear they can be improved at any age through training and practice, much as physical exercise hones physical fitness. However, despite claims to the contrary, wide transfer does not seem to occur and 'mindless' aerobic exercise does little to improve EFs. Important questions remain: How much can EFs be improved (are benefits only superficial) and how long can benefits be sustained? What are the best methods for improving EFs? What about an approach accounts for its success? Do the answers to these differ by individual characteristics such as age or gender? Since stress, sadness, loneliness, or poor health impair EFs, and the reverse enhances EFs, we predict that besides directly train EFs, the most successful approaches for improving EFs will also address emotional, social, and physical needs.

The literature has long emphasized the involvement of cortical and subcortical networks in executive function impairments among patients with schizophrenia. However, previous studies have not examined the relative involvement of monocular (mostly subcortical) versus binocular (mostly cortical) neural tracks in patients' EF deficits. Patients with schizophrenia and healthy comparisons were administered a dichotic version of the Stroop task, in which eye-of-origin manipulation was employed to isolate the involvement of monocular (mostly subcortical; thalamic regions) versus binocular (mostly cortical; extrastriate cortex) visual pathways. The eye-of-origin manipulation, in which a color patch (e.g., a green patch) was presented to one eye, and a word (e.g., "RED") to the other eye, enabled a split of the conflicting information between the two monocular channels. This results in the presentation of conflicting information to the higher cortical regions, but not to the lower subcortical structures. In the Stroop color task, when the monocular neural channels were not exposed to the conflicting information, the differences in task performance between the patients and the HCs significantly increased, and only the patients exhibited larger task conflict. When monocular neural channels were not exposed to the conflicting information, a robust dysfunction of the patients' group was observed. This abnormality might result from impairments in cortical regions or reduced computational power available for solving the conflict. However, additional studies that take into account the resolution of monocular and binocular neural channels are needed to enrich our understanding of the interplay between cortical and subcortical mechanisms in patients' EF deficits.

Evidence from studies on healthy older adults and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) populations suggests that physical activity interventions have a positive effect on executive function. In this study, we consider whether HPA is positively associated with executive function in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Eighty-two participants with a diagnosis of mild to moderate AD completed six measures of executive function. Objective measures of physical status were taken. In addition, informants completed questionnaires on the participants’ HPA and other lifestyle factors. A composite measure of executive function was the primary outcome. A multistage multiple regression was used to determine how much variance HPA accounted for. The final model comprised disease severity, cognitive reserve, cognitive activities, neuropsychiatric status and HPA status. The final model accounted for a total of 57% of the variance of executive performance, of which HPA itself accounted for 8% of the variance. HPA status is associated executive performance in an AD population even after controlling for key covariates. The findings encourage clinicians to recommend HPA and its cognitive benefits to AD patients and their carers.

Developing countries have low adherence to medical regimens like water chlorination or antenatal and postnatal care, contributing to high infant and child mortality rates. We hypothesize that high levels of stress affect adherence through temporal discounting, self-efficacy, and executive control. Measurement of these constructs in developing countries requires adaptation of existing measures. In the current study, we adapt psychological scales and behavioral tasks, measuring each of these three constructs, for use among adults in Kenya. We translated and back-translated each measure to Kiswahili and conducted cognitive interviewing to establish cultural acceptability, refined existing behavioral tasks, and developed new ones. Then, in a laboratory session lasting 3 h, participants ( N = 511 ) completed the adapted psychological inventories and behavioral tasks. We report the psychometric properties of these measures. We find relatively low reliability and poor correlational evidence between psychological scales and behavioral tasks measuring the same construct, highlighting the challenges of adapting measures across cultures, and suggesting that assays within the same domain may tap distinct underlying processes.

Herein, we discuss the balance of omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids (FAs) in the brain and their roles in executive functions (EFs). EFs are higher-order cognitive functions that control emotion, cognition, and behavior. Both n-6 and n-3 FA are integral to neuronal growth and communication. Whereas the frontal cortex is the focus of most investigations of EF, they are subserved by functional cortical networks that incorporate areas outside the frontal cortex. We approach EFs in terms of the role of the frontal cortex and connected brain networks and the inherent qualities that encompass all EFs. We (1) provide an evolutionary perspective on FAs in the brain, (2) discuss the importance of the balance of n-6 and n-3 FA, (3) discuss EFs and the brain networks that support EFs, and (4) discuss the rationale supporting the role of the balance of n-6 and n-3 FA in EFs.

Sleep loss is common in today’s society, and while most individuals have experienced sleep loss, few recognize the negative consequences sleep loss has on cognitive functioning. There is a general consensus that sleep loss results in decreased attention, vigilance, and alertness. While some believe that impaired vigilant attention is the underlying cause of performance decrement across all domains, new evidence suggests that this may not actually be the case. In fact, sleep loss does not appear to affect cognitive processes in a global manner. Rather, insufficient sleep differentially impacts various components of cognitive functioning. In this chapter, we will discuss how sleep loss impacts a variety of cognitive domains, including vigilant attention, working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive control, problem solving, risk-taking, judgment, and decision-making. In doing so, we will also discuss the common tasks used to test these specific domains and the neural mechanisms thought to mediate task-specific performance.

Executive function (EF) refers to a set of top-down neurocognitive processes that underlie the regulation of thought, emotion, and action. Scientific interest in EF development has blossomed over the past two decades because individual differences in EF predict outcomes in a wide range of contexts over the short and long term. EF varies along a continuum from “cool” to “hot”. Cool aspects of EF are those that emerge in decontextualized contexts, whereas hot aspects of EF are those that emerge in motivationally significant contexts. We provide a review of hot and cool EF and what is known about their neural basis over development. We conclude with a discussion of the future research needed to advance our understanding of the neural basis of EF.

This chapter reviews the literature linking executive function (EF) to problematic, dysregulated eating styles and behaviors in children. Theoretical frameworks that aid in our understanding of problematic, dysregulated eating behaviors are described, along with empirical studies that measure various components of EF and their relation to children's eating. Implications for prevention and practice are discussed and are informed by existing efforts.

To assess the role of reflection in executive function, preschool-age children who perseverated (failed) on a pre-training version of the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) were given training with a different version (different stimuli) in which they were provided with corrective feedback and taught to reflect on the conflicting rule representations involved in the task. In Exp. 1, reflection training was based closely on Kloo and Perner (2003). Exp. 2 used a shortened (15 min) version of the training protocol. In Exp. 3, this version of reflection training was compared to corrective feedback alone or mere practice with the task (without feedback). In all 3 experiments, children who received reflection training showed substantial improvements in performance on the pre-training version of the DCCS, whereas children in control conditions did not. In Exp. 3, these improvements were accompanied by a reduction from pre- to post-training in the amplitude of the N2 component of the ERP, an index of conflict detection. Results suggest not only that EF can be trained using a brief intervention targeting reflection, but also that training-related improvements in performance are associated with the down-regulation of ACC-mediated conflict detection. Implications for education are discussed.

The concept of neural executive function is defined and its history is reviewed. Executive function is defined to encompass planning, task selection and monitoring, and both cognitive and behavioral control. Executive function involves a widely distributed network of brain regions but several subregions of the prefrontal cortex play particularly important and definable roles in this function. Methods for assessment and treatment of executive dysfunction, which is usually the result of prefrontal damage, are briefly reviewed, and techniques for computational modeling of executive functioning are outlined.

\ud \ud Background\ud \ud Current methods for assessing concussion during rugby matches rely on rudimentary behavioural assessment, focusing on balance and gross motor function. Cognitive testing with the Sports Concussion Assessment Tool has recently been included, but there are a paucity of normative and baseline data for this test. This study examined the utility of the Trail Making Test (TMT), which is a neuropsychological test of executive function in two parts (TMT-A and TMT-B), to assist identification of cognitive impairments caused by impacts during rugby games.\ud \ud Methods\ud \ud 27 elite male rugby league players contracted to a professional rugby club were recruited towards the end of the season. Each player was tested on three occasions within a 2 week period with both TMT-A and TMT-B for baseline assessment. Each player was additionally assessed after full contact training on 2 consecutive days and during preseason training. Individual baseline data were calculated from the best of the baseline assessments, and time differences were examined with ANOVA.\ud \ud Findings\ud \ud No instances of concussion occurred during data collection. For TMT-A there was no significant difference (F(3, 24)=2·88, I2=0·27) between baseline (mean 13·79 s [SD 5·32], 95% CI 9·34–18·23), post-training day 1 (11·38 [2·63], 9·18–13·58), post-training day 2 (11·16 [1·94], 9·55–12·79), and preseason (11·79 [2·64], 9·58–13·99). For TMT-B there was no significant difference between baseline (31·50 [5·37], 27·01–35·99), post-training day 1 (28·07 [8·82], 20·70–35·44), post-training day 2 (26·18 [6·16], 21·03–31·33), and preseason (26·98 [4·89], 22·89–31·07).\ud \ud Interpretation\ud \ud These findings indicate that there were no significant differences in performance of these executive tasks from baseline to post-training (end of season and preseason). These data show stability of TMT-A and TMT-B data across a competitive rugby league season. Importantly, use of measures of variation such as CIs for these tasks can provide a metric for calculating minimally important clinical differences within cognition.\ud \ud Funding\ud \ud None.

In this chapter, we address one potentially overlooked component of the relation between executive function (EF) skills and early mathematics, a relation for which there is widespread empirical support. Evidence for this relation has, thus far, been largely correlational. Here we emphasize that because positive correlations do not guarantee concordance among all members of a sample or population, a small but meaningful number of children may either fare well in mathematics despite poor EF skills, or may have strong EF skills despite weak mathematics skills. We propose that attention to different profiles of discordance for EF and mathematics may help identify individualized learning needs for students at risk for mathematics difficulties and disabilities.

Research in the field of developmental disabilities has a long tradition of drawing on multiple disciplines in an effort to gain a comprehensive account of children's atypical development. Given the pervasive nature of the developmental delays associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a reliance on interdisciplinary work has been essential to the development of a comprehensive research base on this disorder. One area of work for which the field of ASD has drawn heavily from multiple perspectives is the topic of self-regulation. Self-regulation, defined as the organization or modulation of affective, mental, and behavioral responses, has been conceptualized to include control over emotional experiences and expressions (i.e., emotion regulation), cognitive or mental processes (i.e., executive function), and approach/withdrawal behaviors (i.e., effortful/behavioral control). In this chapter, interdisciplinary work from such fields as developmental and clinical psychology, neuropsychology, and special education is brought together to provide an integrated account of the development of self-regulation among young children with ASD. Implications for intervention are discussed.

The role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is far from fully understood. Deficits are subtle, and findings are often inconsistent. Impairments have been related to worsening of psychological symptoms, functioning, and quality of life. They can also negatively impact treatment. Functional imaging shows that neurocognitive deficits in PTSD may be related to an imbalance in brain connectivity, where emotion processing is enhanced and control is reduced. Structural findings show abnormalities in brain regions involved in higher level functions. However, findings are often discrepant. Factors related to these inconclusive results are considered, including developmental course, premorbid functioning, and comorbidities, such as traumatic brain injury, depression, substance use, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, health behaviors, and medical concerns. Treatment implications, limitations of this work, and future directions are presented. It is our hope that future research will advance our scientific understanding of PTSD, neurocognitive impairments, and related conditions, with the goal of improving outcomes for those who encounter trauma.

Human cognition is permeated by self-control: the ability to engage in complex, goal-oriented behaviors rather than just react to the moment at hand. This chapter examines the evolutionary roots of these abilities by comparing the psychological capacities of humans and other primates. In fact, there is marked variation in how different primate species control their motoric responses to inhibit prepotent but ineffectual actions, engage in strategic decision-making to determine the best course of action, and learn and update their responses when contingencies change. Understanding how and why this variation emerged can shed light on the origins of human cognition.

The striatum, part of the basal ganglia complex, has close anatomical and functional ties with the prefrontal and sensorimotor cortices being critical not only for movement planning but also for instrumental behavior (either goal-directed actions or habit formation), decision-making, working memory, learning, and reward. Conditions affecting the striatum, including not only movement disorders such as Parkinson’s and Huntington’s disease but also psychiatric conditions such as major depression and obsessive compulsive disorders and external factors such as chronic stress exposure, affect information processing in corticobasal ganglia loops and are associated with different aspects of executive dysfunction. Treatment of these conditions, particularly using dopaminergic agents, can partly revert such impairments but can also further aggravate the disbalance in modulatory pathways being also the cause for dysfunction. Executive dysfunction should be recognized as part of the clinical manifestations of striatal disorders and addressed adequately to promote patient’s well-being and autonomy., (undefined)

Executive functions (EFs) are higher-level cognitive processes that allow us to respond in an adaptive manner to the environment: to break out of habits, make decisions and evaluate risks, plan for the future, prioritize and sequence actions, and cope with novel situations. EFs consist of several processes: (1) anticipation and deployment of attention, (2) impulse control and self-regulation, (3) initiation of action, (4) working memory (WM), (5) mental flexibility and utilization of feedback, (6) planning ability and organization, (7) selection of efficient problem-solving strategies, and (8) monitoring of performance. EFs are essential for dealing successfully with daily activities. Impairments in EFs have serious consequences, which may be as important to quality of life and functional outcomes as affective symptoms.

Neural network modeling, first developed in the mid-12th century, has reached a point where it has yielded sophisticated quantitative models of executive functions. This chapter reviews computational models of executive processes including decision making, sequence learning, suppressing habitual responses, and cognitive control.

Empirical evidence for executive function (EF) impairments in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was first established more than 30 years ago. In the interim, a large literature has emerged that supports a profile of relatively intact and impaired (e.g., flexibility) EF subdomains in ASD. We pick up where our last review ( Kenworthy, Yerys, Anthony, & Wallace, 2008 ; Neuropsychology Review) left off by examining both laboratory-based and ecologically valid EF assessment findings in ASD, how the presence of comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and/or diagnosis affects EF in ASD, and a newly emerging evidence base for intervention studies targeting EF impairments in ASD. The evidence to date suggests that laboratory-based EF findings remain more mixed than those based on ecologically valid assessment of EF (which more consistently reveal EF deficits in ASD), nevertheless, the latter requires more study. Findings also suggest that subgrouping ASD based on ADHD symptomatology might clarify heretofore mixed findings, particularly in terms of inhibitory control deficits. Finally, EF is proving to be a viable treatment target in ASD, although much more work is needed in this area.

Introduction Dopamine receptor polymorphisms have been associated with specific patterns of novelty seeking (NS) temperamental nature and frontal executive function. In addition, carriers of dopamine receptor type 2 (DRD2)–TaqI A1 have been hypothesized to be potentially vulnerable to addictive behaviors. In the present study, the association between dopamine D2 polymorphisms, NS, and frontal executive function was studied. Methods Thirty-seven methamphetamine (MA)–dependent subjects and 40 healthy comparison subjects participated in the current study. The severity of addiction, NS temperament, and frontal executive functions were measured using the Addiction Severity Index, the NS subscale in the Temperament and Character Inventory, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, respectively. All subjects were genotyped with regard to DRD2-TaqI polymorphisms. Results The prevalence of DRD2-TaqI A1 allele polymorphisms was greater in the MA-abuser group than in the comparison group. Patients with MA dependence also had higher NS characteristics and high scores in total trials, errors, and perseverative errors of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test than comparison subjects. Within patients with MA dependence, the subgroup of DRD2-TaqI A1 carrier had greater NS scores relative to those without, whereas there was only a trend level of lower frontal executive function in the first subgroup. Conclusion In the present study, the MA-dependent patients with DRD2-TaqI A1 allele had significantly greater NS scores and lower frontal executive function with a trend level than those without. These preliminary results suggest that MA-dependent patients may have the possibility of genetic and biogenic vulnerability to MA.

Children spend a lot of time watching television on its many platforms: directly, online, and via videos and DVDs. Many researchers are concerned that some types of television content appear to negatively influence children's executive function. Because (1) executive function predicts key developmental outcomes, (2) executive function appears to be influenced by some television content, and (3) American children watch large quantities of television (including the content of concern), the issues discussed here comprise a crucial public health issue. Further research is needed to reveal exactly what television content is implicated, what underlies television's effect on executive function, how long the effect lasts, and who is affected.

Cognitive control is the ability to direct mental function and behavior in accord with internally represented intentions or goals. This ability is fundamental to all higher cognitive faculties, such as language, reasoning, problem solving, and social behavior. While this ability no doubt relies on interactions between many areas of the brain, neuropsychological, neurophysiological, neuroimaging, and neural network modeling studies all indicate strongly that the prefrontal cortex plays a critical role in cognitive control. This article reviews these findings briefly, and suggests that the prefrontal cortex executes control by guiding the flow of neural activity along pathways in other parts of the brain responsible for performing an intended task.