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This study investigates the consequences of interference during first suckling for subsequent mare--young attachment in horses (Equus caballus). Foals brought to their dams' teats appeared, at later ages (1-3 months), to remain closer to their clams and to play less than control foals that had been allowed to suckle spontaneously. Higher levels of play and distance initiatives from the mother are considered criteria for secure attachment in horses, humans, and other species. As this unique handling was the only event that distinguished experimental from control groups, the authors concluded that first suckling is a crucial event in the development of secure dam--young attachment. These results could have important implications for all mammal species, including humans. Keywords: suckling, attachment, horse, mother--young bond

Different types of smiling varying in amplitude of lip corner retraction were investigated during 2 mother-infant games--peekaboo and tickle--at 6 and 12 months and during normally occurring and perturbed games. Using Facial Action Coding System (FACS), infant smiles were coded as simple (lip corner retraction only), Duchenne (simple plus cheek raising), play (simple plus jaw drop), and duplay (Duchenne plus jaw drop). In addition, again using FACS, the amplitude of lip corner retraction was coded on a 5-point scale. Rather than a single smile expression that differs only in amplitude, the authors found a complex family of different smile expressions differing in their duration and amplitude as a function of game, setup versus climax of the game, and perturbation. Both type of smiling and amplitude of smiling appear to be controlled independently by the infant in relation to the context. These findings reveal systematic and context-specific nuances in infant smiles in the 2nd half of the first year. Keywords: infancy, smile, FACS, peekaboo, tickle

The links between unresolved maternal attachment status, disrupted maternal interaction in play situations, and disorganized attachment relationships were examined in a study of 82 adolescent mother-infant dyads. Maternal interactive behavior was measured using the Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification coding system. Additional rating scales were developed to correspond to the 5 dimensions of disrupted maternal behavior outlined by E. Bronfman, E. Parsons, and K. Lyons-Ruth (1999). A robust association was observed between disrupted maternal behavior and disorganized attachment. Ratings of disrupted maternal behavior revealed that disorganized attachment relationships were strongly related to ratings of fearful/disoriented behavior. Moreover, mothers who were unresolved were more likely than not-unresolved mothers to show disrupted patterns of interaction with their infants. Regression analyses suggested that disrupted behavior statistically mediated the association between unresolved status and disorganized attachment relationships. Keywords: disrupted maternal behavior, attachment relationships, mother-infant interactions

Links between neonatal biological rhythms and the emergence of interaction rhythms were examined in 3 groups (N = 71): high-risk preterms (HR; birth weight < 1,000 g), low-risk preterms (LR; birth weight = 1,700-1,850 g), and full-term (FT) infants. Once a week for premature infants and on the 2nd day for FT infants, sleep-wake cyclicity was extracted from 4-hr observations and cardiac vagal tone was measured. At term age, infant orientation was tested with the Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale. At 3 months, arousal modulation and emotion regulation were assessed, and mother-infant synchrony was computed from microanalysis of face-to-face interactions using time-series analysis. Sleep-wake amplitudes showed a developmental leap at 31 weeks gestation, followed by a shift in vagal tone at 34 weeks gestation. At term, differences among FT, LR, and HR infants were observed for biological rhythms in a linear-decline pattern. Sleep-wake cyclicity, vagal tone, newborn orientation, and arousal modulation were each uniquely predictive of mother-infant synchrony. The organization of physiological oscillators appears to lay the foundation for the infant's capacity to partake in a temporally matched social dialogue. Keywords: mother-infant synchrony, sleep-wake cyclicity, vagal tone, premature infants, arousal

This study uses hierarchical linear regression modeling to analyze sources of variation in the developmental pathways of mother-infant relationships and to search for behavioral discontinuities. The data come from 23 mother-infant dyads of baboons (Papio hamadryas), whose interactions were recorded longitudinally during the infants' 1st year of life. The infant's sex and the mother's age and reproductive experience accounted for part of the variation observed in the developmental pathways of 11 of 20 behavioral measures analyzed; however, some of them did so only in some periods but not in others. The authors proposed that this can reflect the occurrence of reorganizations or discontinuities in the mother-infant relationship that can be related to important life events such as the mother's resumption of sexual activity.

Weekly observations documented developmental changes in mother-infant face-to-face communication between birth and 3 months. Developmental trajectories for each dyad of the duration of infant facial expressions showed change from the dominance of Simple Attention (without other emotion expressions) to active and emotionally positive forms of attention to the mother toward the end of the 2nd month. The results support an overlapping waves model, rather than at stage model, of developmental change. Sequential analysis found developmental changes from cycling between Gaze Elsewhere and Simple Attention to the Mother's Face in the early weeks to a complex sequence of transitions between Concentrated Attention. Smile, and Cooing Expression nested into sequences of positive communication during the 2nd and 3rd months.

Ecological contributions to attachment transmission were studied in a sample of 64 adolescent mother-infant dyads. Maternal sensitivity was assessed when infants were 6 and 10 months old, and infant security, was assessed at 15 and 18 months maternal attachment state of mind was measured with the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) after the 1st assessment. Ecological variables considered were maternal education and depression, paternal support, and infant maternal grandmother support. Results indicated that when the contribution of ecological variables was statistically controlled for, sensitivity was a significant mediator and state of mind no longer contributed to infant security. Sensitivity also mediated an association between maternal education and infant attachment, suggesting that attachment transmission is embedded in a more global process of infant attachment development.

Attachment theorists assume that maternal mental representations influence responsivity, which influences infant attachment security. However, primary studies do not support this mediation model. The authors tested mediation using 2 mother-infant samples and found no evidence of mediation. Therefore, the authors explored sensitivity as a moderator, studying the (a) interaction of mental representation and sensitivity as it predicts infant attachment security and (b) level of sensitivity in mothers whose infants' attachment security is either concordant or discordant with their own. The interactional analyses were not significant. But the match-mismatch data showed that when mother-infant attachment strategies were discordant maternal sensitivity was more consistent with infant than maternal attachment strategy. These findings are congruent with an interpretation of sensitivity as a moderator that can block transmission of attachment strategy.

An important issue for understanding early cognition is why very young children's real-world representations do not get confused by pretense events. One possible source of information for children is the pretender's behaviors. Pretender behaviors may vary systematically across real and pretend scenarios, perhaps signaling to toddlers to interpret certain events as not real. Pretender behaviors were examined in 2 experiments in which mothers were asked both to pretend to have a snack and really to have a snack with their 18-month-olds. Episodes were analyzed for condition differences in verbal and nonverbal behaviors, including smiling, looking, laughter, and functional movements. Reliable differences were found across conditions for several variables. In a 3rd experiment, children's apparent understanding of pretense in relation to their mothers' behaviors was examined, and significant associations were found with some of the mothers' behavioral changes but not others. This work provides a first inroad into the issue of how children learn to interpret pretense acts as pretense.

In this study the authors attempted to unravel the relational, dynamical, and historical nature of mother-infant communication during the first 6 months. Thirteen mothers and their infants were videotaped weekly from 4 to 24 weeks during face-to-face interactions. Three distinct patterns of mother-infant communication were identified: symmetrical, asymmetrical, and unilateral. Guided by a dynamic systems perspective, the authors explored the stability of and transitions between these communication patterns. Findings from event history analysis showed that (a) there are regularly recurring dyadic communication patterns in early infancy, (b) these recurring patterns show differential stabilities and likelihoods of transitions, (c) dynamic stability in dyadic communication is shaped not only by individual characteristics (e.g., infant sex and maternal parity) but also by the dyad's communication history, and (d) depending on their recency, communication histories varying in temporal proximity exert differential effects on the self-organization processes of a dyadic system.

This study investigates the validity and reliability of memory-based reports from mothers regarding the exposure of their infants to secondhand smoke. Results indicate that mothers can provide information about their babies' exposure that is consistent with measurements of air nicotine and urine cotinine levels.

Studies have shown that infants of depressed mothers express negative emotions more frequently than infants of nondepressed mothers. The present study examined electrical brain activity during expression of negative and positive emotions in infants of depressed and nondepressed mothers. Infants, 11 to 17 months of age, were exposed to conditions designed to elicit positive and negative emotions while electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was measured from left and right, frontal and parietal regions. EEG activity was analyzed when infants were displaying prototypic expressions of emotions. Compared with infants of nondepressed mothers, infants of depressed mothers exhibited increased EEG activation in the frontal but not parietal region when expressing negative emotions (unfelt smiles and anger). The two groups of infants did not show reliable differences in brain activation during the expression of positive emotions (happiness, surprise) or neutral expressions. Compared with infants of nondepressed mothers, infants of depressed mothers exhibit greater frontal EEG activation during the expression of negative emotions.

Families were examined at 6, 9, and 12 months in an intensive longitudinal study that included Home Behavior Attachment Q-sorts, laboratory Strange Situation assessment, home observations of infant temperament behavior on 24 occasions, observations of maternal parenting sensitivity on 12 occasions, and maternal reports of infant temperament. Maternal sensitivity was modestly related to Q-sort security and unrelated to Strange Situation classification. In contrast, observed infant temperament was more strongly related to both maternal sensitivity and Q-sort security. The relation between home and laboratory assessment of attachment security, which was at the level found in prior work (e.g., B. E. Vaughn & E. Waters, 1990), remained after the effects of observed and mother-reported infant temperament were partialed. Our data highlight the need to consider other factors besides maternal sensitivity in the explanation of variability in the attachment status of 1-year-olds.

Wide individual differences in early word production characterize children learning the same language, but the role of specific adult input in this interchild variability is unknown. Sampling the speech of American, French, and Swedish mothers (5 in each language group) to their 1-year-old children, this study analyzed the distribution of consonantal categories, word length, and final consonants in running speech, content words, initial consonant of content words, and target words (adult models of words attempted by the children) as well as the children's own early words (from age 9 months to about 18 months). Variability is greater in child words than adult speech, and individual mother-child dyads show no evidence of specific maternal influence on the phonetics of the child's speech.

This study examined infant social referencing by observing how 37 twelve-month-old infants sought and used maternal messages concerning the affective significance of novel objects during 4 conditions that varied the content (happiness or fear) and presentation mode (unconstrained or trained facial expression) of maternal messages. Findings indicated that mothers, when permitted, supplemented facial expressions with verbal messages that refer both directly and indirectly to the object. Even so, their messages of fear lacked clarity and intensity, especially when directed toward daughters. Infants were able social referencers who often sought and used maternal appraisals even after they had reacted to an object. Maternal messages regulated daughters' but not sons' distance from the objects.

Research presented concerns the triadic relationship between mother, father, and infant, focusing on how 'kangaroo care' or an intervention that encourages mother-infant skin-to-skin contact can have a positive impact on the entire family relationship. Topics include the attachment process in premature infants.

Research studies mothers' reports of parental acceptance, symptoms of depression, infant distress, and marital aggression to determine their longitudinal impact on postpartum depression and maternal sensitivity. A model of maternal sensitivity that considers family characteristics and maternal self-esteem is presented.

Research examines the link between first-time mothers' reports of pre- and postnatal depression, marital quality, and anxiety and reports of child temperament and feelings of self-efficacy. Topics include how maternal perceptions of efficacy change over time.

Observed 1-, 3-, and 9-month infant-mother interaction to examine antecedents of 1-year attachment quality. Frequency data were recorded using theory-guided measure of interactional synchrony; chi-square and prediction analyses tested hypothesis that development of secure attachments is predictable from synchronous, and insecure attachments from asynchronous interactions across first year. Findings from 30 dyads (10 secure, 10 avoidant, 10 resistant) supported hypothesis at 1 and 3 months, with synchronous interaction observed at significantly, disproportionately frequent rate for securely attached dyads. Also identified theoretically consistent aspects of interaction (e.g., responsiveness) that differentiated mothers of secure, avoidant, and resistant babies. Authors discuss findings as they support major tenets of attachment theory and suggest usefulness of a priori methodological approach.

In one of a set of studies exploring the need for time alone throughout development, infant temperamental characteristics, their relation to infant needs for time alone, and maternal perceptions of these needs are examined via videotapings of the infants' signals of disengagement and engagement. Descriptive data based on three mother-infant dyads suggest that infants clearly signal their needs for rest and disengagement in the first eight weeks, and develop unique patterns of 'alonetime' behavior that may be related in part to temperamental differences.