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BACKGROUND: This study explores the impacts of attacks perpetrated in the context of armed conflict, to female health workers in three Colombian territories. METHODS: We conducted a document review of the reports and databases of the Colombian Truth Commission, 17 in-depth semi-structured interviews with experts on the national and regional armed conflict and the medical mission, and 26 female health workers who were victims of attacks. RESULTS: Experts and female health workers reported attacks to health activities, facilities, equipment, and personnel, including attacks to traditional doctors belonging to indigenous communities. The most frequent attacks were threats and retention of health personnel; theft of supplies and medicines; damage and use of infrastructure and means of transport for purposes other than health care; and hinderance of health service provision. The attacks occurred in a framework of structural violence that intersects with poverty, racism, and gender bias. The impacts of these attacks include gender-based violence, significant disruption of the lives of health workers, and physical, emotional, psychological, social, and economic effects on the victims and their families. The government response to protect victims and populations has been absent or insufficient. CONCLUSIONS: Attacks to health care were reported in all the studied territories obstructing adequate health care. Impacts of these attacks affect negatively the professional and personal life of the workers and are aggravated by structural violence and absent or little institutional response.

The article is dedicated to the study of the structural flaws and deficiencies of Article 435-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, "Insult to the Honor and Dignity of a Serviceman, Threat to a Serviceman," which, under the Law of Ukraine "On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine on Strengthening Criminal Liability for the Manufacture and Distribution of Prohibited Information Products" No. 2110-IX, which came into force on March 16, 2022 (hereinafter referred to as Law No. 2110-IX), was included in Section XIX of the Criminal Code of Ukraine "Criminal Offenses Against the Established Order of Military Service (Military Criminal Offenses)." The author analyzed the disposition of Article 435-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine and highlighted several contentious issues, in particular: the placement of the article in Section XIX of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, which does not correspond to the generic object of this criminal offense and its subject composition, as a result of which the jurisdiction of the criminal offense provided for in Article 435-1 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine falls simultaneously under two pre-trial investigation bodies, such as the Security Service of Ukraine and the State Bureau of Investigation; the presence in the disposition of the article of an unnecessary limitation regarding the duration and the range of servicemen to whom this article applies. The impact and consequences of the existing shortcomings on the practical application of the examined provision are described, such as the violation of the principle of legal certainty and the ambiguity of the legal norm, as well as the unclear mechanism for the application of such a norm in practice. Based on the analysis, the author provided recommendations for eliminating the shortcomings described in the article through legislative improvement of this norm, namely: moving the norm to Section I of the Criminal Code of Ukraine by supplementing it with an independent article; adjusting the disposition of the article by expanding the range of persons who can be victims of this criminal offense, as well as removing the wording "armed aggression of the Russian Federation" from the disposition and supplementing it with more general formulations like "armed aggression" and "armed conflict.". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The convergence of global demographic changes and rising humanitarian crises in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) has raised the number of affected older people (OP). These individuals face the challenges of aging and the adverse conditions of disasters, particularly pronounced in LMICs. This review aims to explore literature on the health and well-being of older populations during humanitarian crises in LMICs. Methods: This scoping review included primary studies on the health and well-being of older populations in humanitarian crises in LMIC. A search was conducted in five bibliographic databases last updated in 2023. A numerical summary and thematic analysis of study characteristics and themes were executed and findings were narratively synthesized. Results: A total of 84 eligible studies were included. The majority of studies were quantitative (n = 56), followed by qualitative (n = 22) and mixed-methods (n = 6). Most literature focuses on the high burden of mental health conditions and their determinants, such as depression, anxiety, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The second most common theme is physical health, discussing high levels of mortality, disability, some non-communicable diseases, and limited evidence on the poor nutritional status. OP lack access to routine healthcare due to cost barriers. The key gaps in the literature are in mental and psychosocial health, especially pertaining to vulnerabilities and risk factors, and to contextualized interventions. Physical health research is relatively narrow lacking a wider range of chronic diseases while no research was performed on communicable diseases other than COVID-19. Conclusions: Findings show the complex vulnerabilities of OP in humanitarian crises which exacerbate their physical, mental, and psychosocial health outcomes. There is a need to strengthen evidence on the effectiveness of interventions, and to investigate determinants of health, especially mental and psychosocial health, across different contexts. Research should also explore cross-cutting issues like gender, access to livelihoods, and equitable access to humanitarian assistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines how prolonged armed conflict in Jammu and Kashmir affects both education and children. Utilizing a descriptive qualitative survey methodology, the study delves into the multifaceted experiences of the diverse educational stakeholders while analyzing the underlying factors that shape their perspectives. Empirical findings strongly suggest that while there is no universal formula for peace education in conflict contexts, a crucial element lies in establishing supportive classrooms that address the unique challenges experienced by students and teachers. The study’s implications have broad significance, offering valuable insights for policymakers and humanitarian organizations seeking a deeper understanding of the adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) faced by communities in conflict-affected areas. Implementing peace education at the school level can help alleviate the impact of conflict on students and teachers, but addressing the broader context of insecurity requires attention to political, security, social, and economic factors, with schools serving as a potential arena for specific aspects of peace education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: War causes severe suffering and harm to the civilian population. Knowledge about civilian injury patterns constitutes a part of the dimensioned planning and preparedness for medical care and civilian defence in times of war. This systematic review is conducted on request from The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare and includes civilian injury patterns in modern war. Methods: The aim of the study is to describe civilian injury patterns in war 1973–2023. We have conducted a systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol. The protocol has been registered 2023-05-06 in PROSPERO (CRD4202321483). Results: The search resulted in 3455 identified articles. 1226 of those were duplicates. 2229 studies were assessed, and 1817 papers were excluded. 412 papers went through full text assessment resulting in 63 remaining papers. Injuries to the extremities constitutes 50%, followed by head injuries (26%) and injuries to the chest (18%). Notably, 23% of the wounded are children. Discussion: There is no standardized classification or method to report and describe civilian war injuries and the injury panorama. Variations in how the injuries were reported made synthesis of the results difficult. In the present survey we haven't investigated mortalities and causes of death. Reliable data from recent wars, such as the ongoing war in Ukraine and Gaza, was missing from the open literature. Conclusions: The distribution of injuries seems comparable with data from World War II and the conflict in Korea. There is no standardized simple protocol to report civilian injuries in war. Ideally, a protocol should include even the severity impact of the injuries. Knowledge of civilian injury pattern and estimate of the total number of wounded is important to plan the civilian health care capabilities in war time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For a long time, the full impacts of armed conflicts on the marine environment have been ill-defined and largely neglected. World War I and II-era remnants of war at sea pose increasing threats to human and marine life, particularly over the coming decade, as they contaminate, pollute, or detonate toxic and hazardous substances into coastal and benthic ecosystems. The International Law Commission's Principles for Protection of the Environment in Relation to Armed Conflicts aim to enhance protections for the marine environment before, during, and after conflict. In practice, this means navigating an uncoalesced legal regime and relying on established principles of international environmental law – particularly the duty to cooperate and share information. However, considerable knowledge gaps need to be addressed to remedy the vast legacy of war in the ocean, as the majority of remnants of war at sea remain under-assessed, in part, due to financial and technical constraints. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of stress as a cause of ill health has received much attention in social sciences. The distinction between stress exposure and perceived stress emphasizes the importance of cognitive dimension of stress. This quantitative study (N = 213) conducted in Ukraine in November 2022 collected self-reported cognitive data on stress exposure, perceived stress, and self-rated heath. The goals of the study included (1) testing if stress exposure and perceived stress differ in terms of breadth and depth of their impact; (2) isolating psychosocial factors that reduce stress; and (3) testing if individuals who have relocated within Ukraine or abroad to escape the war had worse health outcomes than those who remained at their domiciles. The results suggest that while perceived stress was a stronger predictor of negative health outcomes, optimism and social support served as protective psychosocial factors. Having moved abroad predicted higher stress levels and more adverse health symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the aftermath of intractable armed conflict, adolescents can play a critical role in the process of reconciliation and the construction of a culture of peace. The meanings they construct about these processes are a core aspect of their engagement (or lack thereof) in peace‐building initiatives. This study sought to document adolescents' perspectives on the Colombian armed conflict and the 2016 peace treaty, as well as their preferred resolutions to move forward after decades of harm and division. We interviewed 77 adolescents (39 girls, 38 boys) ranging from ages 14 to 19 years (M = 16.49, SD =.95) from two public schools in Bogotá, Colombia. We asked youth open‐ended questions about the history of the armed conflict, their position toward the peace accord, and their proposed optimal resolutions to address harms committed by the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia—Ejército del Pueblo (FARC). Using thematic analysis, we identified three overall themes in adolescents' responses: (1) cynicism toward peace and desires for retribution, (2) improving the lives of those they thought were most impacted, and (3) restoring relationships and ending cycles of violence. We discuss the implications of our findings for psychological scholarship, peace education, and politics of reconciliation in light of Colombia's current political and social climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Armed conflict is perceived to be detrimental to sustainable development while underdevelopment is seen as the cause of armed conflict. However, little is known about the cause of the ongoing armed conflict in Southern Cameroon and its effects on the pace of sustainable development in Cameroon. This study seeks to close this gap by employing a causal‐process tracing methodology and trend analysis. The empirical results obtained suggest that there is no end to the conflict any time soon due to the divide between the Anglophone political elite, lack of international support, and repression from the government. In addition, the conflict has very minimal quantitative significant impact on the pace of development in Cameroon. By empirically analyzing the case of Cameroon, the current study lends an understanding of the causes and effects of the conflict on sustainable development and further highlights the steps that are necessary to safeguard the socio‐economic well‐being of the masses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the impact of exposure to armed conflict on fertility in Sri Lanka. Using a difference-in-difference methodology, I find that exposure to civil war led to a reduction in female fertility in Sri Lanka, with evidence of an increased female age at marriage in high-conflict districts as a mechanism. The paper further focuses on ethnic disparities in demographic adjustments triggered by exposure to conflict. It determines if conflict altered the fertility patterns of the Sinhalese majority and the Sri Lankan Tamil minority differently. Estimates suggest that there is a differential in fertility adjustments of the two ethnic groups in response to conflict: the reduction in crude birth rate was significantly smaller for the Sri Lankan Tamils compared to the Sinhalese across various model specifications. The presence of an ethnic group-level replacement effect led to a lesser reduction in fertility for Sri Lankan Tamils. These results contribute to the literature on the impact of armed conflict and underscore the importance of studying demographic adjustments by sub-groups, specifically ethnicity in this context, as the intensity of adjustment often varies with the socio-political vulnerability of the group. Understanding these disparities is crucial as a sustained demographic differential has the potential to impact the ethnic composition of Sri Lanka and may further crystallize the ethnic divide in an already volatile political setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the analysis of the institute of control in international law as one of the elements for attributing the behaviour of a separatist entity or other anti-governmental organisation to the state in the process of bringing the latter to international legal responsibility for internationally wrongful acts, primarily massive human rights violations. The author emphasises the growing importance of the issue of control in the context of modern armed conflicts, where ‘proxy’ forces are increasingly used, acting formally independently but in fact controlled by states. This raises new challenges for international law, especially in the area of human rights protection, including during armed conflicts, and State responsibility. The article examines the provisions of some international instruments relating to the responsibility of States for internationally wrongful acts, and in particular those provisions which provide for attribution of conduct of individuals or groups of individuals acting ‘at the direction’, or ‘under the direction’, or ‘under the control’ of the State. The article discusses three main concepts of control, namely: strict control, effective control and general control. The authors analyse in detail the history of the emergence and development of each concept, as well as explain the main differences between them, and reveal their strengths and weaknesses. It is argued that strict control requires complete dependence of the organisation on the state, while effective control allows for autonomy of the organisation, but requires a certain influence of the state on its actions. Overall control emphasises the importance of structured interaction between the state and the group. The authors provide examples of the application of these concepts in the practice of international justice bodies, including the International Court of Justice, the European Court of Human Rights, and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, highlighting the difference in approaches to assessing control and responsibility of states. These examples demonstrate the difficulty of proving a certain level of control, which affects the resolution of disputes in international courts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research of wartime diplomacy is becoming increasingly important under the influence of global challenges that threaten international security and stability. This study is devoted to the investigation of wartime diplomacy as a tool for the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The article provides a theoretical and legal research of wartime diplomacy in the context of pacific settlement of international disputes. The fundamental international legal acts that enshrine the basic principles of pacific settlement of international disputes are processed and their content is characterized. The main criteria for distinguishing between diplomatic and judicial means of resolving international disputes are proposed: the legal framework, the form of implementation, the subjects of influence and the nature of the result achieved. A brief historical discourse on the formation of the institution of diplomacy is formed and approaches to the definition of the concept of “diplomacy” are detailed. By using general scientific and special, empirical and theoretical, quantitative and qualitative methods of scientific research, the phenomenon of wartime diplomacy is detailed through the prism of the proposed criterias, in particular, identifies the features of this category through its legal framework, forms of implementation, subjects of influence and the nature of the achieved results. The purpose of wartime diplomacy is formulated. The goals, forms and methods of wartime diplomacy in the context of the issues under study are highlighted. The research also examines the wartime diplomatic tools aimed at preventing or resolving international conflicts, in particular: diplomatic conferences, сonsultations, congresses, meetings. Particular attention is paid to “peace conferences” as means of implementing military diplomacy, and three types of peace conferences aimed at resolving conflicts are distinguished: a conference that either follows a “major” conflict or is held to negotiate the termination of one of them; a conference to promote “general” world peace or to mitigate and resolve the outbreak of a conflict; global conferences [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2022, for the first time in some while, the public around the world was confronted with an armed conflict between states, which directly involved a nuclear facility, specifically a nuclear power plant in operation. Unfortunately, the situation following Russia's armed attack on Ukraine on 24 February 2022 and the acts of war around the Zaporizhzhya nuclear power plant once again draw attention to the need to protect nuclear facilities during armed conflicts. Therefore, this paper reviews the relevant rules of public international law and scrutinizes the norms that have been established through international legislation and soft law mechanisms to protect and guarantee the nuclear safety and security of nuclear installations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the start of the full-fledged Russian invasion, Ukraine has attempted twice to unlock its Black Sea ports, both of which took place after significant changes during hostilities. The initial attempt, the Black Sea Grain Initiative of 2022–2023, facilitated by the UN, employed mediation techniques from the hybrid stage of the conflict 2014–2022. The unilateral humanitarian corridor (since 2023) relied on Ukraine's military capabilities to prevent Russia from interfering with neutral shipping. This was combined with the efforts of international partners and businesses. The article examines the advantages and disadvantages of each approach to ensuring neutral shipping in conflict zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines the qualification features of illegal deprivation of liberty or abduction of a person by a representative of the authorities under martial law. It is concluded that the qualification of illegal deprivation of liberty or abduction of a person by a representative of the authorities in the conditions of martial law has been not the subject of an indepe ndent scientific analysis. The aim of the research is to determine the algorithm for the qualification of illegal actions of a representative of the authorities, which are related to the illegal deprivation of liberty or abduction of a person under martial law. To realize the aim of the article, the following scientific methods have been used, such as: formaldogmatic one has been used for legal analysis of the powers of servicemen of the Territorial centers of recruitment and social support and policemen during mobilization measures; the method of comparative analysis makes it possible to compare the degree of social danger of individual criminal offenses associated with liberty deprivation of a person by a representative of the authorities; the statistical method makes it possible to determine the quantitative indicators of individual criminal offenses related to the deprivation of liberty of a person by a representative of authorities. The methods of analysis and synthesis makes it possible to propose specific algorithms for criminal offenses qualification related to the deprivation of liberty of a person by a representative of the authorities. The research emphasizes that the mechanism of limiting constitutional human rights and freedoms in Ukraine under martial law conditions does not determine the possibility of limiting the rights and freedoms guaranteed in Art. 29 (right to freedom and personal integrity), Art. 55 (right to judicial protection), Art. 62 (presumption of innocence), Art. 63 (right to protection) of the Constitution of Ukraine. It was established that due to incorrectly set priorities and the absence of a clear mechanism for the implementation of mobilization norms, some representatives of the authorities distorted the mobilization by committing criminal offenses, in particular, illegal deprivation of liberty or abduction of a person. Artificial latency of criminal offenses related to mobilization committed by representatives of the authorities has been established. Qualification algorithms of the government representative actions who commits certain illegal actions during mobilization under martial law are proposed, such as: according to Art. 365 of the CC of Ukraine; Part 5 of Art. 426-1 of the CC of Ukraine; according to Part 1 of Art. 146-1 of the CC of Ukraine; according to Art. 186 of the CC of Ukraine; according to Art. 187 of the CC of Ukraine; according to Art. 397 of the CC of Ukraine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the analysis of the provisions of international human rights law and international humanitarian law regarding the protection of the right to property, in particular the permitted limitations of this right, the relevant practice of international human rights courts and international criminal tribunals, the connection between the institution of derogation and the law of armed conflicts, as well as problematic issues of the protection of the right to property damaged during the russian-Ukrainian armed conflict. The author considers the provisions of some international treaties, which provide for the protection of the right to own property in peacetime, as well as the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights related to the violation of the right of applicants to own their property in accordance with Protocol No. 1 to the Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in connection with an international armed conflict or a situation of occupation. The author also analyzes the provisions of some sources of international humanitarian law regarding property as an object that must be protected during armed conflicts, in particular in occupied territories, and also provides examples of cases of international criminal tribunals, in whose decisions the destruction of property was recognized as a component of crimes against humanity. The author examines the question of the relationship between the sources of international human rights law and international humanitarian law in the context of the protection of the right to peaceful possession of property. The peculiarities of the institution of derogation in the context of the right to property in the conditions of an international armed conflict are analyzed. Ukraine's derogation from its obligations under international human rights treaties, including the right to peaceful possession of property, in the conditions of russian armed aggression, is studied. In addition, in the context of the armed conflict between Ukraine and russia, the objects of property rights and the interested subjects of the right to property, which is violated or limited as a result of military operation, are singled out, and the collective dimension of the right to property, which was damaged during the russian-Ukrainian armed conflict, was investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The scientific article is dedicated to the study of international and foreign practices of compensation for war crimes. The article analyzes legal mechanisms and tools used for compensating victims of war crimes in various countries of Europe and the world. The main focus is on the practice of international courts, such as the International Criminal Court (ICC), as well as national judicial institutions that handle war crime cases. Specific cases and decisions that have influenced the development of law enforcement practices in this area are examined. One of the key aspects of the work is the analysis of international treaties and conventions that regulate compensation issues, including the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, as well as the Rome Statute of the ICC. Various compensation models are considered, including monetary compensation, rehabilitation, and other forms of reparation. The article also explores the role of non-governmental organizations and international funds in the process of compensating war crime victims. The effectiveness of different approaches and mechanisms used to ensure justice and restore the rights of victims is ana lyzed. The work pays attention to the problems and challenges faced by law enforcement agencies when handling war crime cases, as well as the prospects for improving the international legal mechanism for protecting the rights of victims. The research is based on the analysis of specific cases, court decisions, and legal acts, allowing conclusions to be drawn about the current state and possible ways of developing the compensation system for war crimes. Thus, the article contributes to the scientific discussion on improving the mechanisms of legal protection for victims of war crimes and ensuring justice in in ternational law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cultural heritage is, today, particularly exposed to the devastation resulting from natural phenomena, but it is even more exposed to the destruction caused by man-made ones. Consequently, it is critical to adopt suitable and concrete provisions for its preservation and conservation. The conflict that has been raging in Ukraine since February 2022 has spotlighted problems related to cultural heritage, which is increasingly considered a military target. Digital transformation and technologies integrated with legal tools can contribute to making the system of protection and recovery of cultural assets more effective and efficient by redefining methodologies to safeguard and interact with them. This paper proposes a framework for integrating legal and digital tools that are functional for the preservation, conservation, and enhancement of cultural heritage. To define it, on the one hand, the legal instruments in force were analysed, and on the other, a literature review on the digital technologies currently available was carried out. The role of digital transformation in the cultural sphere was also examined, especially in light of Ukraine's experience with the application of digital technologies to protect and recover cultural heritage during the current conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For decades, the armed conflict in Colombia has profoundly impacted across various domains, causing psychosocial, economic, environmental, political, and moral damages throughout the country. One of the most affected sectors has been education, which involves all stakeholders within the educational system, particularly teachers who have directly or indirectly experienced this violence. This article, stemming from research on the resignification of armed conflict and peacebuilding, focuses on how teachers have transformed these impacts into educational actions that contribute to peacebuilding. We analysed the experiences and reflections of 412 participating teachers on-site in five conflict-affected zones in Colombia. Four main categories emerged: (1) psychosocial actions, (2) responsible teaching practices, (3) pedagogical actions, and (4) discussion and reflection spaces. These findings reveal insights not only about the actions that foster peace through school activities but also those within homes and, importantly, the work on oneself. While these actions may not be adopted by all teachers and do not guarantee immunity against future violent events, we believe this analysis could greatly benefit humanity. It prepares us to prevent and confront various forms of aggression, while also assisting in reframing everyday events that could nurture a vulnerable society suffering in silence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The ongoing armed conflict in Sudan has caused mass displacement, affecting mental health. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and trauma among refugees, internally displaced, and nondisplaced people, while also examining the link between displacement type, PTSD severity, and associated factors. Methods: This cross-sectional study used the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 to assess PTSD symptoms and the General Health Questionnaire-28 to evaluate depression. Data were collected from 642 participants, targeting general social media groups for those within Sudan and specific groups for refugees outside the country. Sociodemographic and trauma event data were also gathered. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS, applying one-way ANOVA and independent t-tests to compare PTSD and depression. Binary logistic regression identified associations between sociodemographic factors and PTSD symptoms. Results: Among the 642 participants, 46.3% were internally displaced people (IDP), 42.1% were refugees, and 11.7% were non-displaced individuals. Clinically significant PTSD symptoms were identified in 36.6% of the participants. Refugees had a significantly greater percentage of traumatic events (M = 4.31, SD = 2.605, p <.01). Depression symptoms were found to be strongly associated with clinically significant PTSD (p <.001). Factors significantly linked to depression symptoms included female gender (p = 0.015), being single (p = 0.048), younger age (p = 0.036), dissatisfaction with living conditions (p < 0.001), and unemployment (p = 0.021). Dissatisfaction with living conditions also significantly influenced the likelihood of developing PTSD (p <.001). Conclusion: The study found that 36.6% of participants experienced PTSD, with refugees having a 1.4 times greater risk of developing PTSD compared to IDP and non-displaced individuals. Traumatic events were moderately correlated with PTSD symptoms, though non-displaced individuals had higher exposure to such events. These findings highlight the need for targeted mental health interventions, particularly for refugees and those affected by traumatic events. Further research using probability sampling is necessary to confirm these results and inform more effective mental health policies and programs for displaced populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the use of historical analogies by political leaders during foreign policy crises. Specifically, we focus on the German, Polish and Czech leaderships' reactions to Russia's invasion of Ukraine and investigate the historical analogies which leaders invoked to justify their responses to Russia's aggression. The existing scholarship recognizes the importance of historical analogies in foreign policy decision-making, but the literature focuses predominantly on several high-profile analogies (i.e. the Munich Agreement or the Vietnam War) and lacks comparative perspective. We employ a dual-method approach that combines qualitative coding with semantic network analysis, and conduct a comparative analysis of the full spectrum of analogies used by Polish, Czech and German policy-makers. We find that politicians did not focus on a single overarching analogy, but employed a wide array of historical references. We also find that even though the countries' policies largely aligned and that their leaders often invoked the same events, the meaning of analogies and the signals they sent differed substantially across cases. Analysing the full spectrum of analogies demonstrates that justifications for supporting Ukraine were shaped more by these states' own historical traumas than by their sympathy for Ukraine, support for international law, or desire to uphold the rules-based international order. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is indicated that the realization of rights and freedoms is the practical implementation by citizens and other participants of social life of the demands provided for by the constitutional norms to satisfy requests and needs or obtain the necessary material and spiritual benefits in the manner established by law. Therefore, the mechanism for the realization of rights and freedoms is, first of all, a complex procedural and legal order for the realization of rights, freedoms and obligations, in which the law establishes a certain algorithmic nature of the order of implementation, its procedure: the sequence of actions of the bearer of rights and freedoms and the obliged subjects rights, as well as the content of these actions, the implementation of which is aimed at the most complete and accurate use of the right or freedom. In the opinion of the authors, since the factors influencing the consolidation of the value guidelines of the constitutional system are usually found at each specific stage of the development of the state, and which certainly affect the content of the principles in general, and the principles of the constitutional system in particular, the above list should be supplemented, at least one is the level of ensuring national security of the state. Considering the above, according to the authors, it would be quite logical to take advantage of the situation of potential reform of the fundamental principles of the constitutional system. Within the scope of the research, taking into account the issue of violation of the state sovereignty of our country, the modernized Constitution of Ukraine is intended to become a nationwide political and legal treaty and a fundamental law of national law. At the same time, the amended Constitution of Ukraine must ensure the proper implementation of all value guidelines of the constitutional system: people's sovereignty, human rights, the rule of law in relation to the universal principles of modern constitutionalism - legality, proportionality, legal certainty, responsibility and subsidiarity in the legal provision of rights and freedoms person and citizen, the independence and impartiality of the court, the prohibition of the retroactive effect of the law, etc. (which are now doctrinally considered as components of the principle of the rule of law). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The idea of the world as a global village has brought about various transnational problems. One of these problems is the transition of forced marriages into the modern form of slavery. Forced marriage continues to be a violation of human rights specifically in the context of modern slavery, usually existing during armed conflicts. Such a violation is linked to modern slavery as it constitutes slavery-like practices, including abuse, sexual assault, rape, domestic violence, and so on. In literature and practice, forced marriages in times of armed conflicts are usually labelled as personal problems requiring personal solutions. Factors such as financial crisis, threats to honour, and family protection lead to forced marriages in conflict zones. Such factors have been overlooked, resulting in the absence of legislation across the globe to prohibit forced marriages during conflicts. Consequently, international laws need to be on the same page in the categorization of forced marriages as modern slavery by considering it a specified form of human rights violation. Inconsistent labelling in this regard has produced ambiguity in resolving the issue through practical mechanisms. Severe violations of human rights continue to occur due to the absence of an explicit prohibition of forced marriage in armed conflicts, as highlighted through multiple case studies in this research. A preventive solution is required to hinder the practice that is feasible through the codification of the prevention mechanisms under International Law (IL) and International Humanitarian Law (IHL). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to conduct an assessment of the damage caused by the two year war in Tigray on some of the cultural heritage from Eastern Tigray. Field surveys and interviews with local inhabitants were used to collect relevant data. The gathered data were analyzed and interpreted using a qualitative approach. The survey results showed that churches, monasteries, mosques, towns, and villages were frequently shelled by combatants and that there was significant and deliberate destruction of built heritage sites and looting of sites and treasures. These data suggest that the aims of this destruction were to (1) dominate local historical narratives and identities, (2) suppress communities, and (3) exploit resources for personal gain. The hate speech engraved on the walls indicated that cultural heritage in Eastern Tigray was targeted with intention. This intentional destruction of important cultural heritage was expressed in the horrific massacre of civilians and religious leaders. The current preliminary assessment overall shows that iconic cultural resources were heavily damaged and historic documents and treasures were looted following the two-year war in Tigray. We conclude this study with an urgent call for recovery projects aimed at preventing further loss of cultural heritage in Eastern Tigray. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Nigeria face a high burden of mental health disorders, with limited access to evidence-based, culturally relevant interventions. Life skills education (LSE) is a promising approach to promote mental health and psychosocial well-being in humanitarian settings. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness and implementation of a culturally adapted LSE program delivered through in-person and mobile platforms among IDPs in Northern Nigeria. Methods: This cluster-randomized hybrid type 2 effectiveness-implementation trial will be conducted in 20 IDP camps or host communities in Maiduguri, Nigeria. Sites will be randomly assigned to receive a 12-week LSE program delivered either through in-person peer support groups or WhatsApp-facilitated mobile groups. The study will recruit 500 participants aged 13 years and older. Intervention effectiveness outcomes include the primary outcome of change in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms assessed using the PCL-5 scale, and secondary outcomes of depression, anxiety, well-being, and life skills acquisition. Implementation outcomes will be assessed using the Acceptability of Intervention Measure (AIM), Intervention Appropriateness Measure (IAM), and Feasibility of Intervention Measure (FIM). Both sets of outcomes will be compared between the in-person and mobile delivery groups. Quantitative data will be analyzed using mixed-effects linear regression models, while qualitative data will be examined through reflexive thematic analysis. The study will be guided by the Reach-Effectiveness-Adoption-Implementation-Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework. Discussion: The RESETTLE-IDPs study addresses key gaps in the evidence base on mental health interventions for conflict-affected populations. It focuses on underserved IDP populations, evaluates the comparative effectiveness of in-person and mobile-delivered LSE, and incorporates implementation science frameworks to assess contextual factors influencing adoption, fidelity, and sustainability. The study employs a community-based participatory approach to enhance cultural relevance, acceptability, and ownership. Findings will inform the development and scale-up of evidence-based, sustainable mental health interventions for IDPs in Nigeria and other humanitarian contexts. Trial sponsor: Dalhousie University, 6299 South St, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT06412679 Registered 15 May 2024. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Supportive social connections are a crucial determinant of the mental health and adjustment of youth in conflict-torn regions. Conflict-affected youth face particular risks to their well-being due to high levels of trauma exposure and perpetration of violent acts as members of armed groups and post-conflict discrimination. However, little is known about the possible protective role of close relationships with caregivers in the aftermath of trauma. This study examined whether a higher perceived quality of relationships with caregivers would attenuate the associations between exposure to traumatic experiences and four indicators of adjustment (posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS], emotional problems, behavioural problems, criminal behaviour) in a sample of 268 war-affected youth (61.2% male, Mage = 16.31 years) living in Bukavu, Democratic Republic of Congo. More than half of the present sample (56.7%) were former members of armed groups. Methods: Data were collected using quantitative structured interviews and analyzed through regression models using the PROCESS macro. Results: Higher cumulative trauma exposure was significantly related to higher levels of PTSS and emotional problems, while more frequent perpetration of war-related violence was significantly related to higher levels of PTSS, behavioural problems, and criminal behavior. The perceived quality of relationships with caregivers significantly moderated the associations between youth's cumulative trauma exposure and all four outcomes. At higher perceived quality of relationships with caregivers, the associations between trauma exposure and emotional problems, behavioural problems, and criminal behaviour were no longer significant and the association with PTSS was significantly weakened. Higher perceived quality of relationships with caregivers was also directly significantly related to lower levels of mental health problems and criminal behaviour. Conclusions: The findings suggest that interventions that focus on strengthening relationships with caregivers are crucial for supporting the mental health and functioning of youth who experienced and perpetrated war-related violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Evidence generated on utilization of maternal health services during times of conflict can inform the development of targeted interventions. The deadly war in Tigray caused the health system to collapse. However, utilization of maternal health services is not well documented that might help in design effective interventions applicable during armed conflict. Thus, this study aimed to assess maternal health service utilization and bridge the gap in healthcare provision and support during conflict.. Methods: A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted among mothers of children under the age of 1 year in six accessible zones of Tigray from August 4–20, 2021. The study participants were selected through a random sampling method. The study was conducted during the armed conflict where the access to health services was limited due to the damaged and looted health facilities. A descriptive study was used to characterize the study population and data were presented using proportions and percentages. A Chi-square test was used for categorical variables and a P-value of 0.05 was considered significant.. Results: A total of 4,381 participants were included in the study. Modern contraceptives were used by 1002 (22.9%) of women, and injectable contraceptives were the most common method used by 472 (47.1%) women. Likewise, only 830 (36.5%),1956 (47.1%), and 623 (15.0%) respondents reported the use of optimal antenatal care (ANC), skilled delivery, and postnatal care (PNC) in the first 24 h by mothers, respectively. About 34% of women received comprehensive abortion care services. Most delivery services took place in hospitals. Residence has shown a significant difference in using maternal health services at p-value < 0.001. Conclusion: The conflict in Tigray has had a profound impact on maternal health services, resulting in a significant disruption that is disproportionately high in rural areas. Immediate action is required to provide access to lifesaving interventions for basic maternal health services. The timely initiation of these services is crucial in addressing the pressing needs of pregnant women and their infants. By implementing comprehensive and targeted interventions, we can mitigate the potential long-term consequences and ensure that maternal health services are effectively reinstated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Africa, as one of the regions with significant political instability in the world today, experiences ongoing armed conflicts that have a serious impact on the peace and stability of the region and the international situation. Based on data from three types of armed conflict points in the 54 countries of Africa, a study was conducted on the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of armed conflicts in Africa from 1989 to 2021, using statistical analysis, kernel density, average center, and hotspot analysis methods. The results are as follows:(1)From 1989 to 2021, armed conflicts in Africa showed a trend of increase, decrease, and then increase again, exhibiting an overall "U-shaped" development pattern. At the same time, the number of conflicts is on the rise, with the hierarchy of conflict types being state armed conflicts > one-sided violent armed conflicts > non-state armed conflicts;(2)The spatial distribution characteristics revealed by kernel density analysis show that armed conflict outbreak points in Africa roughly form a "three" pat‐ tern from North Africa to South Africa. The main concentration of armed conflict outbreaks is along the Mediterranean coast, the region around 10° north and south latitude that crosses the equator, and the southern region of Africa;(3)The migration of armed conflict centers in Africa is mainly concentrated in the central region of Africa, intersected by the equator. The migration path of the centers includes the Democratic Republic of Congo, Chad, South Sudan, and the Cen‐ tral African Republic;(4)In terms of the distribution of hotspots and cold-spots, the high concen‐ tration of armed conflicts in Africa is mainly found in the central region, the northern part of North Africa, and the northern part of East Africa. The relatively low-conflict areas are mainly located in the western part of West Africa, the southern part of Central Africa, the southern part of East Africa, and South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Democratic Republic of Congo has sizeable development potential with abundant resources and energy in Africa, but it is subject to the negative impact of armed conflicts for a long time. Taking the armed conflicts of DRC from 1992 to 2021 as the research object, this paper comprehensively uses GIS models including standard deviation ellipse, nearest neighbor index, kernel density estimation and multi-distance spatial cluster analysis to comb the spatial pattern and evolution characteristics of the armed conflicts in the DRC. The results show that the armed conflicts in the DRC have always presented the spatial characteristics of agglomeration in the past 30 years. From the perspective of spatial structure change, the spatial pattern of armed conflicts in the DRC has changed from "one belt, six cores" to "one belt, one core", with North Kivu, Ituri and South Kivu provinces as the core. From the perspective of spatial agglomeration degree, the scope of armed conflicts in the DRC has been reduced, but the agglomeration degree has been increasing. From the perspective of spatial diffusion direction, the diffusion direction of the armed conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo has changed from "east-west" to "northeast-southwest", showing a significant directivity in the spatial diffusion direction. This paper also argues that geography, resources, society and international factors are the primary causes of armed conflicts in the DRC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing literature has documented widespread variation in the extent to which insurgents provide public goods, collect taxes, and regulate civilian conduct. This paper offers what is, to our knowledge, the first study of the long-term economic legacies of rebel governance. This effect is theoretically unclear. Rebel governance may generate incentives for households to expand production and accumulate resources. However, rebel rule may be too unstable to maintain such incentives. We explore empirically the effect of rebel rule on households' economic resilience using a longitudinal dataset for Colombia. Results show a positive relation between wartime rebel rule and the ability of households to cope with weather shocks in the post-war period. Households in regions where armed groups were present but exercised limited or no intervention fare worse. This effect is associated with infrastructure improvement led by armed groups, their intervention in dispute adjudication, and their close interactions with local populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using data from its national university entrance exam, we examined the relationship between armed conflict and student achievement in Afghanistan. Exploiting the province-year variation in exposure to conflict intensity, we estimated the relationship between conflict and exam results generally and by gender for all test takers from 2014–2019. Findings show that a one standard deviation increase in conflict intensity at the province-year level was associated with a 2.9 percentage point reduction in the probability of passing the exam, a 0.096 score point reduction in total exam scores, and a greater detrimental impact on women's exam results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change stands out as an especially pressing global concern. The aim of the present study was to explore whether climate change worry decreases during armed conflicts, using two time-points: before and during an armed conflict. Guided by the Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (TTSC), we examined the interplay between risk appraisal, pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs), and climate change worry. A sample of 202 Israeli adults participated in two waves of data collection, completing self-report measures addressing climate change worry, risk appraisal, and PEBs. Results revealed a significant decline in climate change worry and risk appraisal during the armed conflict, whereas PEBs remained unchanged. Contrary to expectations, the associations between risk appraisal, PEBs, and climate change worry did not weaken during the conflict. Mediation analyses indicated that the decline in risk appraisal led to a decline in PEBs, which subsequently contributed to a decline in climate change worry. However, this mediation effect was partial, with most of the association remaining direct. These findings imply that the psychological impact of armed conflict may temporarily overshadow environmental concerns, emphasizing the need for strategies to maintain environmental awareness and behavior even during an armed conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Crises require changes to established structures, and this also applies to ambulance services. This case report addresses the Ukrainian ambulance service and the changes resulting from the armed conflict in Ukraine. The purpose of this article is to provide insight into the activities of the ambulance service of the Kharkiv region, the second-largest city in Ukraine. Kharkiv is still under heavy fire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The impact of the active hostilities associated with Russia's large-scale armed invasion of the territory of Ukraine on soil degradation as a result of military actions has resulted in soil damage due to heavy military armored vehicles. Debris from destroyed military equipment, ammunition, and fuel remnants lead to multi-factor damage to the soil system, causing local and global pollution and losses of soil resources. In all the studied cases, mechanical, chemical, and physical soil degradation were observed. This was manifested in changes in granulometric fractions at explosion sites, burning areas, and locations with heavy-metal contamination. Equipment incineration has resulted in an increase in the sand fraction (2.0–0.05 mm) by 1.2–1.8 times and a decrease in the clay fraction (<0.002 mm) by 1.1–1.2 times. The soil contamination levels with regard to heavy metals significantly surpass health standards, with the highest pollution levels observed for Pb, Zn, and Cd. Across all affected areas, changes occurred in the microbiome structure (a 20.5-fold increase in the proportion of mycelial organisms), microbiological process activity was suppressed (a 1.2-fold decrease), microbial biomass (a 2.1-fold decrease) was reduced, and high soil toxicity (99.8%) was observed. Explosions and the pyrolysis of armored vehicles have a significant impact on soil mesobiota and plants. The results indicate the existence of complex interactions between various factors in the soil environment post-explosion, significantly affecting soil health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The convergence of global demographic changes and rising humanitarian crises in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) has raised the number of affected older people (OP). These individuals face the challenges of aging and the adverse conditions of disasters, particularly pronounced in LMICs. This review aims to explore literature on the health and well-being of older populations during humanitarian crises in LMICs. Methods This scoping review included primary studies on the health and well-being of older populations in humanitarian crises in LMIC. A search was conducted in five bibliographic databases last updated in 2023. A numerical summary and thematic analysis of study characteristics and themes were executed and findings were narratively synthesized. Results A total of 84 eligible studies were included. The majority of studies were quantitative (n = 56), followed by qualitative (n = 22) and mixed-methods (n = 6). Most literature focuses on the high burden of mental health conditions and their determinants, such as depression, anxiety, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The second most common theme is physical health, discussing high levels of mortality, disability, some non-communicable diseases, and limited evidence on the poor nutritional status. OP lack access to routine healthcare due to cost barriers. The key gaps in the literature are in mental and psychosocial health, especially pertaining to vulnerabilities and risk factors, and to contextualized interventions. Physical health research is relatively narrow lacking a wider range of chronic diseases while no research was performed on communicable diseases other than COVID-19. Conclusions Findings show the complex vulnerabilities of OP in humanitarian crises which exacerbate their physical, mental, and psychosocial health outcomes. There is a need to strengthen evidence on the effectiveness of interventions, and to investigate determinants of health, especially mental and psychosocial health, across different contexts. Research should also explore cross-cutting issues like gender, access to livelihoods, and equitable access to humanitarian assistance.

Abstract Background War causes severe suffering and harm to the civilian population. Knowledge about civilian injury patterns constitutes a part of the dimensioned planning and preparedness for medical care and civilian defence in times of war. This systematic review is conducted on request from The Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare and includes civilian injury patterns in modern war. Methods The aim of the study is to describe civilian injury patterns in war 1973–2023. We have conducted a systematic review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol. The protocol has been registered 2023-05-06 in PROSPERO (CRD4202321483). Results The search resulted in 3455 identified articles. 1226 of those were duplicates. 2229 studies were assessed, and 1817 papers were excluded. 412 papers went through full text assessment resulting in 63 remaining papers. Injuries to the extremities constitutes 50%, followed by head injuries (26%) and injuries to the chest (18%). Notably, 23% of the wounded are children. Discussion There is no standardized classification or method to report and describe civilian war injuries and the injury panorama. Variations in how the injuries were reported made synthesis of the results difficult. In the present survey we haven’t investigated mortalities and causes of death. Reliable data from recent wars, such as the ongoing war in Ukraine and Gaza, was missing from the open literature. Conclusions The distribution of injuries seems comparable with data from World War II and the conflict in Korea. There is no standardized simple protocol to report civilian injuries in war. Ideally, a protocol should include even the severity impact of the injuries. Knowledge of civilian injury pattern and estimate of the total number of wounded is important to plan the civilian health care capabilities in war time.

Cultural heritage is, today, particularly exposed to the devastation resulting from natural phenomena, but it is even more exposed to the destruction caused by man-made ones. Consequently, it is critical to adopt suitable and concrete provisions for its preservation and conservation. The conflict that has been raging in Ukraine since February 2022 has spotlighted problems related to cultural heritage, which is increasingly considered a military target. Digital transformation and technologies integrated with legal tools can contribute to making the system of protection and recovery of cultural assets more effective and efficient by redefining methodologies to safeguard and interact with them. This paper proposes a framework for integrating legal and digital tools that are functional for the preservation, conservation, and enhancement of cultural heritage. To define it, on the one hand, the legal instruments in force were analysed, and on the other, a literature review on the digital technologies currently available was carried out. The role of digital transformation in the cultural sphere was also examined, especially in light of Ukraine’s experience with the application of digital technologies to protect and recover cultural heritage during the current conflict.

Abstract Background The ongoing armed conflict in Sudan has caused mass displacement, affecting mental health. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and trauma among refugees, internally displaced, and nondisplaced people, while also examining the link between displacement type, PTSD severity, and associated factors. Methods This cross-sectional study used the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist for DSM-5 to assess PTSD symptoms and the General Health Questionnaire-28 to evaluate depression. Data were collected from 642 participants, targeting general social media groups for those within Sudan and specific groups for refugees outside the country. Sociodemographic and trauma event data were also gathered. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS, applying one-way ANOVA and independent t-tests to compare PTSD and depression. Binary logistic regression identified associations between sociodemographic factors and PTSD symptoms. Results Among the 642 participants, 46.3% were internally displaced people (IDP), 42.1% were refugees, and 11.7% were non-displaced individuals. Clinically significant PTSD symptoms were identified in 36.6% of the participants. Refugees had a significantly greater percentage of traumatic events (M = 4.31, SD = 2.605, p

Background. Ongoing military conflicts in various regions of the world have a significant negative impact on women’s health, including access to health services, maternal mortality and general well-being. Objective of the review: to provide a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impact of war on refugee women, highlighting key areas such as physical health, mental health, reproductive health and access to basic services. Analysis of literary data. Numerous barriers faced by women in armed conflict are considered. The main problems include insufficient transport connections, financial constraints, poor quality of medical services and cultural norms. The destruction of the health care infrastructure, the lack of medicines and personnel significantly limit the availability of reproductive health care services. These factors contribute to an increase in the number of home births without qualified support, which increases the risk of maternal and child mortality. Also important is the psychological impact of war, including stress, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, which are common among pregnant women. In addition, malnutrition and environmental toxins further complicate the situation, undermining the health of women and newborns. Thus, conflict-induced food insecurity leads to malnutrition among pregnant and lactating women, causing adverse health outcomes such as anemia, low birth weight, and increased susceptibility to infections. Exposure to environmental toxins from modern weapons, such as heavy metals, poses long-term health risks to pregnant women and their babies. In particular, toxins can affect the emotional and cognitive development of children. Conclusions. This review highlights the urgent need for comprehensive health services, integrated medical and psychosocial support, and targeted interventions to address these challenges. Improving access to quality health care, ensuring food security and mitigating environmental risks are critical to improving maternal and child health.

This article presents the main features of the historical genesis of the international security paradigm shift from its institutionalisation to the present day. It is shown that such genesis is sinusoidal in nature and related to the well-known 'Kondratiev waves', except that, unlike the latter, it is not economic in nature, but security in nature. In a historical and geopolitical context, five successive shifts in the international security paradigm (Pre-Systemic, Westphalian, Vienna, Versailles, Yalta-Potsdam, Unipolar) are distinguished as a normatively recognised system of international relations of war and peace, based on all countries' adherence to universally recognised principles and norms of international law, as enshrined in relevant international treaties. The main factors of the end of the era of the unipolar world and the growing role of 'fragile' states in the international security environment as potential objects of international military interventions and spaces for the deployment of local conflicts and wars were characterised. It was concluded that the war in Ukraine is a key trigger for a new paradigm shift in international security and the emergence of a new system of international relations, and that the outcome of the Russian-Ukrainian war will determine the 'starting positions' and strong arguments in the hands of the United States of America and its allies against China and its allies during the inevitable new global security conference on the creation of a new world order.

Abstract Background Internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Nigeria face a high burden of mental health disorders, with limited access to evidence-based, culturally relevant interventions. Life skills education (LSE) is a promising approach to promote mental health and psychosocial well-being in humanitarian settings. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness and implementation of a culturally adapted LSE program delivered through in-person and mobile platforms among IDPs in Northern Nigeria. Methods This cluster-randomized hybrid type 2 effectiveness-implementation trial will be conducted in 20 IDP camps or host communities in Maiduguri, Nigeria. Sites will be randomly assigned to receive a 12-week LSE program delivered either through in-person peer support groups or WhatsApp-facilitated mobile groups. The study will recruit 500 participants aged 13 years and older. Intervention effectiveness outcomes include the primary outcome of change in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms assessed using the PCL-5 scale, and secondary outcomes of depression, anxiety, well-being, and life skills acquisition. Implementation outcomes will be assessed using the Acceptability of Intervention Measure (AIM), Intervention Appropriateness Measure (IAM), and Feasibility of Intervention Measure (FIM). Both sets of outcomes will be compared between the in-person and mobile delivery groups. Quantitative data will be analyzed using mixed-effects linear regression models, while qualitative data will be examined through reflexive thematic analysis. The study will be guided by the Reach-Effectiveness-Adoption-Implementation-Maintenance (RE-AIM) framework. Discussion The RESETTLE-IDPs study addresses key gaps in the evidence base on mental health interventions for conflict-affected populations. It focuses on underserved IDP populations, evaluates the comparative effectiveness of in-person and mobile-delivered LSE, and incorporates implementation science frameworks to assess contextual factors influencing adoption, fidelity, and sustainability. The study employs a community-based participatory approach to enhance cultural relevance, acceptability, and ownership. Findings will inform the development and scale-up of evidence-based, sustainable mental health interventions for IDPs in Nigeria and other humanitarian contexts. Trial sponsor Dalhousie University, 6299 South St, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT06412679 Registered 15 May 2024.