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Background: Mangrove ecosystems exhibit significant carbon storage and sequestration. Its capacity to store and sequester significant amounts of carbon makes this ecosystem very important for climate change mitigation. Indonesia, owing to the largest mangrove cover in the world, has approximately 3.14 PgC stored in the mangroves, or about 33% of all carbon stored in coastal ecosystems globally. Unfortunately, our comprehensive understanding of carbon flux is hampered by the incomplete repertoire of field measurement data, especially from mangrove ecosystem-rich regions such as Indonesia and Asia Pacific. This study fills the gap in greenhouse gases (GHGs) flux studies in mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia by quantifying the soil CO2 and CH4 fluxes for different land use types in mangrove ecosystems, i.e., secondary mangrove (SM), restored mangrove (RM), pond embankment (PE) and active aquaculture pond (AP). Environmental parameters such as soil pore salinity, soil pore water pH, soil temperature, air temperature, air humidity and rainfall are also measured. Results: GHG fluxes characteristics varied between land use types and ecological conditions. Secondary mangrove and exposed pond embankment are potential GHG flux sources (68.9 ± 7.0 and 58.5 ± 6.2 MgCO2e ha− 1 yr− 1, respectively). Aquaculture pond exhibits the lowest GHG fluxes among other land use types due to constant inundation that serve as a barrier for the release of GHG fluxes to the atmosphere. We found weak relationships between soil CO2 and CH4 fluxes and environmental parameters. Conclusions: The data and information on GHG fluxes from different land use types in the mangrove ecosystem will be of importance to accurately assess the potential of the mangrove ecosystem to sequester and emit GHGs. This will support the GHG emission reduction target and strategy that had been set up by the Indonesian Government in its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) and Indonesia's 2030 Forest and Other Land Use (FOLU) Net Sink. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artocarpus altilis, commonly known as breadfruit, is a potential crop adapted to a wide variety of climates and widely spread, including in Indonesia. However, information on how this species can adapt to climate change, in particular in Central Java, is still limited. In Indonesia, Central Java is the center for cultivation areas for many crop species to support the 145 million people living on Java Island. One of the potential crops being developed in Central Java is breadfruit. To assess the suitable cultivation areas for breadfruit, species distribution modeling (SDM) was used to predict the current and future (2050-2070) distribution of breadfruit. Two climate change scenarios, including optimistic RCP2.6 and pessimistic RCP8.5 models, were considered to represent future climate change impacts. Based on the results for both optimistic and pessimistic scenarios, the breadfruit's suitable cultivation areas will expand eastward. Implementing a mitigation climate change scenario and limiting the temperature increase to only 1 °C under RCP2.6 will provide 270.967 km² more of suitable cultivation areas for breadfruit in 2050 and 133.296 km² in 2070. To conclude, this study provides important information on the status and potential cultivation areas for breadfruit, mainly in the Southeast Asia region. The identification of suitable areas will guide land conservation for breadfruit to support food security in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrass meadows serve as vital blue carbon ecosystems, sequestering significant amounts of CO2 and playing a crucial role in climate change mitigation. Semujur Island, located in the Bangka Belitung Province, exemplifies numerous small Indonesian islands boasting extensive seagrass meadows lining their shores. This research seeks to (1) describe the community structure of seagrass on Semujur Island, (2) assess the carbon storage within the seagrass ecosystem, and (3) analyze the relationship between seagrass community structure and carbon reserves across three distinct sites. According to the results of this study, there are eight species of seagrass on Semujur Island, i.e., Cymodocea rotundata, Enhalus acoroides, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Oceana serrulata, Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassia hemprichii, and Thalassodendron ciliatum. Diversity indices varied among sites, ranging from 1.48 to 1.72. Species evenness indices varied between 0.83 and 0.92, while dominance indices varied between 0.20 and 0.28. The highest estimated carbon stock was obtained at the site dominated by the species H. uninervis (75.11 MgC/ha); followed by the site dominated by T. hemprichii (50.55 MgC/ha). The correlation between seagrass community structure, including density and coverage, and carbon stocks demonstrated a moderate positive correlation, with coefficients of 0.430 and 0.528, respectively (p<0.05). This research highlights the significance of integrating ecological dynamics into the management of seagrass ecosystems to enhance climate change mitigation efforts. Additionally, it offers valuable data as a reference for the restoration and conservation of seagrass ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review aimed to evaluate the impacts of oil palm-cattle integration systems on food security and environmental sustainability. We reviewed more than 100 papers and selected those that reported the advantages of these systems. Oil palm-cattle integration has been implemented in some Southeast Asian countries, especially in Malaysia and Indonesia, but it is not widely adopted by oil palm plantations. These systems are mainly driven by policies to enhance food security and reduce environmental impacts. Oil palm-cattle integration can contribute to several Sustainable Development Goals, such as (SDG 1 and 2) no poverty and zero hunger, because it allows for more and diverse food production on the same land, and it increases the income per hectare by up to 15% due to higher oil palm yield (up to 4 t FFB/ha) and lower weed control costs (up to 60%) with rotational grazing. It can also support (SDG 6, 12, 13) responsible production and consumption, clean water and sanitation, and climate action, because it can decrease herbicide use, enhance biodiversity (understory and beneficial species), and improve soil quality. Moreover, it can mitigate the risk of indirect land use change associated with deforestation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests play an essential role in climate change mitigation by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing carbon in biomass. Carbon sequestration can be increased by the extension of rotation cycles in existing plantation forests. This study examines the cost‐effectiveness of the remuneration scheme employed by Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), a commonly used carbon accounting method based on the average amount of carbon stored in the forest. We compare the net present value of carbon remuneration under VCS with that of a scheme that remunerates actual carbon storage in each year which we call "current carbon accounting." We use data for an Acacia mangium plantation in Indonesia where the forestry sector is expected to contribute more than half of the reductions of carbon emissions according to Indonesia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement. For our baseline scenario, we find, first, that the payments needed to incentivise additional carbon storage under VCS are considerably higher than under current carbon accounting. Second, the inefficiency is more pronounced at lower discount rates. Third, recent prices reported for VCS forest credits are not sufficient to incentivise forest managers to lengthen the forest rotation in Indonesian plantation forests. Recommendations for Resource Managers: Older forests store more carbon. Using a multiple rotations model our study determines how carbon payments incentivise forest managers to lengthen the forest rotation and, hence, to sequester and store more carbon. Forest managers should consider carbon remuneration options in their forest management decisions, in particular when choosing the length of the rotation period.Optimal forest management is impacted by the design of the remuneration scheme. It matters in particular whether carbon sequestration or carbon storage is paid for.Fund managers can incentivise larger amounts of carbon storage through careful design of the carbon remuneration scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change due to global warming will have an impact on marine and coastal ecosystems, including causing loss of biodiversity and threatening the sustainability of marine and coastal resources. The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) made Indonesia, which is a tropical archipelagic state as one of the hotspots that is very at risk of being affected by global warming. This risk is especially experienced by cities on the coast. Therefore the importance of adaptation, especially in dealing with the impacts of climate change that has already occurred. The adaptation process cannot be delayed any longer because the earth's temperature will certainly increase beyond the threshold of 1.5 degrees Celsius in 2030 compared to the pre-Industrial Revolution temperature of 1850. Currently, the global temperature increase has reached 1.1 degrees Celsius. Therefore, Indonesia must immediately make adaptation efforts by utilizing the Blue Carbon Ecosystem which is based on research that blue carbon can absorb and store 100 times more carbon and is more permanent than forests on land. This stored carbon can be stored for thousands of years. Because of this great potential, coastal ecosystems can play many roles as adaptation solutions and mitigation of climate change impacts. Therefore researchers conduct research with the aim of the research is to create Strategies and Adaptation Efforts for Utilizing Blue Carbon Ecosystems: Disaster Resilience, Climate Crisis, and Sustainable Development, with the main target of implementing Resource Based Theory in developing strategies for utilization of Marine Resources, especially Utilization of Carbon Ecosystems Blue in Indonesian marine environment. This research is expected to provide theoretical and empirical evidence related to the development of blue ecosystem utilization strategies, climate crisis, and sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indonesia has the largest tropical peatlands in the Asia-Pacific region and the world's second largest tropical peatlands. Growing concerns on peatland conservation and restoration emphasise the importance of these ecosystems for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Although Indonesia's peatlands are well-studied compared with other tropical countries, there are still uncertainties regarding its peat volume and carbon stock estimations, and how important it is locally and globally. To solve these uncertainties, this study estimated peat volume and carbon stock in Indonesia using the national peatlands data published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Indonesia and analysed greenhouse gas emissions among the major industrial sectors in the country and global emissions by peatland degradation. Our study posited that anthropogenic disturbance degraded Indonesian peatlands and that the country could become the largest greenhouse gas emitter in the world. Therefore, successful conservation and restoration of Indonesia's peatlands could significantly contribute to global climate change mitigation and adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant efforts have been invested to restore degraded peatlands in Indonesia considering the high mitigation potential as an effective natural climate solution. However, peat restoration in Indonesia faces challenges such as suboptimal planning and risk management. In this study, we assessed the national potential peat restoration area using spatial analysis and identified the associated risks based on lessons learned from past restoration efforts. We estimated the extent of potential restoration areas by analyzing canal networks, burnt areas, and critical land maps at the national scale. We conducted focus group discussions (FGD), in‐depth interviews, followed by a national workshop with relevant stakeholders to assess the potential risks and develop risk management strategies for peat restoration. Our analysis estimated 6 Mha, or 45% of Indonesia's total peatland area, as potentially restorable areas for rewetting and/or revegetation efforts. Of this potential area, 50% falls under concession holder management. The identified risks consisted of technical (39%), management (38%), social (17%), and economic (6%) factors, with 15 and 22% classified as extreme and high risk, respectively. Policymakers can use these findings to strengthen regulations and improve the chances of successful restoration implementation, supporting Indonesia's emissions reduction target and providing economic benefits for restoration actors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Responding to the Paris Agreement and climate change mitigation, Indonesia aims to reach net zero by 2060 or sooner. Due to Indonesia's dependence on coal and growing consumption, alternative sources of clean energy are imperative for meeting its rising energy needs and reducing energy-related greenhouse gas emissions to achieve the energy transition. This project aims to examine Indonesia's opportunities and potential to achieve low carbon ambition in the energy sector and identify alternative pathways for the energy transition in Indonesia. In this study, the open-source energy modelling system (OSeMOSYS), which is a long-term energy system modelling tool, is employed to compare electricity generation, investment, and carbon dioxide emissions between business-as-usual and five alternative scenarios. Six scenarios, including business as usual, least-cost, two coal-phrase out and two net zero aligned with national climate targets and optimal scenarios, were simulated across different target years. The results show that the net zero (NZ) scenario is more cost-effective and emits fewer greenhouse gases than the other scenarios in meeting Indonesia's future energy demand. However, achieving net zero by 2050 (NZ50) results in significantly lower CO2 emissions (10,134 MtCO2), which is less than half of the emissions in the net zero by 2060 (NZ60) scenario (16,849 MtCO2) at a similar cost (6229 and 6177 billion USD, respectively). This paper's insights emphasise that large-scale renewable energy deployment and coal retirement are critical pathways to reaching carbon neutrality and achieving the energy mix transition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangrove ecosystems in Indonesia, essential for coastal protection and carbon sequestration, are under severe threat from deforestation. This article emphasizes their significance and their role in Indonesia's climate change mitigation strategies. Their carbon sequestration capacity is substantial, potentially preventing significant CO2 emissions. Indonesia is committed to climate change mitigation, with its Enhanced Nationally Determined Contribution focusing on the Forest and Other Land Use (FOLU) sector, where mangroves are pivotal. However, optimizing this potential and involving local communities present challenges due to weak enforcement, policy conflicts, and limited community engagement. Based on a case study in South Sumatra, this study highlights the importance of involving local governments and communities in mangrove conservation efforts as a climate change mitigation measure. By applying a jurisdictional approach, especially through social-forestry schemes (e.g. Village Forests and mangrove-based ecotourism), local governments can play a crucial role in preserving mangrove ecosystems, integrating them into climate policies, and supporting community empowerment while achieving climate change mitigation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural landscapes play a crucial role in global carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. The presence of trees outside forests has been recognized as a significant carbon pool, but it is crucial to acknowledge that these trees serve purposes beyond being a carbon sink. This study focuses on integrating border trees and home gardens as distinct land use classes in Indonesian Javanese agricultural land to assess their impact on carbon stock potential and biodiversity connections. The objective is to classify and quantify the tree composition of these classes, estimate their carbon stock potential, analyze plant species diversity, and identify the ecological connections between home gardens and field borders. To achieve this, high-resolution multispectral and Synthetic Aperture Radar images were used from four sampling areas covering 100 km2 each in Lamongan and Malang districts, East Java, Indonesia, for land cover/land use mapping. The land use function method was used to identify border trees and home gardens as separate land use classes. Carbon stock potential was estimated based on tree cover composition, while plant species diversity was analyzed through field surveys and farmer focus group discussions. Crops with border trees cover approximately 28% to 48% of the cropland area in the study sites, while home gardens represent about 74% to 85% of the settlement area. This suggests a potential to double tree presence in these sites by adopting border trees and home gardens practices across the entire area. The median tree cover ratio was around 27% for border trees and 33% for home gardens. This stratification approach identified 31% to 50% more carbon stock compared to calculations using standard classes. Furthermore, home gardens and border trees show a positive correlation with species richness, indicating their role as keepers of biodiversity. Therefore, home gardens and border trees could serve as a sustainability indicator for agricultural land in the Javanese farm system. This research contributes to sustainable agricultural practices and climate change mitigation. The stratification approach of identifying border trees and home gardens offers a cost-effective approach for the better computation of carbon stock and can lead to effective land use policies and conservation measures that promote ecological resilience. The study provides valuable insights for similar agricultural contexts worldwide, guiding efforts toward a more sustainable agricultural future. [Display omitted] • Trees outside forests constitute significant carbon pools and play diverse ecological roles, not just carbon sinks. • Proposed classification categories of "home gardens" & "border trees" can enhance our understanding of their functions. • Multispectral and Synthetic Aperture Radar images were used for the analysis of land use and land cover. • This stratification approach identifies 31–50% more carbon stock than the conventional approach. • The home gardens and border trees area have a positive correlation with the number of species richness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangrove ecosystems can absorb significant amounts of carbon and help mitigate climate change. However, their existence continues to be endangered by natural and human forces. Therefore, mangrove restoration is regarded as a crucial component of the global climate change agenda. This study aims to estimate the potential total carbon stock of restored mangrove ecosystems in Pasarbanggi, Rembang, Central Java. The above-below-ground (root) carbon stock was calculated using several published allometric equations. The loss-on-ignition method analyzed leaf litter and sediment carbon stocks. This study estimates the Pasarbanggi mangrove ecosystem's total carbon stock potential at 0.02 × 10 6 MgC, which is equivalent to the potential CO 2 emission of 0.08 × 10 6 MgCO 2 e, with up to 65% stored in sediments. This study highlights the critical role of restored mangrove ecosystems on the climate change mitigation agenda by reducing the concentration of atmospheric CO 2 ., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Tri Retnaningsih Soeprobowati reports administrative support and travel were provided by Diponegoro University School of Postgraduate Studies., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)