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Routine mapping of snow and ice fields in the northern hemisphere was started by NOAA in 1967. Large year-to-year variations of the snow and pack-ice covers were observed. The annual mean coverage increased by 12 percent during 1971 and has remained high. The index R, which shows the approximate amount of energy reflected from the surface by snow and ice under the mean cloudiness, increased correspondingly. Thus, if the cloud cover over the snow fields did not increase substantially, the anomalous weather patterns of 1972 and 1973 could have been connected with the deficit in surface heat exchange which originated in the northern hemisphere the year before. During the past 7 years the largest changes occurred in the fall and in the continental interiors of Asia and America ( 8 ). Two synoptic parameters which could readily provide information on the development of snow and ice cover in the northern hemisphere are (i) the total area momentarily covered and (ii) the running annual mean of snow and ice coverage for the preceding 1-year period. By 20 September 1973 the annual mean coverage was 37.3 x 10 6 km 2 , 11 to 12 percent higher than at the same time during 1968 through 1970. Snow cover-fall, the season when 15 x 10 6 to 55 x 10 6 km 2 of the northern hemisphere is covered with snow and ice, started on 20 September 1973, compared to 17 September 1972 and 5 or 10 October during 1967 through 1970. The links between the atmosphere, the oceans, and the land surfaces must be better understood before the role of snow and ice can be thoroughly explained and exploited for long-range weather forecasting. But it is clear that snow, hitherto almost overlooked in synoptic meteorological reports, must be important in the mechanism of weather changes.

Quasisynoptic measurements were made to determine the spatial variability of ambient noise at the Arctic ice‐water boundary over a frequency range from 100 to 1000 Hz. The results of this investigation show that the ice‐water boundary acts as a spatially well‐defined source of ambient noise with measured noise levels near a compact edge about 12 dB higher than open water levels and about 20 dB higher than levels far in the ice field. Measured noise levels near a diffuse ice edge were about 4 dB higher than open water levels, and about 10 dB higher than levels far in the ice field. The relatively high noise levels at the ice edge are probably generated by wave and swell interactions with individual ice floes.

The Slims River, one of the two outlets draining the Kaskawulsh Glacier of the Icefield Ranges, Yukon Territory, Canada, is seen to have a variation in both quality and quantity of discharge. These variations, studied for several 24 hour periods during the summer of 1970, are reflections of both the diurnal ablation pattern of the Kaskawulsh Glacier and of a shift in the glacial drainage, a shift which is thought to be due to ice movements at the glacial terminus. Water quality and quantity was measured at the bridge where the Alaska Highway crosses the Slims River and its delta in Kluane Lake. In addition, several similar measurements were taken on tributary streams entering the Slims River below the glacier terminus. Both sets of measurements show a distinct change during early August, the water quantity decreased by a factor of 3–5 and the quality became decidedly less fresh. The change in quality is considered to be a result of the decrease in the proportion of glacial melt water in the Slims River. The effects these changes in river water may have on sediment regimes in Kluane Lake are briefly discussed.

This reports on a four-man geologic reconnaissance of the eastern part of the mountains of Queen Maud Land, Anarctica. The German “Schwabenland” expedition of 1938-1939 had previously reported the so-called “oases” of ice-free lakes and dry land in the area. A description of the physiography and glaciology of the area includes a description of ice-character, fissures, heights of shelf and continental ice fields, and the nature of the coastlines. The “oases” include bedrock rolling lowlands, a nunatak zone, and block mountains. The geologic structure exhibits fault systems, block mountains, and some folding. Igneous and metamorphic rocks occur but no sedimentaries. Speculation on the development of known and probable mineral occurrences concludes that no great transportation difficulties would arise in mining and shipping ores. D. C. Alverson

1. The minimum width of incomplete bays of a dam depends decisively on the nature and degree of restriction of the watercourse by structures and, therefore, should be fixed with due regard for each construction stage. 2. For the passage of fragmented ice fields over a low sill (z>zmin), the critical bay width (to meet the condition of an uninterrupted passage of disconnected floes) can be determined by Eq. (8) and the minimum necessary width can be found from Eq. (10). 3. For the passage of floes which have become detached from the ice field on the surface of the drop ahead of the dam (z

Lemon Creek Glacier served as the focus of attention of the Juneau Ice Field Research Project from 1953 through 1958, during which period glaciological and related research was accomplished. This paper provides an historical framework for those studies by (1) considering variations of Lemon Creek Glacier in recent centuries and during millennia since the last ice age, and (2) describing certain relationships which appear to exist between these variations and the climatic record.It is found that Lemon Creek Glacier has been receding intermittently since a maximum c. 1750 and by 1958 had lost c. 25 per cent of the former area. Most rapid recession occurred during the periods 1891–1902 and 1929–58. Behaviour of the glacier since c. 1750 reveals a parallelism with glaciers in most of the regions where temperature trends have been graphed as well as with other glaciers of the Juneau Ice Field. The advances of the 1950’s observed in the Rocky, Cascade and Olympic Mountains do not, however, show up in the Juneau area. Lemon Creek Glacier has not advanced more than 375 m. beyond the 1750 position, if at all, during the last 10,000 yr.

During Fraser Glaciation central British Columbia was covered by glacier ice that accumulated in the Coast and Cariboo Mountains, flowed inwardly as a piedmont glacier to the Interior Plateau and thence northeasterly as an ice sheet toward the Rocky Mountains. After withdrawal of the Fraser ice sheet a limited re-advance of ice from Cariboo and Coast Mountains took place but not as a coalescent ice sheet. Drumlinoid forms, eskers, meltwater channels, kettled deposits, and lacustrine deposits provide ample evidence from which a glacial history of the area can be deduced. Although Fraser Glaciation is not believed to have culminated as an ice dome over central British Columbia, there is some evidence to suggest that earlier glaciations did form such a dome from which ice flowed radially over the Coast and Rocky Mountains.

A number of marine water and fresh water samples were examined for the relative O18O16 ratio, and the variation of this ratio was determined to a precision of ± 0.1%. In the case of surface marine waters, for a range of salinity of 29.40%., the O16 content varies over a range of approximately 6%. The low O18O16 ratios were obtained from surface marine waters contaminated with meltwater from the ice fields, while the marine waters of high salinity were richest in O18. The observed relation between O18 content and salinity of the oceanic waters can be explained by a process of multiple stage distillation which produces a continuous loss of fresh water to the ice regions from the surface waters of the warm oceans. The lower salinities of cold ocean currents, such as the Alaskan and Californian currents, are due primarily to mixing with meltwater from cold regions. The effect of glaciation upon the isotopic method of measuring paleotemperatures is discussed. The results for deep oceanic samples and for non-typical water samples are also discussed.

Spectrograms of underwater seismic noise between 0.2 and 2.0 cps from the bottom of relatively shallow ice-covered seas show a line structure which indicates that vertical resonances occur within layers bounded at depth by the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The line structure appears with most clarity when recognizable transients are excluded. Under these quasi-stationary noise conditions, measurements of pressure spectra indicate that the seismic noise of the observed level can be generated by a vertical bobbing of the ice field as a whole.

On aerial photographs of the Patagonian ice fields several types of bands can be identified; (1) fine ogives similar to Lüder’s lines in metals; (2) dirt bands which are both the outcrop of the annual debris strata of the névé and melt borders (the Schmelzrände of von Klebelsberg); (3) annual wave ogives below some ice falls; (4) annual ogives in regenerated glaciers, the formation of which is studied; (5) large melt borders which occur at longer intervals as a result of volcanic eruptions. These latter give evidence on the volcanic activity in the middle of the Patagonian ice fields.

Analyses for pH, Na+, K+, Ca'+, Mg'+, HC03 -, Cl-, S04:- and N03 - have been made on land ice samples from Nordaustlandet, Svalbard. Total ions range from less than o· 02 to o·46 milli­ equivalents per litre, with sea salt generally the dominant component although calcium and magnesium bicarbonates are relatively more abundant in a surface sample heavily contaminated by soil material from an adjacent moraine. These ions, as well as potassium and sulphate, are present in most samples in excess of possible sea-spray supply. From the surface of a crevasse to 14m. depth down one side the concentrations of all ions except nitrate fluctuate in a similar manner. Some possible implications of the results are examined. ZusAMMENFAssuNG. Es wurden Analysen fur pH, Na+, K+, Ca:+, Mg•+, HC03 -, Cl-, S04:- and N03 - an Eisexemplaren von Nordaustlandet. Die Gesamtzahl von Ionen erstreckt sich von weniger als o,o2 bis 0,46 Milliaquivalent pro Liter, wobei Seesalz im allgemeinen den vorherrschenden Bestandteil ausmacht, obwohl Kalzium- und Magnesium-bikarbonat verhaltnismassig reichhaltiger in einer Oberflachenprobe, die schwer mit Schuttmassen von einer angrenzenden Morane verunreinigt ist, vorhanden sind. In den meisten Exemplaren sind von diesen Ionen wie auch von Kalium und Sulfa ten mehr vorhanden als durch Sprtihregen vom Seeschaum herri.ihrend moglich ist. Von der Oberflache einer Gletscherspalte bis zu 14 m Tiefe die eine Seite der Spalte hinunter schwankt die Konzentration aller Ionen mit Ausnahme von Nitrat in ahnlicher Weise. Einige moglichen Folgerungen der Resultate werden geprtift. INTRODUCTION During the past few years the study of air and rain chemistry has increased enormously, particularly in Scandinavia (see recent issues of Tellus). However, little is known of the chemical composition of precipitation in polar regions far removed from the major areas of industrial pollution; so that when Mr. Eric Plumpton of the Oxford University Exploration Club kindly offered to arrange collection of samples on their .expedition to Nordaustlandet, the opportunity was gratefully taken to obtain a series of "fossil precipitations" from the ice field. These were collected in August I955 from the "West Ice", near Brageneset and north of Wahlenbergfjorden. It is hoped that the chemical composition of the salts dissolved from the ice may be of interest not only to students of chemical meteorology, but also to persons inter­ ested in other aspects of the physico-chemical properties of ice. SAMPLING AND METHODS The collections consisted of one fresh snowfall, two samples of firn from a site 6 km. inland and 350 m. above sea level, a surface ice sample 3 m. from the edge of a moraine, another surface sample from a crevasse about I km. from the ice walls and moraines, and a series of samples at I m. intervals from the surface down to I4 m. depth in another crevasse a similar distance from the sea ice and moraines. Collections were made by exposing a fresh surface and chipping the ice with suitably cleaned metal instruments into a tin box lined with a special paper for each new sample. From this the chippings were transferred to quart polythene bottles and shipped to England for analysis. The analytical methods have been outlined previously ,X but the bicarbonate end-point has been altered to pH 5 · 7, the value for distilled water in equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide.z Before analysis the waters were filtered through Whatman 54 I papers, washed with three volumes of distilled water and one volume of sample. Some brownish material was observed in most samples, but this amounted to only a few specks in the samples from deep in the crevasse. In the upper samples there was a good deal more, especially in the sample from near the moraine, which exhibited a thick sediment at the bottom of the bottle. This brownish contamination proved to consist of sandy soil particles embedded in an organic matrix, and obviously derived from the surface of the morame.

Lakelse lake is a temperate, eutrophic lake situated on the eastern margin of the Coast Range mountains. For five years physical and chemical studies of this lake have been conducted as part of the Skeena River Salmon Investigation. Its area of 5.2 square miles (14.2 sq. km.) and mean depth of 24 feet (7.9 m.) provide a relatively small volume of water which is subject to considerable circulation from heavy winds sweeping in from the Pacific coast. Summer thermal stratification is varied and irregular, resulting in a proportionately large and unstable epilimnion. Except for a single bottom depression, oxygen concentrations remain at a high level throughout the year.During four months of the year the lake is ice covered. Large snow and ice fields provide an excellent reservoir for stream flow.Among the Skeena river lakes Lakelse is one of the most productive of sockeye salmon. Their survival does not appear to be limited directly by physical or chemical factors.

Two earlier papers discussed the pollen and peat stratigraphy of southeastern Alaska muskegs and its relation to postglacial phytogeography, climate, glacier variation, land-sea level fluctuation, and vulcanism (Heusser 1952, 1954). In an effort to extend these studies to the northwest along the border of the Gulf of Alaska, five peat sections were taken from muskegs in coastal southern Alaska, on southeastern Kenai Peninsula, and on eastern Prince William Sound. The localities at which muskegs have been sampled are shown by number on the accompanying sketch map (Fig. 1). One of the objectives of this paper is to trace the postglacial dispersal of the trees of the Coast Forest Formation in this district. Furthermore, since the district is at present part of an ecotone or transition between tundra and the coast forest (Cooper 1942), another objective is to show the postglacial relation of these two formations. The study region is also of interest in that it represents the northern terminus for two members of the coast forest. Western hemlock (Tsuga heteroPhvllal), which comprises almost 75 per cent of this forest in the Alexander Archipelago (Taylor 1932), 500 to 800 rniles southeastward, and Alaska yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) extend as far as western Prince Williamn Sound. Recent palynological investigations by Livingstone (1953), Hansen (1953), and the Alaska Terrain and Permafrost Section of the U. S. Geological Survey (William S. Benninghoff, personal communication) and those made earlier by Bowman (1934) and Knox (Judson 1946) are gradually unfolding the postglacial and earlier Pleistocene events in the Territory. Geologists, in addition, are making a concerted effort to map the Pleistocene glaciations and construct a chronology (Pewe, et al. 1953). It is the purpose of this paper to add to this evolving store of information and at the same time to augment our knowledge of the postglacial development of the Coast Forest Formation as we know it today. Field work connected with this study was supported by a Sigma Xi-Resa Grant-in-Aid and a grant from the Glacier Study Project of the American Geographical Society. Travel to the Territory was afforded by the Juneau Ice Field ResearclhL Project which is administered by the 'Nomenclature follows Hulten (1941-1950) ; in some cases plant names given in references cited in the text have been changed to follow Hulte'n.

Ice worms (Mesenchytraeus solifugus (Emery 1898)) have been found on the western coastal glaciers of North America, from the Bagley Icefield in Alaska, to Mt. Rainier, in Washington State. They are absent from the western interior and from the Central Alaska Ranges. It is speculated that their southern limit is north of the Columbia River, since this area represents the probable southern limit of Cordilleran ice.

A sonic anemometer has been used in a preliminary study of the three components of wind turbulence over ice floes near a manned drifting station. Reynolds stresses and velocity spectra have been computed. The ice field studied has an average wind drag coefficient C10 = 0.0026 under neutral atmospheric conditions.

A short term heat balance study made on the Lemon Glacier, Juneau Icefield, Alaska is described. Of the energy required to give the observed melting of the firn the net radiation over all wavelengths contributed 49%, the latent heat 8%, and the sensible heat a large 43%. The approximate equality between the net radiative component and the total eddy heat transfer is similar to the results of a previous determination on an Alaskan glacier in summer, though the latent and sensible heat proportions are different in each case.

Detailed wind and temperature profiles up to a height of 4 meters have been obtained at 30-sec intervals for a period of 20 days in March 1970 from an ice field drifting in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada. Wind speeds were measured with fast-response cup anemometers at heights of 37.5, 50, 100, 200, and 400 cm, and temperatures were measured with shielded copper constantan thermopiles at heights of 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 400 cm above the ice surface. Some 250 values of roughness length z0 have been calculated from wind profiles averaged over periods of 15 min when conditions of dynamic near-neutral stability were observed (i.e., the Richardson number at a height of 1.22 meters was less than 0.03). The roughness length was found to be a sensitive function of surface conditions. Changes were caused by rain and snow and by fluctuations of near-surface temperature through 0°C. During the first week, March 7–14, the median value of z0 was 0.084 cm, and the probability that 0.002 cm < z0 < 0.15 cm was 0.71. After moving the instrument masts to an area of visibly rougher ice, on March 19–27, z0 was found to have a median value of 0.34 cm with a probability of 0.80 that 0.05 cm < z0 < 0.40 cm. The corresponding drag coefficient C10, calculated from the wind profiles by extrapolation to the standard height of 10 meters had a median value of 1.7 × 10−3, with a probability of 0.92 that 1.0 × 10−3 < C10 < 2.5 × 10−3 and, for the second period, a value of 2.2 × 10−3 for the median, with a probability of 0.96 that 1.5 × 10−3 < C10 < 3.0 × 10−3.

Experimental studies of penetration of sea waves and swell into fields of loose pack ice were carried out by means of a ship-borne wave recorder, during a voyage into the Weddell Sea in R.R.S. John Biscoe in 1959—60. This reconnaissance study has provided the first systematic data within an ice field of the variation of wave amplitudes and period over the normal wave spectrum of 4 to 24 s. Although observations were confined to a single ship, a reasonably constant background of swell, together with varied ice conditions, has made it possible to draw certain conclusions for waves and swell of relatively small amplitudes. The penetration of long ocean swell, of periods from 11 to 23 s, into ice fields consisting of large floes of more than half a wavelength across takes place by bending of the floes. The results suggest that the fraction of the wave energy penetrating such an ice field is proportional to A 4/A3, where h is the thickness of the ice floes and A the wavelength of the swell. For periods of less than 10 s, floes of around 1.5 m thick and 40 m or less in diameter approximate to rigid floating plates. For these periods, the main energy cut-off took place when floe diameters were about one-third of the wavelength; little loss of energy occurred when floes were less than one-sixth of the wavelength across, while no detectable penetration took place when the floes were half a wavelength or more in diameter. Consideration of the results, together with limited evidence available from tide and gravimeter observations, shows that most long waves penetrate polar ice fields with little loss of energy. Discussion of the energy required to bend large ice floes indicates that long-period swell is propagated through regions covered by pack ice with little loss of energy only when the energy required to bend the floes is at least an order of magnitude smaller than the total energy of the waves.

Ground tilt measurements made once each year near the Myrdalsjokull ice field show an annual variation of tilt of 1.4–4.5 μrad. The direction of observed tilt is either toward or away from the central part of the ice field. The observed tilt correlates closely with the amount of snow on the ice field and is interpreted as the response of variable load on an elastic plate floating on liquid substratum. The thickness of this elastic crustal plate is found to be 6.5–8.5 km, and the relaxation time for the underlying liquid appears to be less than 2 weeks, and thus its viscosity is required to be less than 1013 poises, or less than that found for the earth's mantle from uplift of recently glaciated areas by about 8 orders of magnitude.

Statistical studies of 1,000–500 mb thickness, (i) occurring with frozen or unfrozen forms of precipitation and (ii) prevailing at various distances from the snow or ice limit over wide regions with snow or ice cover, over bare ground and over open sea are used to discover (a) the likelihood that precipitation will take the form of rain or snow in given circumstances and (b) the behaviour of the thickness when well-established and extensive snow or ice fields are encountered. The results indicate an important influence produced by snow fields of the order of 1,000 mi and more in longitudinal extent upon the general circulation of the atmosphere. Choice of 1,000–500 mb thickness as an indicator rests upon its adequacy and upon its general use and availability in forecasting offices; some preliminary argument is devoted to showing that the choice is reasonable on these grounds and that the lack of refinement involved in considering thicknesses of so deep a layer is not serious.

For part of 1966, Steele Glacier in the Icefield Ranges, Yukon Territory, Canada, made a spectacular advance at a rate exceeding 500 m per month. The main part of the surge continued for two years, but by early 1968 the advance had slowed to less than one tenth of the maximum rate. For most of the 35-km length of the main trunk the surface was a chaotic jumble of ice blocks, spires, and pinnacles, but large structures outlined by surface moraine were preserved. Most of these structures had been displaced 8 km by August 1967, irrespective of their original location. Preliminary measurements indicate structures were displaced similar distances down the length of the glacier and suggest that most of the glacier moved forward as a block. The surge has not been correlated with any local earthquake activity, and there is no evidence for a short-term climatic change. The movement is considered to result from critical dynamic conditions within the glacier, possibly facilitated by increased amounts of water along the ice-bedrock contact.

Glaciers and ice sheets can be classified into four types, or phases, ranging from alpine glaciers, in which the depth of ice is small in comparison to the relief of the land surface, to continental glaciers, in which the depth of ice is much greater than the relief of the land surface. In the former case the direction and rate of flow of ice are determined very largely by the topography; in the latter, by the climate. The characteristic erosion forms of each of the four phases are described, and suggestions are offered as to their origin. Illustrations of the various erosional features are taken from southern British Columbia, and a few typical glacial-erosion histories are outlined.

This paper puts forward an explanation of the origin of small marginal lakes (superglacial or moat lakes) occasionally found on the edges of valley glaciers. The explanation departs from earlier theories. On the basis of observations made on the Juneau Icefield in south-eastern Alaska, I have come to the conclusion that the lake basins are primarily blow-outs formed as a result of wind erosion.

The winter surface circulation around Cape Breton Island was studied by tracking ice fields. The resulting streamlines compare favorably with prior work.

The 1971 Icefield Ranges Research Project (IRRP) field season again was something of a paradox and, as in past seasons, weather was the guilty agent. Projects that were carried out on the continental slope of the St. Elias Mountains enjoyed relatively good weather; those pursued under the direct influence of Pacific maritime air masses suffered through possibly the worst season weatherwise since the inauguration of IRRP in 1961. Research activity at Kluane Lake camp continued year-round during 1970-1971 for the first time in ten years of operation. ... Base camp is situated on the southern end of Kluane Lake (el. c. 780 m.) and was the hub from which two full-time and four short-term field camps were supported. Air support was provided by the Arctic Institute's versatile STOL supercharged Helio Courier aircraft equipped with ski-wheels aided substantially by a Canadian Forces DeHavilland Buffalo and by two fixed-wing and two rotary-wing aircraft which were chartered locally when necessity demanded. In early July the DeHavilland Buffalo dropped over 4 tons of supplies and equipment to the Mount Logan physiology laboratory (el. c. 5,335 m). Aircraft flew approximately 270 hours in support of IRRP programs in 1971. All base camp facilities were opened for summer field research parties mid-May and were closed 12 September. As in past summers, however, maximum utilization of facilities and research activity occurred between mid-June and mid-August. Principal investigators, senior scientists and graduate students plus their assistants numbered over 70 persons. ... In all more than 100 men and women representing 30 Canadian and American colleges, universities, and research institutions and agencies participated in IRRP field investigations in physical, biological, medical, and social sciences. ... A nominal [glacier studies] program was carried out from mid-July to mid-August on the Rusty Glacier and two neighbours the Backe and Trapridge glaciers, three small surge-type glaciers for which there is evidence of a history of surging. ... During the 1971 summer field season investigations continued into significant changes in the level of Kluane Lake and shifts in direction of drainage .... Active loess transport and deposition studies began 30 May on the wide, dry floor of the Slims River valley. ... Examination of climate continued on three scales of observation here defined as micro-, meso-, and synoptic. ... Research on Dall sheep with emphasis on its range relationship continued throughout the winter. The study area encompasses Sheep Mountain (e. 1,954 m). ... Phytogeographical studies in the Icefield Ranges, begun in 1965 on nunataks and in the alpine zone above the 1,500-m level, were continued in 1971. ... Field laboratory studies [high altitude physiology] were planned to build upon and expand work which had been done in previous years and were for the most part directed towards better understanding of the role of water and salts in acclimatization to hypoxia and in acute mountain sickness. ... The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and the Arctic Institute convened a workshop at Kluane Lake camp further to refine and amplify the contributions of energy and mass balance studies. The workshop was held from 23 to 28 August. ...

The Icefield Ranges Research Project conducted its seventh field program in the St. Elias Mountains between 15 May and 1 September 1967. Under the broad categories of Earth Sciences and Biological Sciences, studies in 18 disciplines were conducted by more than 38 investigators and their assistants. This figure does not include personnel of the supporting Kluane Lake Activity of the Arctic Institute of North America, nor does it include 8 visiting investigators who took the opportunity to conduct short-term studies or to observe field programs in operation. ...

Recently there have been a number of attempts to determine the presence of pollutants in remote areas of the world. The snow of glaciers is a particularly interesting subject for such work, since it contains a record of past years as well as the present. ... Such pollutants are transported by the atmosphere, and it is especially interesting to know if they are present in precipitation that forms at high altitude. As part of the Ice Field Ranges Research Project (IRRP) of 1970, we undertook the study of another common pollutant, the pesticide DDT. Here we report on our attempt to develop techniques for taking snow samples at high altitude in locations where work had to be done under adverse conditions, and with simple equipment. Samples were taken at an elevation of 5,364 metres on Mount Logan, Yukon Territory, Canada. ... The work was performed at temperatures below -20°C, and often in high winds. At this elevation the effects of hypoxia are quite marked .... when unpacked in the field, quantities of an oily material were found on the [new SIPRE snow] auger. It was not practical to achieve a thorough cleaning under field conditions, but as much of the material as possible was removed by using Coleman Fuel - a highly refined non-leaded gasoline designed for camp stoves. Provision of suitable sample containers was an important aspect of the preparations. Two-gallon wide-mouth Nalgene jugs were used on the glacier. The mouth was large enough so that the snow core could slide into the jug directly from the auger without intermediate handling. As long as the samples remained frozen, they could be stored in plastic. However, since liquid water slowly leaches material from the jugs, the samples were transferred to glass jars as soon as they melted. ... A special effort was made in the precleaning of both jars and jugs because of the low levels of pesticide expected. ... Precautions were taken to avoid contamination during sample collection. The first few samples were discarded in the hope of removing any residual contamination from the auger. During the sampling process the auger was never touched by bare hands or gloves. The only surface which came into contact with the samples before their arrival at the laboratory were the auger and the precleaned jugs and jars. At the end of the work, one sample was deliberately mishandled as a control. It subsequently showed no contamination from either polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or DDT. Nineteen samples were taken at depths of from 1 to 15 metres. The DDT analysis was carried out ... using a gas chromatographic technique .... DDT was not detected in any of the samples. In seven of the samples the lower limit of detectibility for DDT was 5 nanograms per liter. Due to interference, apparently from PCBs, 10 to 50 ng/l of DDT could have been present in the remaining samples and not have been detected by this method. It is suggestive that the samples showing no PCB contamination were the last ones taken. It is likely that the PCB contamination came from the oily material originally on the auger, and that the remnant of this was removed during the early part of the drilling. On the basis of these results it seems that sampling of glacial snow for trace organic pollutants is feasible, even when samples must be taken under unfavourable conditions with primitive techniques. It is of paramount importance to preclean every surface that will come into contact with the sample, both sampling tools, and sample containers. ...

The Icefield Ranges Research Project (IRRP), co-sponsored by the American Geographical Society and the Arctic Institute of North America, completed its third successful field season in early September 1963. The base camp at the south end of Kluane Lake, Yukon Territory, Canada was opened on June 4 and closed on August 27. The field party consisted of Dr. W. A. Wood, as project leader and R. H. Ragle, who as field leader was assisted by four other staff members of the Institute. One of the objectives of the project is to provide graduate students working on a dissertation for a Master's or Ph.D. degree with opportunities for research and field work. Thus there were five candidates for graduate degrees among the ten scientists from various institutions and universities in the United States and Canada who carried out field work in glaciology, meteorology, climatology, geophysics, and glacial geology. One other graduate, who had received an M.S. on work in glaciology while with the IRRP in 1962, returned for further research in 1963. Support was provided by eight assistants, mostly students from U.S. and Canadian universities. The four camps that served as bases for operations were: (a) Base Camp at Kluane Lake, altitude 870 m.; (b) Kaskawulsh Camp at the glacier terminus, 920 m.; (c) Glacier Divide Camp, 2641 m.; (d) Glacier Camp, at the centre of the glacier, 2588 m. Despite the changeable weather experienced during the season the work that had been planned in the various disciplines was accomplished. ...

Reports and discusses current measurements made Aug 1966 from USS Burton Island (AGB-1) in the strait which separates Vrangelya Island from the Siberian mainland. A significant tidal oscillation of the currents is caused by the semidiurnal tide wave of the Arctic Ocean, propagating eastward through the strait. The oscillation varies in amplitude with the semimonthly tidal inequality. The long-term mean flow through the channel appears to be controlled by continuity requirements of the Chukchi Sea - East Siberian Sea systems as it responds to the regional winds. When regional atmospheric pressure gradients dictate winds E of Vrangelya and/or northerly-southerly winds to the west, the flow is west-bound through the strait, and vice versa. The surface layer and ice field respond more directly to local winds.

The Icefield Ranges Research Project (IRRP) - as was visualized nearly ten years ago - becomes each year more and more a complete study of the environment dominated by the St. Elias Mountains, Canada/Alaska. Since 1967, IRRP has been composed of three closely-integrated research units, planned to achieve the proposed aims of IRRP as defined by Dr. W.A. Wood, the original Project Director, accepted by the Arctic Institute's Board of Governors in 1961, and endorsed by the IRRP Advisory Committee. This report reviews the work accomplished by a total of over 65 scientists, their assistants, and support personnel, during the 1969 summer field season, which opened in mid-May and ended the first week in September. It is composed of post-field summaries by principal investigators researching in the disciplines of glaciology, geophysics, physical geography, botany, zoology, archaeology and physiology.

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The Ice Field Ranges Research Project concluded its fourth summer of research in the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory, Canada, on September 2, 1964. The project is sponsored jointly by the Arctic Institute of North America and the American Geographical Society and its director is Dr. Walter A. Wood. The studies of a glacierized area in terms of its total environment that were begun in 1961 were successfully continued. The base camp at the southern end of Kluane Lake (870 m.) was opened on May 29. In addition to this there were three glacier stations, Divide Station (2640 m.), Seward Station (1850 m.), and Kaskawulsh Station (1730 m.), and four satellite camps located at glacier termini (920 m. and 915 m.), and on the glaciers (3600 m. and 2420 m.). All except one of them were established and supplied by the Helio Courier H391B aircraft of the Institute. Twenty-five persons took part in the work in 1964. Of the fourteen students, representing seven colleges and universities, who participated, six are working for graduate degrees. The remaining students assisted the graduate candidates and the Institute research and administrative personnel. Members of the Institute staff, Mr. M. Mellor (U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory), Drs. C. Bull (Institute for Polar Studies, The Ohio State University), and M. Marcus (The University of Michigan) supervised the research projects. ...

The Icefield Ranges Research Project (IRRP) base camp (61° N, 138°30' W) opened its doors on 3 June. ... Four programs, supported in whole or in part by the project, were in the field before the official opening of Kluane base camp, and two research teams remained in the field through early September. From 3 June until 29 August base camp was in full operation. A total of 86 persons representing 23 colleges, universities, and institutions (12 Canadian; 11 U.S.) made use of IRRP facilities during that time. One student from the United States and 6 Canadian students were involved in field work leading to postgraduate degrees: 4 toward an M.Sc. and 3 toward a Ph.D. Peak occupancy was in the last two weeks of July and the first week of August when over 50 people were at Kluane and the 15 long- and short-term field camps. The February 1972 announcement of a Kluane National Park has generated interest in a number of multi-year programs concerned with resource inventory and planning processes. ... Under the auspices of the Arctic Institute's Visiting Scientists program two professors from the Departments of Geography at the University of Glasgow, Scotland, and Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, took part in IRRP during the last week in July and first week in August. ... Air support for IRRP, including support for the television team and climbing expeditions, was provided by the Arctic Institute's supercharged, ski-wheel-equipped Helio Courier; by a Canadian Forces DeHavilland Buffalo; and by a chartered Bell Ranger helicopter. A total of approximately 215 hours were flown in support of all programs in 1972. The twenty-foot long, wide-beam life boat was in greater demand this past summer than in any summer since 1968. ... [Research updates were provided for: 1) Glacier studies (Geophysical measurements - Tapridge and Rusty glaciers, Thermal drilling - Steele Glacier, Tapridge Glacier - survey, Glacier inventory, Kaskawulsh Glacier); 2) Glacial geology, geomorphologyand hydrology (Donjek Glacier - ice cored moraines, Donjek and Kaskawulsh glacier termini - load distribution variation and source, Slims River valley - loess transport, Donjek valley - Spring Creek alluvial fan, Ruby Range - mass wasting program), 3) Kluane Lake studies (Raised beaches - drowned forest, Drainage of glacial Lake Kloo - a reconnaissance, Zooplankton studies), 4) Biology and environmental studies (Studies of Boschniakia rossica, Plant succession on three Kaskawulsh Glacier terminal moraines, Canid predator-prey relationships in Kluane National Park, Ecological studies - Kluane National Park), 5) Archaeology (Ethnohistoric archaeology - Tatshenshini River basin, Kluane Lake - Long Point site); 6) High altitude physiology studies, 7) Mountaineering equipment evaluation program, 8) Meteorology.]

In 1970 the Icefield Ranges Research Project (IRRP) conducted its tenth consecutive summer of interdisciplinary basic research in the St. Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory, and in the valley and plateau region to the east where all aspects of the environment reflect the influence of those mountains. Summer field investigations began in April and ended the last week in August. And for the first time since the Project's inception in 1961, two programs have continued through the winter (1970-71). This opportunity to continue studies all the year round was made possible by the winterization of a log house; the work, begun in 1967 on the north side of the runway near the Kluane Base Camp, was completed with modern facilities in June 1970. This short paper briefly reviews the programs which were accomplished during the 1970 field season within the broad categories of glaciology, geophysics, physical geography, biology, and human physiology.

Presents formulae to estimate the pressure developed in a converging ice field and to calculate the resulting frictional resistance to a ship attempting to navigate through such ice. The icebreaker-tanker Manhattan is used as an example. It is shown that the power necessary to navigate in ice which is failing in compression would be prohibitive.

It is commonly assumed that due to the preponderance of sea over land the atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere should possess a strong resemblance to that of a water-covered globe with a polar ice field. This expectation is broadly confirmed, but the data presented in the following chapters show that the actual circulation is not perfectly symmetrical around the South Pole. Following the latitude circles there are appreciable regional differences in the characteristic synoptic patterns and in the surface and upper-air climate. These anomalies are not confined to the tropics and subtropics in which three continents are located, but they also occur in the almost uninterrupted oceanic belt of the middle latitudes. The eccentric disposition of Antarctica with respect to the South Pole clearly plays a vital role in the circulation over the southern high and middle latitudes.

The Icefield Ranges Research Project (IRRP) continued in 1966 to expand its areas of research. Though work began 1 June and continued until the first week in September, the major portion of the summer investigations was carried out between 20 June and 20 August. Interdisciplinary by nature, IRRP is a combination of investigations in many research fields. In the broad categories of geography, geology, and biology, there were in 1966 twenty studies conducted by more than forty persons, including support personnel. Twelve graduate and two undergraduate college students represented eight colleges and universities in Canada and the United States. Three Canadian scouts, with a number of young students and technical personnel, also assisted in various programs. The Arctic Institute was again awarded by the National Science Foundation a Research Participation for College Teachers (RPCT) grant to allow six teachers to take part in the IRRP research program. Three teachers who were awarded 1965-66 Academic Year Extension grants by the Division of Undergraduate Education in Science of the National Science Foundation returned as participants in the 1966 RPCT program. Participants were equally divided between the earth and biological sciences. IRRP also gave support in part to four independent short-term studies in geology and biology, as well as to a special reconnaissance of mountaineering objectives for the Yukon Territory's Canadian Centennial project in 1967. ...

From abstract: The Chitina Valley and adjoining area form part of a rugged alpine region in the southeast corner of the main body of Alaska and include a portion of the Chugach Mountains and most of the southern half of the Wrangell Mountains, to the north. The Chitina River is an eastern branch of the Copper River and rises in ice fields and valley glaciers occupying most of the country near the international boundary north of Mount St. Elias. The adjoining area described in this report includes the Hanagita and Bremner River district and the westward continuation of the north side of the Chugach Mountains as far as Valdez Arm and Klutina Lake. In addition, the geology of the upper White River district is described because of its relation to that of the Chitina Valley.

During the summer field season of 1968, some 70 scientists and their assistants participated in the Icefield Ranges Research Project and its associated High Mountain Environment Project. An additional 15 persons were involved in logistic or operational programs. Six full-time field stations were operated during the summer: Kluane Base Camp, Divide Station, Mount Logan, Fox Glacier, Gladstone, and Chitistone Pass. Short-term stations were also maintained at the Kaskawulsh terminus, Slims' Tundra, Donjek River, White River, Steele Glacier, Fredrika Glacier, and Glacier Creek. ...

Seven glaciers from 9 to 26 kilometers in width move 0.3 to 2.3 meters per day. Byrd Glacier is the fastest moving of the known valley glaciers in Antarctica.

M. B. VON COTTA, who once visited the Altai Mountains, is decidedly of opinion that there are no traces of the Ice period on this range. But at the southern part of the Altai, where there are some large glaciers and many ridges covered with eternal snows, there are undoubted traces of a mighty spreading of ancient glaciers. At least this is the conviction I brought back in 1870 from a rapid examination of nearly the same localities as those which have been recently visited by Mr. Bialoveski.

During Quaternary ice ages, a complex piedmont glacier repeatedly formed north of the St. Elias Mountains in Yukon Territory and Alaska. During the Macauley glaciation (the youngest), the White River valley in Alaska served as a conduit of ice that filled the valley to thicknesses of 850 to 1,150 ft (256 to 351 m) and flowed eastward into Yukon Territory, where it fed the western margin of the Macauley piedmont glacier. C 14 dates fail to pinpoint Macauley expansion in the valley, but they do indicate deglaciation by 11,270 yr B.P. and subsequent spruce immigration by 8,020 yr B.P. On as many as five occasions prior to 37,000 yr B.P., pre-Macauley ice filled the valley; on at least three occasions, it spilled northward over the valley rim. Along its upper surface, Macauley drift in the White River valley and in the adjacent Snag-Klutlan area (Rampton, 1971a) can be traced into Kluane Drift exposed farther east near Kluane Lake (Denton and Stuiver, 1966, 1967), thus permitting reconstruction of the Macauley-Kluane piedmont glacier. Near Kluane Lake, the main Kluane ice advance postdated 29,600 yr B.P., but the initial Macauley advance in the Snag-Klutlan area is not associated with finite C 14 dates. The maximum Macauley-Kluane ice extent was attained near Snag about 14,000 yr B.P. (Rampton, 1971a); subsequent recession was very rapid. Prior to the Kluane glaciation, Shakwak Trench was deglaciated to the vicinity of Kluane Lake during the Boutellier nonglacial interval ( 49,000 yr B.P.). Whether similar recession characterized the Snag-Klutlan area and White River valley is not known. The earlier Icefield glaciation (>49,000 yr B.P. near Kluane Lake) correlates with, or is younger than, the Mirror Creek glaciation (>38,000 yr B.P. in the Snag-Klutlan area). The still older Silver nonglacial interval and the Shakwak glaciation in the Kluane Lake area cannot be correlated now with other St. Elias events. Nor can pre-Macauley glaciations in the White River valley be correlated yet on a regional basis. The most striking late Wisconsin event in the St. Elias Mountains was the nearly complete disintegration of Macauley-Kluane ice within only 1,500 to 2,700 yr after attaining its maximum about 14,000 yr B.P. Several other alpine glacier systems in cordilleran North and South America showed similar rapid recession, as did larger ice sheets to a less marked degree. Quite possibly, the behavior of these sensitive alpine glaciers reflects an abrupt background climatic event that essentially terminated the late Wisconsin glaciation shortly after 14,000 yr ago. These data indicate that Termination I of Broecker and van Donk (1970) began shortly after 14,000 yr B.P. The glacial chronology of the northern St. Elias Mountains suggests that early man could have inhabited Shakwak Trench, perhaps using it as a route to British Columbia or coastal southeastern Alaska, during the Boutellier nonglacial interval, and again by 11,000 to 12,000 yr B.P. at the end of the Kluane-Macauley glaciation.

N & NORWAY, through the development of geographic features usually considered adverse, has become an industrialized nation. Located on the Arctic Circle, geographic features are ice fields covering 4 per cent of the surface of the country; many rivers of ice creeping slowly down mountain sides; snowcovered winters, and summers of abundant rainfall, with precipitation of more than 70 inches a year in some localities along the west coast. The ice, snow, and rainfall, coupled with precipitous mountains of rock, ranging from 1,500 to 6,000 feet in height, cause numerous waterfalls with a dependable flow of water. These waterfalls, as well as a number of short, swift streams, have

D URING the past quarter of a century most observations on the extent of land and sea ice have indicated a definite amelioration of climate. We may be witnessing the last stages of what the late Francois E. Matthes has called "The Little Ice Age," which began about the end of the sixteenth century. Professor H. W. Ahlmann, the well-known Scandinavian glaciologist, has stated: "It is proved by climatological, oceanographical, glaciological, and biological facts that a climatic fluctuation is now going on. In high northern latitudes it expresses itself in an improvement of the temperature, which in the last decades has been the greatest during the last 200 years. In some parts of the Tropics, e.g. East Africa, there is desiccation, probably belonging to the same climatic fluctuation. This climatic change is the first one in the endless series of climatic variations and fluctuations in the past and coming history of the Earth, which we can study, measure and possibly also explain."' Referring more specifically to the role ofglaciology, he continues: "Glaciers are very sensitive to climatic changes... They are natural climatic recorders even where no meteorological stations exist. They also tell us the history of the climate from times before any scientific investigations of climates had begun." In the summer of 1941 the American Geographical Society, motivated in part by the almost world-wide reports of enormous shrinkage of glaciers, sent a small field party into Southeastern Alaska, par excellence a region for glacier study.2 One of the areas visited was Taku Inlet, where an unusually interesting situation exists. Four large glaciers flow southward into the Taku River Valley and terminate at or near sea level; Norris Glacier and the Twin Glaciers have been receding, but, strangely, Taku Glacier and its distributary, Hole-in-the-Wall Glacier, have been advancing. Yet all four