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In a previous experiment the author investigated the influence of color on reactions to ink blots by a technique in which two independent groups of subjects were presented matched chromatic and achromatic blots. This technique was used to demonstrate that when the color variable is completely isolated it has measurable effects, which show up as group differences or trends in both the reaction time and the content of the conceptual responses. But such a technique employing independent groups for chromatic and achromatic blots has serious limitations from the point of view of providing a solution to the major experimental and clinical problems in this area. From the standpoint of experimental design, a technique based upon independent groups can yield measures only of group trends, it cannot provide a valid method of measuring the effect of a given variable upon a particular individual's reactions. Measurement of the specific effect of a variable, like color, upon particular individuals is strictly possible only if each subject serves as his own control; comparable chromatic and achromatic data for each subject must be provided.

Gillmore and Stallings criticize Nedler and Sebera's paper in terms of the experimental design, statistical analysis, and data errors in the report. I am responding because responsibility for the research design and analysis of the project in question was mine. To provide some context: Mrs. Nedler was responsible for developing the Early Childhood program reported on in the paper. She was assisted by a staff of about 12 professionals, including three teachers. Mrs. Sebera's responsibility was for testing and other data-gathering functions called for in an evaluation design developed by the Research and Evaluation Division, Southwest Educational Developmental Laboratory (SEDL), which I directed. That R&E staff included about 25 professionals, four of whom were statisticians. In October 1962 the R&E division published a complete evaluation report, wherein the project was described and results were reported. Neither Mrs. Nedler nor Mrs. Sebera has responsibility for the evaluation design, analysis, or report, although both were involved. However, Nedler and Sebera (hereafter, N & S) based the article in question on their own experiences and knowledge of the evaluation design and analysis described in the October 1969 report. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the report of two courses in chemistry taught at Cragin Elementary School in the U.S. The study is aimed to encourage and stimulate inclination toward science and to show the children what the researched laboratories looked like. Furthermore, safety has been suggested throughout the chemistry courses. The article the features the design and demonstration of the chemistry experiments. Finally, a sample a test paper and chemistry test has been presented.

The paper presented by Fertig et al. has approached the problem of repeated measures over time in a most appropriate form showing most definitively, as they state in the multi-group case, that the multivariate methods are more flexible and robust than those of the univariate analysis of variance. In the multi-group repeated measures design they have shown that the underlying assumptions of the analysis of variance approach are rarely, if ever, met; and the sphericity criterion test, which rejected even the less restrictive model assumptions as given in Huynh and Feldt, demonstrated this quite adequately, I think. The appropriate overall tests of significance were then given in both univariate and multivariate form in order to test the various hypotheses connected with the repeated measure-s design over time. Although the discussant may appear to differ in his multiple comparison approach, it is merely an extension of the overall tests as given by Fertig et al. and is only a different view of the sources of significance than those of discriminant vector analysis as utilized by Fertig et al. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper represents only a few general considerations based upon the set of replicated group-experiments conducted by Organization of Comparative Social Research (OCSR), that may be of some value for future undertakings of the same kind as our OCSR studies. Replication of an experiment in different cultural settings tends to accentuate some problems pertaining to empirical testing of social psychological theory in general.The crucial process of translating a single hypothesis into experimental terms is briefly considered. The difficulties involved depend upon the way we phrase our hypothesis; the more operational its language, the easier will be its translation into experimental manipulations and measurements. In extreme cases, when concepts are defined in terms of detailed operations such translation becomes superfluous. If our ultimate aim is to establish a body of general social psychological theory, however, strictly operational anchoring may be a very dubious procedure. A survey of current contributions toward empirically established social psychological theory therefore by and large seems to support a more daring and flexible approach.

Various studies of prerecognition responses to tachistoscopically presented words have indicated that an individual is capable of discriminating among words or classes of words below the visual recognition thresholds of the specific words themselves. More recent theoretical and experimental papers have been concerned with offering alternative explanations for subception effects rather than with demonstrating their presence or absence. A. Binder points out that discrimination between classes of objects may occur at a lower threshold than the recognition of a specific object if the class characteristics have a lower threshold than those characteristics peculiar to a specific object. The number of appropriate verbal reports is usually limited-explicitly or implicitly-by a particular experimental design. Thus, a given report may represent an attempt to reconcile what was perceived with the type of response required by the experimental instructions. The results indicate that recognition of tachistoscopically presented words is not an all or none process, but that it proceeds along a gradient. Some characteristics of the words have lower thresholds than others and are recognized at shorter exposure times.

This article presents comments in response to the article "An Experiment on Nonsampling Errors," by Eugene H. Sauls. The author broke his comments up into three sections, including how the sampling plan was designed, the conclusions that were drawn and how general recommendations fail to summarize the specific results of the experiments. The author claims that the sampling pool used was too small and homogenous in nature, which gave skewed results during the study. It is due to these flaws with the way in which the study was conducted that has led the author to refute the results that Sauls presents.

The article presents an experimental study on the gullibility of personnel managers at the University of Illinois. The study involves a published personality inventory test given to 68 personnel managers, with one report as a fake personality analysis. The participants were then to rate himself or herself using a 5-step scale, after which, a validity analysis was conducted. It was revealed that 50% of the personnel managers marked the description as amazingly accurate, 40% with rather good, and 10% with about half and half.

The article presents a study in the U.S. investigating the effects of Free versus Guided Experimentation as approaches in science teaching. The population tested was 68 teachers in three separate science workshops. The four-celled experimental design involved the following variables: a pretest, reading matter and materials to be manipulated. From the Analysis of Variance it can be seen that the pretest is a highly significant motivator for finding the answers to specific questions asked. The result suggests that the best of both possible worlds seem attainable by Free Experimentation followed by flowchart discussion.

The article focuses on the challenges to the improvement of science education research in the U. S. It points out a few major difficulties with the present research efforts being done. It also tries to define good research, suggests possible ways of producing good research and examines alternative proposals for improving research in science education. The technical difficulties with present research are presented, including poor research design, improper statistical procedures, untenable assumptions, and ungeneralizability of hypotheses being tested.

The article presents information about the scientific method of inquiry. Certain questions comes out of the view that scientific inquiry is generally accepted as an educational objective and suggestions for improving textbooks might help to improve science instruction. To analysis the content of the textbooks, various procedures were considered. For example, one person could have read all the textbooks. Each plan in prospect had their disadvantages and advantages. The plan of having several readers was preferred because, when coupled with usual design of the experiment it allowed elimination of several kinds of bias, permitted statistical tests of the significance of getting results and permitted securing of information about interactions. It was then determined to have twelve readers, each reading a particular composite textbook.

Occipital EEG was monitored during long-term exposure to visual stimulus arrays of five levels of complexity. Integrated EEG output was recorded for nine separate frequency bands. The stimuli were two, four, eight, 16 or 32 randomly located white squares on a black background. Mid-alpha activity (8·5-10·5 Hz) decreased linearly with log2n, where n = number of squares in the array (P < 0.01). Beta activity (12·5-16·5 Hz) showed a quadratic trend (P < 0-02). Theta activity (5·5-7·5 Hz) increased linearly with ascending complexity (P < 0·05). There were no significant trends for low alpha (7·5-8·5 Hz) or high alpha (10·5-12·5 Hz). Brightness-control slides showed no parallel effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The terms ‘subliminal perception’ and ‘subception’, as now employed in psychology, are widely agreed to be unclear. It is here argued that it is necessary to distinguish between a developmental and an analytical use of these terms and, more importantly, to recognize that on the analytical use, which is also the prevailing use, the term ‘subliminal perception’ does not designate a form of perception but a form of epiperception. It is further argued that, in the light of these considerations, it is possible to disperse at least some of the confusions now attending the use of these terms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information on science teaching after analyzing several science textbooks and science periodicals. Those engaged in teaching often make the distinction between the transmission of knowledge and the cultivation in students of those attitudes processes that are assumed to be characteristic thought. The article discusses the effectiveness of science teaching. The teachings from different scientific extracts represent attitudes and thought forms which are in direct conflict with certain characteristics of scientific method. Doctrinaire teaching is indicated by confusion regarding the meaning of the experiment. Many authors constantly introduce experiments with instructions to assemble specified materials and to do something with them. The operation itself is in most cases followed by the drawing of inferences. There is an "experiment" in which the relation of light to photosynthesis is to be learned by covering a leaf with dark paper or cloth for a day, and then testing it for starch. The author observes that there is nothing said about the parallel behavior of exposed leaves.

Radical sociology is discussed in terms of the sociologist's relevance and responsibility to neglected and oppressed segments of the society. To illustrate these themes, the fate of a five-city community-survey and power-structure research project which was intended to have an impact upon patterns of school segregation is described. Examples of the use and disuse of data by those in positions of authority are provided as evidence of the need for closer articulation of research design and application. The need for a ‘participatory sociology’ is asserted and its character briefly sketched. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a response to criticisms on a research which evaluated the acceptability of three normative methods in insurance decision making. The authors of this article agree and so stated in their research that knowledge of the best act could affect a subject's rating of each normative method according to the specific criteria. It is interesting to note, however, that a subject's over-all view of the acceptability of a method did not automatically determine his ratings on specific criteria. For instance, subjects' ratings of the utility method varied to a considerable extent on the different criteria. As a result, the utility method compared more favorably with the other two methods according to some criteria than on an over-all basis.

The article discusses experimental variation of the mode of reproduction of the Bender Gestalt stimuli. Distortions in the reproduction of the gestalten of the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test should be, as much as possible, a function of psychological events within the individual, with minimal distortion attributable to factors external to the subject. It is suggested that the usual procedure with this test may, in and of itself, influence the subject's capacity to reproduce the designs accurately. A complex analysis of variance was computed on the difference scores to determine the influence on the size of the drawn figures of the conditions of administration, intelligence, sex, and their interaction.

The article reports on the effects of accounting variations in decision making and presents an experimental design for the study of them. Research focuses on the relationships between security evaluation and portfolio selection and alternative valuation and depreciation methods in financial reporting. The effects of alternative methods of financial statements were studied through a computer simulation model of a manufacturing firm under different operating conditions. Also, prospectuses for 2 hypothetical companies were studied by professional security analysts to measure the effects of accounting variations.

Comments on a research which evaluated the acceptability of the three normative methods in insurance decision making. Preference for the best act under each normative method; Analysis of variance of the data presented; Implications of the weaknesses of the research design for insurance decision making.

Two experiments are described in which subjects were presented with brief illuminations of a structured target preceded by an auditory stimulus; both experiments indicate that visual after-images may be evoked, after such training, by the presentation of the auditory stimulus alone. Similar results have been obtained by the Popovs and Bzhalava in the Soviet Union, but little is known about the experimental designs employed by these authors. The results obtained in the present experiments are discussed in terms of related electrophysiological evidence from infra-human subjects obtained in the course of cross-modality interaction studies, and the adequacy of purely peripheral explanations for visual after-image phenomena is questioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the risk-taking in the explanation of biological events. Risk-taking is measured by the Extremity-Confidence of Hypothesis Test and the Risk-Taking Verbal Observation Scale, was analyzed within 2X2 and 2X3 factorial designs. The independent variables consisted of two levels of group arrangement for discussion. Results of the study have shown that verbal risk-taking is influenced by differential knowledge of the information and the composition of a discussion group based on the members' measured achievement motivation. No differences were noted in the comparison groups on risk-taking as measured by the Extremity-Confidence of Hypothesis Test. Based on the results of this study, the suggestion that risk-taking is a multidimensional trait is supported, and the magnitude of its expression may be influenced by differential treatments.

The article informs that under certain conditions experimental and sample survey designs can be combined within a single study in order to obtain the advantages of both. Authors hope to open systematic considerations of what these conditions are. In discussing some advantages and disadvantages of experiments and surveys, sociologist Leslie Kish noted three important assets of experiments: randomization controls the effects of confounding variables; systematic introduction and variation of independent variables clarifies the direction of causation; and use of these designs permits more flexible, efficient, and powerful statistical manipulation. At the same time, Kish argued, experiments have the following three important disadvantages, the last two of which constitute the chief merits of sample surveys: it is often difficult to specify independent variables with sufficient precision so as to exclude all confounding extraneous variables; samples used in experiments often do not systematically represent an important universe; and measurements in experimental situations often cannot be made under the same conditions as in the natural settings of real populations. Kish concludes the following from this discussion: In any specific situation one method may be better or more practical than the other; but there is no overall superiority in all situations for either method. Understanding the advantages and weaknesses of both methods should lead to better choices. While authors wish to emphasize their agreement with this conclusion, people would also like to suggest that there are circumstances in which it is appropriate and desirable to combine both methods, thereby gaining some advantages of each.

The article presents a study aimed to determine whether manager's personnel management practices can be changed and assess the differential effect of various methodologies of trying to bring such change within an organization. The study uses a Latin Square design and provided a criterion measure of man management practices to most managers at the start of the experimental period and was repeated by the end of one year. It mentions that methods led to improvements include new results-oriented performance appraisal system, individual feedback to managers' man management practices, and educational program. It suggests that management practices could be changed through different educational and administrative procedures.

Summary [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary and Conclusions F our rating scale formats were used by the first and second line supervisors of four groups of clerical workers. The formats varied from unstructured to highly structured. The format incorporating trait titles and behavioral descriptions of scale steps demonstrated marked superiority over both more- and less-structured formats. This format demonstrated higher inter-rater reliability, less halo and less leniency than did the other formats. Variability was approximately equal for all formats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the author's insights on the changes in the quality of graduate students' training by laboratories of psychology, considering the method of introspection. The author mentions how psychology was able to obtain the mature status of behavior's objective science, instead of experience. The author suggests that if the helpers of a psychologist are characterized with superior introspective insights and skills and a master of facility and experimental design in statistical analysis, such psychologist will likely provide findings with importance to his/her science and company.

Socialization to the legal system was explored with data on attitudes toward policemen, the Supreme Court, and the fairness of laws obtained from approximately 9000 elementary school children tested in 1961-62. Analysis of variance was used to examine differences by school grade, sex, social class, and intelligence. Four models of the process of socialization were also discussed. Lower-middle class children tended to give higher ratings to the policeman than either upper-middle or lower class children, a precursor perhaps of the current "law and order" emphasis in adults from this group. There was also a significant increase with age in the amount of difference between the attitudes of boys and girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses key issues and trends that were discussed by a symposium on industrial psychology. At the University of Pittsburgh students either spend their first year concentrating in social, general, and experimental psychology or they spend their first year concentrating in managerial economics, management and organizational behavior, managerial accounting, and some of the functional fields of business. During this first year, both types of students pursue similar education in statistics and experimental design. This symposium will concentrate on the training of people who will be practicing psychology in industry and their first few years of work in an applied setting. The second speaker is going to talk about the actual work situations that the recent graduates enter. He will discuss management's expectations when it hires a young Ph.D. out of academe and the opportunities and constraints that appear to exist in these jobs. He will also discuss the appropriateness of the training that the psychologists receive from the viewpoint of an employer.

Presents a technique for studying root and shoot uptake of soil-applied herbicides. Use of pre-emergence herbicide applications to soil; Experimental design in determining the uptake of soil-applied herbicides; Use of the technique in studying interactions between herbicide localization and soil moisture content.

Evaluates an experimental design for field evaluation of pre-emergence application of herbicides. Difficulties experienced in evaluating pre-emergence herbicide treatments; Layout of the control plots used in the design; Advantages of using the experimental design in conducting field evaluation of herbicides applied before weed emergence.

The article discusses the effects of teaching a new physics course on the attitude of teachers. This study was aimed to determine whether the teachers' attitudes changed while teaching the new course discussed in this study. As mentioned in the initial part of this study a group of 36 teachers attended an institute in preparation for teaching a new high school physics course in 1967. For this study thirty six teachers selected from a list of about 17,000 teachers of physics in the United States attended the institute. The attitude test was administered to these teachers in August during the fifth week of the institute. The same instrument was administered to 32 of these teachers in the middle of the February of the following year. These retested teachers constituted the sample for this study. Attitude was measured with an instrument adapted from Osgood's semantic differential technique. The statistical design used in this study was one-way multivariate analysis of variance. The results of this study indicated that the null hypothesis of no overall teacher attitude change towards the student activity variables was rejected.

The article cites a study, which is concerned with teacher's attitudinal changes due to participation in a specific Institute of the United States. As stated above in the 1967, an Institute was held at Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts to prepare a group of high school teachers to teach a new physics course. It was an effort to familiarize these teachers with the philosophy of the course and to acquaint them with the course materials and also to provide them with additional background in physics and in the history and philosophy of science. This study was designed to determine whether as a result of participation in the institute the teachers' attitudes towards physics and towards several activities related to the teaching of physics had changed. The attitude-measuring instrument was administered to the experimental teachers at the end of the fifth week of the institute. The sample consisted of 56 physics teachers selected randomly from a national population of approximately 17,000 teachers of physics. The statistical design used in this study is a one-way multivariate analysis of variance. The results of this study indicate generally favorable attitudes of teachers who attended the Institute as compared with the control teachers.

The article focuses on education-related surveys in the U. S. It may be seen, based on the two studies presented in the succeeding part of the article, that the limits of the analytic survey may be extended to more advanced designs in which several main variables may be involved. It may be possible to vary all the essential conditions simultaneously, thus resulting in greater efficiency and comprehensiveness. The results have wider applicability than do single-factor comparisons since the ordinary analysis gives information only in respect to a narrowly restricted set of conditions.

The article presents a perspective on critical thinking and research. According to the author, advancement of research must be based on a sound foundation of good instrumentation both in terms of instrument design and use. One limitation of its use is to the effect that the introduction of an instrument into an area of interest will itself alter the original conditions. As an example, the author cited the experiments conducted related to the new designs for fuel elements to be used in a reactor which involved the safety to fabricate the elements and define their positioning within the reactor such that the production of an excess number of neutrons would be limited to a certain value. The preliminary reports of the experiments was encouraging but because of further analysis, it was realized that the instrument placed in the neutron flux was the absorbing neutrons and thus giving underestimate of the excess number present.

The article evaluates the role of assumptions in the teaching of general science in secondary education. The author aims to determine the assumptions which may be supplemental to the observational data and are essential to the acceptance of conclusions through a selected group of experimental exercises in ninth-grade general science. According to the author, most of the experimental work in general science is devoted to the illustration of principles or their application. In addition, the basic essentials of good experimental technique involving such elements as the formulation of hypotheses, the collection and evaluation of evidence, the setting of controls, the identification of variables, the testing of hypotheses and the identification and evaluation of assumptions which are basic to the acceptance of conclusions are given less importance.

The article provides information on a study which investigated the construction and validation of a test to measure the inductive aspects of the ability to think scientifically. Educational objectives were formulated and defined in terms of the behaviors attending the objectives. It was devised to evaluate the student's ability to recognize problems, hypotheses, experimental conditions, and conclusions.

This article focuses on the importance of realistic researches to Science teaching in the U.S. The application of experimental design is significant to investigations in Science. In this regard, the need for examinations of a high order as requisite to educational research in Science teaching implied several attributes that Science teachers would possess. Thus, the results of educational research must be based on an experimental design that allows the teachers to apply the findings in school situations.

The article reports on the development and use of a set of rules in the writing of laboratory studies that teach the scientific method. All topics that would be covered in a unit of laboratory work should be listed. It is also good to assume that the orthodox treatment of the subject is not good and will not be used. The laboratory study should be written in or near a laboratory where new ideas can be tested immediately. A laboratory study should be written with ample time. The facts should be presented to the student which form the basis for his thinking, so that a hypothesis can be stated by the student.

The article presents information on various aspects of scientific research. Wrongly applied scientific knowledge can result in social confusion and economic disorder. Scientific research can broadly be classified into four categories including background research with no practical objective, basic or fundamental research that has a distant practical objective, and development or pilot-plant research. Scientific theories are nothing but groups of related hypotheses, based on experiments and axioms. A researcher should know that advances in one science also depend on those in another. Science must remain unified even while it is departmentalized into special sciences. Apart from this, every special science must be unified within itself and in relation to science as a whole. A researcher should make sure that scientific language is simplified.

The article presents an investigation to derive an extensive list of elements of scientific method that would be suitable for the purpose of instruction in the secondary schools. At the starting of the study no sufficiently validated list of elements existed, although much material relative to the scientific method had earlier been published. A survey of literature was made in order to find a wide variety of ideas related to the nature of the scientific method. Because of the result, forty-three magazine and books articles were exposed to contain analyses of the method in adequate detail to warrant their inclusion in the list of contributing materials. Every element of scientific method found in the source was recorded upon a card in the same words of the author or in a para-phrase conveying the same meaning.

Subjects were selected as high or low in the number of primaries given in a word-association task under both standard instructions and with instructions to give popular associations. Low. commonality scorers produced words with a larger number of interconnexions than high-commonality scorers, but did not produce more different words on a later serial-association task. Commonality score under popular set did not seem to affect the production of associations. The associations of high-commonality subjects seemed to consist more frequently of the repetition of the original stimulus words and the original responses to those words as responses later in the task compared to low-commonality scorers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of elation is defined as a non-instrumental change in the vigour of responding brought about by an upward shift in conditions of reward. It is seen that this reward change could be contingent or non-contingent on behaviour; it could be signalled or unsignalled; and the changed reward could be the same or different in quantity and/or quality from that which went before. Studies under the eight categories suggested by this analysis are reviewed with special reference to the emotional, rather than instrumental, components of behaviour following reward shift. The review strongly indicates that although the various experimental approaches which are considered have reward increase as a common theme, the effects from study to study are disparate. This suggests that future research would profit from parametric analyses of the individual procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing tests of musical ability, with the exception of the Seashore battery (1919), have made extensive use of musical material. Since the musical experience of individuals may differ in extent and type, some experiential bias may result. In the present study, a new series of tests of musical aptitude is described which makes no use of formal musical material, but which involves non-musical or quasi-musical forms. Analysis of results obtained with the tests suggests that such an approach is feasible, and that the battery operates in a meaningful and consistent manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Delinquents generally perform differently on the Gibson Spiral Maze from non-delinquents. However, they are tested under different circumstances and this may explain the difference. Evidence is presented here that performance on the maze is indeed influenced by the circumstances of its administration. New validity studies which control these influences are needed. In this study, comparisons of more and less delinquent boys tested similarly generally fail to support the claim that delinquency and psychomotor style (as exhibited by this test) are related. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occipital EEG was monitored during habituation trials to a regularly presented auditory stimulus. The subjects were selected in accordance with a factorial design which varied extraversion-introversion and neuroticism independently. A double-blind procedure was adopted for recording, scoring and statistical analysis. The EEG of extraverts and introverts was not differentiable; however, high neurotic groups were shown to have significantly greater EEG abundance than low neurotic groups across several frequency bands. There were no readily explicable interactions between the personality variables. For all subjects, two distinct response patterns appeared: (i) EEG attenuation (trials 1-3) and (ii) EEG augmentation (trials 4-20). Recovery time from stimulation may be longer than 10 sec. Both attenuation and augmenting responses are subject to the law of initial values. There were no differences in response amplitude or in speed of habituation for the personality groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Undergraduate subjects gave continuous associations to four stimulus words varying in connotation and abstractness. Subjects scoring high and low on the Manifest Anxiety Scale were selected; these subjects then gave continuous associations to their first five responses to each of the original stimulus words. A measure of inter-item associative strength was obtained for each of the original stimuli. The highly anxious subjects' associations to the words with positive connotation were found to be more cohesive than these subjects' associations to the words with negative connotation. No such difference was found for low-anxiety subjects nor was any difference found between associative structures for words varying in abstractness. The results were taken to suggest that the structure of associations to stimulus words may be an important variable in accounting for personality differences in word-association behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Requests for subject and author searches submitted to the Medical Documentation Service of the Library of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia were studied. A total of 483 subject reference questions were analyzed for the number of question terms matching system subject headings (M), number of question terms translatable to system subject headings (1), number of stop-list words (5), and number of untranslatable words (U), using the judgment of the author. The average question had one M term or 22% M, one T term or 21 % T, two S words or 38% S, and one U word or 19% U. Thus 81 % of the average question was accounted for by M+T+S; in addition, 46% of the questions had no U words. Analysis of variance failed to show significant (5% level) differences between doctors' and lawyers' questions or between negotiated and nonnegotiated questions in number of M, T, S, or U. Study of limitations on searches for the 483 subject search requests and 38 requests for author searches showed that the requestor rarely stipulated type of material to be covered, languages to be included, time period to be covered, cost, or time for completion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on the new types of experimental design and the correspondingly appropriate statistical analysis which provide new promise for the scientific study of educational problems in the United States. Scientific facts may command interest because they are slightly used to describe something that has happened or an existing state of affairs. The main role of science is to examine the causes of events thereby leading to the formulation of general laws. An additional control designed to offer evidence of the influence of maturation, practice effects and other possible contributing factors consisted of a sixth grade group which had no classroom instruction in the content of a unit. The museum type of excursion was the only one of the four excursions in which a meaningful difference was found in favor of the control group, that is, the group which did not take the excursion.

The article presents an experiment to measure the contribution of the ninth grade general science course to the development of scientific attitudes among students at the Kenmore Junior High School in Kenmore, New York. The study found out that general science course does not permit the proper emphasis on scientific attitudes. Pupils were not forced to make judgments and then revise them or discard them on the basis of facts presented in the scientific method. Teachers were not able to direct their pupils accordingly to display proper scientific attitudes or to employ the method of thinking as much as they could accumulate facts and information.

The article focuses on the significance of experiments in a scientific method. In a scientific method, experiment forms an integral part. A concrete and conclusive answer to a definite and debatable question is provided by an experiment. It pragmatically proves or disproves theories. Without experimental confirmation a theory can only be a notion with no certainty, or even probability. However, many experiments that are imposed on pupils for teaching purposes, may not be experiments at all. If a definite and debatable question is not answered by an experiment, it is not an experiment and not a part of the scientific method of discovering truth. Additional time consumed in conducting scientific experiments in the scientific way is indicated to be well repaid in heightened interest, better retention, and more logical use of the text.