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The purpose of this article is to study the effectiveness of the three techniques commonly employed for collecting data to be used in evaluating personality adjustment. The interview technique portrays the personality appraisement approach resorted to by most specialists as psychologists, clinicians, and counselors. This technique endeavors to diagnose personality characteristics on the basis of verbal responses, appearance, individual testing, personal contact, and the like. The interview technique as used in this study consisted of a personalized administration of each test during which time ample opportunity was given the student to discuss his understanding of the test situations and the nature of responses made to them. People frequently question the effectiveness of many of the personality evaluating techniques utilized in guidance programs. Since guidance practice generally relies upon the use of one personality evaluating technique, it is essential to know which technique provides the most effective diagnosis of student adjustment not only in the school situation but in other environments as well.

The expression of hostility and conflict in a small group is a normal part of the small group process and is, in fact, a positive and even necessary factor in the development and maintenance of group cohesion. This cohesive function can be understood in terms of the role that hostility plays in the development of the social structure of the small group. In addition this paper has shown that the mere measurement of degree of hostility expressed in small groups tends to lead to conflicting findings. The positive or negative nature of hostility in small groups is related to the stage of the value structure of the group. The expression of hostility in a small group under the circumstances discussed in this paper is part of an integrative process in that it is an important channel of communication. Therefore, while hostility may be a destructive force in human interaction, it may also perform integrative functions, and these integrative functions must be more carefully evaluated and studied in the study of small groups. In the development of any field of study there is periodic need for the assembling, integration, and theoretical conceptualization of research findings. When this is done more fruitful experimentation can be carried out in the future. This paper has attempted to fill this need in the area of the expression of hostility in small groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper attempts to study the implications of the hypothesis that personality patterns organize the forces operating in a social milieu. The findings of a Rorschach experiment on a group of 24 students from India are interpreted in terms of the childhood experiences, family discipline, and social pressures. An ambiequal pattern leaning toward introversiveness is indicated. This is found to be the product of early permissiveness, subsequent rigidity of behavior code, and later status role. The authoritarian character of the Indian family structure and the early socialization process are found to be largely responsible for the evolution of rigid control and withdrawal mechanisms. The paper concludes by suggesting that the study of personality-culture phenomena may be profitably conducted by analysing the defense system that a culture tends to evolve in its members. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ordinarily an anniversary occasions the reification of an artificial period. In this case however, there is a certain juncture in the history of the point of view which makes of the past quarter-century something worthy of consideration for symbolic interactionism as well as for our celebration of the founding of the Midwest Sociological Society. The year 1937 lies virtually in the middle of a four-year period which saw the publication of Mind, Self, and Society, Movements of Thought in the Nineteenth Century, and The Philosophy of the Act. It would represent the greatest naiveté to suggest that thus the year 1937 represented the introduction of symbolic interactionism. We are all aware of the long development: from James, Baldwin, and Cooley to Thomas, Faris, Dewey, Blumer, and Young. Even the Tardean imitation and suggestion which underlay Ross's Social Psychology contributed a good deal ordinarily not credited to him in the development of interaction theory. Nor is it the fact that Mead represents the fullest development of the orientation that makes so significant the posthumous publication of his works (for which we may conveniently take 1937 as an anchoring point). Mead's ideas had been known for a very long time. He had taught University of Chicago students from 1893 to 1931. His notions were bruited about in classes and seminars wherever there were professors conducting them who had studied at the University of Chicago—not least in the great heartland included in the Mid-west of our Society. Some of Mead's students had published their versions of his ideas or quotations from some of his philosophical papers—Kimbali Young's Source Book in Social Psychology of a decade earlier contained a paper by Mead, and his Social Psychology bore the strong imprint of Meadian interactionism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses one of the methodologies of social psychology. In this method social psychology is studied in relation to economics, ethics and religion. The importance of biology for the psychology of social conflict, for example, the satisfaction of instincts and the reduction of fatigue, is generally recognized--although frequently in particular cases it is ignored. All that the social scientists need do in this connection therefore, is to urge that the contribution of biology to the full truth be not ignored in any case in which it is a factor. Geology, chemistry, and physics are important for the psychology of social conflict almost exclusively through economics; so it is not necessary for us to consider the former sciences directly in this paper. Astronomy is important, almost exclusively through the light, which it throws on methods of thought and the nature of essential experience. These matters they have already considered; so they need not consider such a science as astronomy directly in this paper. But the full truth about the relationship between economics and ethics and social psychology is not generally recognized, and the relationship is direct; so we must consider that relationship if we are to master the psychology of social conflict.

The article talks about a paper on professional socialization as a model of the pre-training period applicable to students of physical education. This provides definition of terms for professional socialization, anticipatory socialization, socialization settings, and socialization agents. The pre-training period may be considered as the time of anticipatory socialization preceding the formal professional training. The three types of anticipatory socialization are the acquisition of attitudes and values about adult roles, the acquisition of specific information which cannot be applied directly, and the learning of both general and specific skills that can be practiced in the immediate childhood situation.

The article presents a paper on the significance of socialization constructs to the teaching methods of teachers. Studying the way how teachers teach seems to be socialization theory. The importance of the socialization construct is that it centers on processes which acts as a go-between the individual's personality and the role expectations of the institution. Conflict and bargaining are the two general patterns of interaction that have been delineated. The four processes of socialization are anticipatory socialization, reference groups, the training period, and the world of work.

A theory is formulated with which to analyze transactions in social relationships. Economic types of exchange characterized by calculation and self-interest on the part of the actors are contrasted with more "social" forms of transaction such as occur in the cases of role relationships with interlocking rights and obligations and persons strongly attached to one another. The social factors and conditions determining the types of transaction likely to occur between actors are examined in the paper. The key idea in this respect is that the structural and temporal context of interaction, including the past and anticipated character of their relationship, affects actors' orientations toward one another, their preferences, decisions and interaction patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reviews sociological work dealing with American Blacks. In the past five decades three themes have largely dominated the work: (1) a description and documentation of Black disadvantage within American life; (2) an attack upon racist notions of Black biological inferiority; and (3) an interpretation of Black disadvantages as derived from White prejudice and discrimination. The work has been largely static and non-processual in character, derived largely from the structure-function model of society. The paper calls for the employment of multiple models and for emphasis upon a dynamic, processual model of social life. The concepts of network and field appear to offer much promise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an exploration of the relationship between members' role performance and the benefits they receive from their organizations. The general relationship is interpreted in the context of a "social exchange model" for voluntary associations. Data for the analysis pertain to members of four voluntary farm organizations: Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, National Farmers Organization, and Grange. The data were obtained in a state-wide survey of Wisconsin farm operators in 1965. In general, the data show a moderate relationship, in a positive direction, between benefits and role performance. The benefits tend to differ in the magnitude and, in some instances, in the direction of their relationships to such performance. The findings indicate the importance of taking into account magnitude and direction of relationship, as well as interaction among the benefits and among costs, in order to devise a viable social exchange model of cost benefit relations for voluntary associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theory and research dealing with the consequences of rank inconsistency have concerned themselves almost exclusively with the portrayal of the disagreeable aspects of this situation and with the identification of relatively extreme reactions to it. The data reported above serve to counterbalance this emphasis by suggesting circumstances under which rank inconsistency may be accommodated to without a radical reaction and under which this inconsistency may even be downright palatable. First, the data showed one instance where the inconsistent individual's preoccupation with the area of endeavor in which he held his higher rank led him to be tolerant of his lower one. Secondly, we saw that three different kinds of rank inconsistency produced discontent with the lower rank only for respondents whose array of ranks was likely to be highly visible. It is hoped that the modifications of rank inconsistency theory suggested above will in the near future be subjected to a more ideal empirical test than was possible with the data employed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A striking feature of the social participation literature is the tendency to concentrate on one type of activity. For example, studies dealing with formal organizations have described the character of such groups and their participants. Studies of friendship participation have traced the patterns of friendships and the type of people who are attracted to each other as friends. Consequently, few sociologists have focused their attention upon a question like: Are there any patterns or relationships between the different types of social participation? Participation in formal voluntary associations and informal voluntary interactions may be related to each other, influence each other, or at least be similarly influenced by other variables. This paper analyzes different types of social participation to determine if participation in one area of social activity is related to participation in other areas of social life. Specifically, we will try to determine (1) whether people who have many friends or who have a number of intimate friends are more apt to belong to formal voluntary organizations than those who have few friends or intimate friends; (2) whether participation in the family is related to participation in formal voluntary associations and informal voluntary interaction; and (3) whether ethnic generation status and sex alter the patterns between the different types of social participation. Generational status will be used as an independent variable since changes in ethnic status may modify the direction or the degree of relationship between the types of social activity. Sex will be used as a control variable since the roles which men and women play in society often differ considerably-especially among ethnics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Symbolic interaction theory as derived mainly from the work of George Herbert Mead views the self-concept as a structure of attitudes which arises in social experience and organizes the individual's perception of his social milieu. Recently, tests based upon this symbolic interaction orientation have been developed for the elicitation of self attitudes. One such test frequently used is the Twenty Statements Test (TST) constructed by Manford Kuhn and Thomas McPartland. The TST attempts to ascertain the specific statements respondents use to identify themselves to themselves. The applicability of the TST to problems of self theory is indicated by the rather wide use which has been made of the instrument. Investigations using the TST have focused upon the following: self-concept and social position; a self-concept and behavior; and the self-concept and attitudes toward other social objects. While TST results have been of substantive interest, little attention has been given to the methodological issues involved in the instrument and its use. For example, little is known concerning the validity and reliability of the test and its scoring procedures. If substantive assertions based upon TST results are to be considered as sound, judicious concern should be directed toward basic methodological issues. It is the purpose of this paper to consider empirically one methodological aspect of the TST. The focus is upon the test format itself. The question is posed: Do variations in the TST format produce variations in individuals' response patterns? Specifically, does the length of the test influence the number and the nature of statements made by respondents? This paper is directed toward answering this question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses various issues related to certain problems of social psychology. The article presents a study in this regard. These problems fall into two groups: those dealing with questions of methodology, and those dealing directly with the psychology of social attitudes. The inter-correlations of the attitudes towards various social issues of approximately 1,500 subjects, drawn from various classes, countries, and organizations were studied by means of factorial analysis. Certain conclusions were arrived at with regard to: the statistical methods used; the general factors underlying the attitudes of the subjects; and a number of miscellaneous points. The results of the analyses reported in this paper indicate strongly a connection between general social attitudes and individual temperamental factors. The organization or structure of attitudes was seen to play a greater part in the differentiation of groups and organizations than that played by the average preference of the various groups for the propositions, the attitudes towards which were being investigated. This result suggests that more attention might usefully be paid by research workers to the question of organization, structure, or "gestalt"-qualities among attitudes.

This paper attempts to devise a parsimonious explanation of human behavior in collectivities. For this purpose three main variables have been identified, which, when combined in a specific manner, serve to incorporate the major determinants of behavior. These variables, which will be put into technical jargon in this paper, include (I) a pre-existing attitude, (2) an emotional context, and (3) a situational effect. An individual's need for social approval (NSA), developed in previous interactional situations, is the preexisting attitude with which the paper is concerned. Need-for-social-approval may be simply defined as the degree to which one attempts to impress others in order to gain their approval. The emotional context of a situation may be accounted for by the intensity of the situation. In this sense, intensity may be viewed as density. That is, intensity may be defined as the quantity of interaction per time period or the quantity of interaction per geographical space. The situational effects upon behavior are the most important since they can eradicate the effects of the other two variables.

This paper develops a formal model for exchange within a system of action. The system of action is defined by actors, events, control of actors over events, and interests of actors in the outcomes of events. The system is designed to deal with divisible events (best exemplified by private goods) or indivisible events (such as a bill on which a vote is taken), and events with or without externalities, This paper considers mostly divisible events, but some steps are taken toward analysis of indivisible events on which there are opposing interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a model and associated computer program for carrying out clustering of elements in a space of a predetermined number of dimensions. In addition to clustering of elements, the model may be used for multi-dimensional scale analysis and for construction of sociograms. The model takes as input data a set of 'affinities' between elements, the inverse of which may be considered as psychological or sociological distances. It then moves elements in a Euclidean n-space toward the point at which the geometric distance is equal to the given psychological or social 'distance,' as if a set of attractive and repulsive forces was acting upon each element from other elements. The second major portion of the paper consists of ten examples, which are analyzed by means of the accompanying computer program. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the social psychology of physical activity and sports. Physical activity refers to vigorous activities which encompass competitive sports competition to simpler modes of human movement, such as calisthenics. Physical activity and sports are two methods by which man socializes with his fellow beings, thus the necessity of understanding social behavior while involved in the said interaction. The variables affecting physical activity and sports are attitudes, personality and culture.

During the past decade several interesting attempts have been made to analyze social interaction as exchange of values, on the one hand, and, on the other, as influence and effect. The present analysis aims at comparing these attempts with a view to the establishment of a theory of power. The analysis deals with a field to which insufficient attention has so far been given by traditional sociological theory. Section 1 contains an introduction to the basic concepts and the general outline, and section 2 presents the central theory of social exchange and power. The later part of the paper contains a discussion of the adaptation of the theory to major social systems and, subsequently, deals with the meaning and measurement of power and influence in macro-sociological contexts. In scientific literature "power" has been used in widely varying senses, as is also the case with the term influence. Studies of the power game in social organizations lead on to an analysis of fundamental differences between the power structures of different social systems.

The purpose of this paper was to demonstrate the applicability of perceived similarity and social favorability scales to the assessment of reference group valences in opiate addicts. Parallel sets of questionnaire items were constructed to elicit favorable and unfavorable self-presentations and group assessments on three status dimensions where in each dimension one pole represented a specified membership group presumed to be a positive reference group, while the other pole symbolized a contrasting, and presumably negative reference group. An item by item scoring of congruent responses to pairs cif items describing self and designated subgroups yielded measures of addict identification or psychological closeness of addicts with reference groups. Configurally scored scales were not superior to single response scales in differentiating the valence levels of reference groups. Greater favorability was ascribed to membership groups. Subjects tended to attribute unfavorable qualities (and in some cases tended to neutralize their responses) to nonmembership groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the conceptualization of two personality orientations and sociometric choice. The purpose of the paper presented in this article is to bring more sharply into focus the relationship between two selected personality dimensions--called "dependency" and "personalness"--and a structural variable, sociometric choice. The core of this theory is that groups which meet over time in a relatively unstructured environment have to resolve two major issues, issues which represent invariant interpersonal tensions. The first of these is the area of group members' orientations toward authority, or more generally toward the handling and distribution of power in the group. The second is the area of members' orientations toward one another, in terms of closeness and intimacy. The personal aspect consists of the member's characteristic patterns with respect to interpersonal intimacy. The article authors hypothesize that members' orientation toward authority and intimacy contribute toward subgroup formation within the group.

The article discusses the logistic law of interaction when people pair off at will. The experiments were objected to as being simply demonstrations of a mathematical formula (for a joint probability cumulated over time) and not a sociological test of how people actually interact. Critics had to agree that if people paired off steadily and randomly and not otherwise, the logistic growth curve could be predicted to be the inevitable consequence. But people do not interact randomly, they objected, and therefore our previous experiments were irrelevant or of doubtful application to human behavior. By controlling the main factors of context in the logistic transact, as above, one narrows down the remaining variables to the circumstances factor and within it to the random vs. non-random variables. It is these non-random or biassing variables which chiefly concern us in this paper. At this point the experimenter must list from previous experimenting or knowledge of the field just which observable variables may be expected to correlate with the choice of partners and so constitute a bias or non-random influence upon such interacting.

The determinants of interaction among S's making judgments in groups have been investigated intensively. The present paper uses a summary of the available findings as a basis for a classification of these determinants, and for attempts at theory construction. The following are suggested as among the factors relevant to convergence among members of observer groups: (a) the stimulus judged, (b) the instructions to S, (c) the history of contact with the partner and the group memberships of the partner, (d) the reaction to the partner in the experimental situation, (e) the personality of S, and (f) S's specific previous experiences, if any, with the stimuli or the class of judgments. Two approaches to theory construction are outlined. In one, the structure of S's perceptual field is used as a basic intervening variable, and convergence is related to various factors which are considered to affect field structure. In the other, convergence is represented as a function of two conflicting response tendencies, a tendency to continue the previous range of response, and a tendency to agree with the partner. Deductions from these basic hypotheses are supported by some of the data previously discussed and predictions are made which are susceptible of experimental test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article studies the correlation of a self-inventory of personality traits with laboratory measures of vigor and motility. GAMIN, the Guilford-Martin inventory of five personality factors, was considered especially appropriate as the paper-and-pencil inventory to be studied in relationship to the laboratory measures. Laboratory measures of vigor (strength of grip) and motility (tapping speed) have positive but low correlation with the following Guilford-Martin "factors": G (general pressure for overt activity), A (ascendancy in social situations), M (masculinity), and, to a less degree, with I (self-confidence). The slightly higher coefficients obtained for A over G were unexpected, but with only 50 subjects this difference is not significant. The factor N (freedom from neurotic tendencies) has no correlation with any of the laboratory measures employed; nor does the measure of steadiness have any significant relationship to any of the personality factors. The lack of marked variability in these two types of measures may account in part for the very low or zero coefficients obtained.

Theories of symbolic interaction and ethnomethodology, assume that everyone undertakes a complex process of construction of reality, including self-identity, in interaction with significant others. Utilizing insights into variations in identity reformulation in marriage obtained from a study of American metropolitan women, this paper concentrates on variations of identity reformulation among widows. The major hypothesis guiding the discussion is that the higher the education of the woman, as measured by formal schooling, the more she is likely to experience and undertake identity reformulation in marriage and in widowhood. The less education a woman has, the less she will be consciously affected in her identity formulation by these events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is the analysis of the interactional patterns of Wisconsin farm couples with their parents. Step-wise multiple regression analysis provides a technique to solve a sequence of one or more multiple linear models by step-wise application of the least sum-of-squares method. The predictor variables used in this analysis include: distance, husband's age, stage in the family life-cycle, husband's education, wife's education, gross farm income, agricultural training of the husband, productive-man-work-units, and level of living. The results showed that distance is an important factor in the interaction between generations in rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, then, we investigate the extent to which persons using leadership styles of interaction in small groups adhere to a Machievellian approach, and the extent to which a Machiavellian approach may be successful outside the small group. The two hypotheses guiding the present research are as follows: 1) A Machiavellian orientation toward others is positively correlated with a leadership style of interaction, such as a greater amount of participation in discussion, and higher rates of asking for information, and making suggestions for action. 2) A Machiavellian orientation is correlated with successful implementation of a team plan within the community at large. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tins paper describes several problems that have appeared as a computer system of content analysis has been used in research on social interaction. In addition, prospective contributions of such computer systems are also indicated in the hope that evaluations of the method will include the consideration of both issues. The particular system called The General Inquirer was developed by Stone and his associates at Harvard and is undoubtedly the most sophisticated computer system of content analysis and information retrieval presently available. A description of the essential features of this system will first be presented. Then some results of its application to a particular set of data will be described in order to illustrate the kinds of problems that emerge in the use of the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we attempt to do the following with respect to the symbolic interactionist approach to social psychological phenomena: (1) to add to its relatively meager empirical base; (2) to develop a neglected aspect of the position, namely, the time dimension; and (3) to contribute to both the replication and the extension of the limited systematic research which has used this particular framework to focus on the key concept of self. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manford Kuhn in his review of twenty-five years of symbolic interaction theory noted that the "oral tradition" had sustained the theory during the years preceding the "age of inquiry." And, as Kuhn has accurately noted, this "age of inquiry" has utilized different subtheories and there was little consensus or "formalization" which preceded the empirical studies. This is true for Kuhn's own theory as well as for the other subtheories of the orientation. It is the purpose of this paper to correct this condition for Kuhn's theory. In doing this I have brought together, in a systematic manner, the ideas, definitions, assumptions, and propositions of the work of Kuhn and his students. With this foundation, I discuss several methodological problems of the theory which have not been previously investigated. It is hoped that this effort will contribute to the "age of inquiry" in Symbolic Interaction Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general theory of symbolic interaction, specifically self theory, is focused upon the importance of language as an instrument of definition and communication. People are seen as responding not directly to a resistant outer reality but to meanings of objects which are defined within a cultural system and social organization. G. H. Mead, in his discussion of the way persons develop self concepts and the accompanying ability to take roles effectively, speaks of the degree to which persons develop a "general other." This general other is an organized structure of attitudes believed to be common to all and is defined in terms of a universe of discourse growing out of the symbolic interaction of a community of individuals. Replies to the Twenty Statements Test, described by Kuhn and McPartland, display this quality. Self-identifying statements which people make fall along a rough spectrum of reference which can be broken up in various ways. The distinction which Kuhn and McPartland have reported is between what they call consensual and nonconsensual statements. Consensual statements are defined as those statements which would be generally understood by persons in the larger society without explanation. Nonconsensual statements are defined as those requiring interpretation before their social relevance can be assessed. The consensual statement is language behavior directed to the general other, while the nonconsensual statement is language directed to a more limited audience. H. S. Sullivan's contribution in developing the notion of the "significant other" consists in accounting for the fact that persons often do not seem to internalize standards and norms from the whole society but from segments of it on some selective basis. In this paper, the number of consensual statements made in response to the Twenty Statements Test will be called the locus score. Respondents are assigned to "high" and "low" locus categories as they make more or less than the median number of consensual statements. Expanding upon this frame of reference, it seems reasonable to propose that the locus quality found in self-conceptions of a given person is also characteristic of his conceptions of other objects. This hypothesis is based on the assumption that the self is the core of a set of interrelated attitudes, and that the level of reference employed by the respondent in his attitudes toward the self would therefore be applicable to other attitudes as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the role perspective and compares the activities of two major sociological theorists-Herbert Blumer and Robert K. Merton. As sociologists, they are widely recognized as leading exponents of symbolic interactionism and structural functionalism, respectively. Using role categories formulated by Florian Znaniecki, their performances as men of knowledge and as social scientists are compared. Blumer has presented the symbolic interactionist perspective as a framework or set of postulates necessary to the search for social understanding. As a fighter for truth, he has been more concerned with sustaining a point of view than with the accumulation of supporting data. It is, perhaps, for this reason that he has been accused of a lack of interest in refined techniques, as well as a disbelief in their utility. Yet, his persistent efforts to sustain the symbolic interactionist perspective through a period of positivist dominance have made him a major force in the field of sociology. Blumer's actions as educating teacher and fighter for truth are described, as are Merton's actions as systematizer and inductive theorist. The congruence of their sociological theories to these roles is also considered.

The article presents a paper on the learning of congruent and noncongruent social structures. The task of learning a social structure requires the subjects to learn the interpersonal relations existing between a set of people using a type of paired-associates paradigm. In the present experiment, subjects were assigned the task of learning the existing relation or either "influences" or "likes" in a group of four people whose transitive structures had either the mathematical properties of asymmetry and completeness or symmetry and incomplete transitivity. Through findings, it appears that the learning of social structures is a function of expectations or social schemas learned through prior social interaction. Further, it appears that when the cues provided by the formal organization of a group are in keeping with the informal or existing structure of the groups as reflected in the interaction between members, then the learning of the social structure and the process of adjusting one's role expectations and role behaviors should he relatively easy.

This study examined Anderson and Anderson's cross-national data, which are in the form of conclusions written by seventh grade children to the Anderson Incomplete Stories, a projective device. Rating scales were employed to assess story content on interpersonal conflict and the degree of emphasis on material versus interpersonal aspects. Stories from the United States, Norway, and Germany were examined first for gross sample differences, and then by a non-orthogonal multifactorial analysis of variance to determine differences ascribable to nationality, sex, religion, and socio-economic status. The multifactorial analysis revealed that the three demographic variables all had associated differences on one or other of the scales, but these did not seem to affect the overall variations among the samples. Finally, the value of the non-orthogonal multivariate method for providing further information about the effects of nationality and demographic variables on personality was discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An item analysis of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory in two different high school senior classes using the Levinson-Sanford anti-Semitism scale as a criterion yielded 32 items, each of which significantly differentiated the criterion subsamples in both classes. These items were strongly suggestive of certain personality trends on the part of both the more and the less prejudiced students. The 32 items were also considered as a scale, which appeared to be sufficiently reliable and valid to be used as a measuring instrument in its own right. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shifts in the structure of sentiments, taking place in two stages, underlie the emergence of existential sociology to its present significance, A challenge to Parsonian structuralfunctionalism initiated the first shift which was in turn followed by a period containing the development of the basis for a possible synthesis of existential sociology. This position is developed as are some of the characteristic features of an existential perspective on social life. Research based upon existential view and employing the concepts sentiments, body, self, situation, structure, massification and levelling, is presented. Some of the implications of these ideas are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on a theory of social dynamics. In a "class" theory, the characteristics of behavior common to different individuals of a class are abstracted. If the behavior of another individual shows these characteristics, it is included in the class, and the behavior is then regarded as explained. All concepts like instinct, purpose, libido as used in contemporary social psychology are entelechy concepts rather than vector concepts. Sociological analyses which use statistical tabulations without attempting statistical correlations are primarily structural. At the present time, even when correlations are attempted they are usually so low that one cannot adequately speak of functional analysis. Causation in a theory of field dynamics is always simultaneous, however, from the underlying genotype to the existent phenotype. For every change in the phenomenology of experience there is a change in the structure of the underlying dynamic field. The article concludes that social groups do show the properties of structured fields and are amenable to treatment by the concepts of the logic of dynamics. At the present time there is a rather general agreement among social psychologists that groups represent "organic wholes." There is, however, considerable variance in opinion regarding the properties of organic wholes.

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The article presents an acquaintanceship questionnaire which was originally intended to search for characteristic qualitative patterns of acquaintanceship, the hypothetical assumption being that personality traits in part determine, and in part are determined by, the social contacts in occupational, religious, fraternal, recreational, and other circles of social interaction. It soon developed, however, that the solution to this problem, which the authors still regard as highly important to the progress of social psychology, lay far beyond the available facilities. Hence the results with which this article is concerned are those based on raw quantitative scores, that is, the total number of acquaintances. The material of the questionnaire consists of a standard list of 191 commonly used designations of types of persons, embracing those by occupation, religion, recreational interest, nationality and race, fraternal affiliation, academic classification, and certain other designations, miscellaneous but familiar.

This article discusses social innovations in organizations, highlighting ways for cooperation between people who work and interact in organizations for common objectives. Innovation is concerned with change. Whereas technological innovation is concerned with application of new technology, social innovation deals with application of new social patterns of human interaction. Innovations are concerned with the future. A number of reasons can be listed that all point toward the need for social innovations. They can broadly be grouped in two categories, stemming from managerial and social requirements. The new environment imposes new requirements on management. The organization is much more unpredictable in its behavior. It must respond quickly to changes; speed will be of great importance. Changes in materials, technologies, and need patterns require flexibility. Such a situation can be a threat, but offers opportunities for those who can utilize the creative potential of the organization. The capacity of an organization to adapt to a dynamic environment depends on its employees. Here is a great challenge to management. In order to meet the social requirements of the future, there is a real need for new ways of thinking. Social innovations may in the future be even more important than technological innovations. The ability to motivate others will be a criterion of managerial success.

The article presents a list of books on social psychology. "Collected Papers in Psychology," by E. C. Tolman. "General Theory of Neuroses," by R. Brun. "Theoretical Foundations of Psychology," edited by H. Helson. "Comments and Cases on Human Relations," by F. K. Berrien. "Behavior Pathology," by N. Cameron and A. Margaret. "Psychological Analysis of Economic Behavior," by G. Katona. "Thematic Test Analysis," by E. S. Schneidman and others. "Chamorros and Carolinians of Saipan," by A. Joseph and V. F. Murray. "Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior," edited by L. A.. Jeffress.

The article discusses problems related to drawing of valid inferences from the data of various social psychology research. Traditionally the problem of experimental contamination was given much attention by the textbooks and journals, warning the researcher of subtle and difficult problems and suggesting stringent solutions. A new set of problems and considerations for the researcher were underscored by recent developments in the social psychological area of experimentation. Concern now is directed to the nature of the interaction between experimenter and subject and to how subject performance may be affected by unintentional experimenter influence. Contamination, unintended or deliberately contrived, occur throughout the literature. Such illustrations can serve as instructive warnings to the prospective researcher of the fatal dangers if contamination problems are not considered and reasonable controls devised. The primary sources of social contamination take three broad forms prior manipulation, experimenter influence and the attitudes of the subject.

The article reports on the development of a system for observing and recording the teaching process in physical education. A standardized set of procedures for observing events in teaching is required. A perspective from which classroom events in physical education can be described must be selected. Specific boundaries for classroom observations must be determined. Categories of augmented feedback must be developed to provide for reasonable efficiency in recording events in physical education.

The article cites a study which focused on mutual disclosures in social interactions. According to the predictions derived from attribution theory, recipients of intimate information were expected to be more attracted and disclose more to a conventionally dressed than to a deviantly dressed individual. Subjects may interpret high disclosure from a deviant, "hippie-like" individual as merely indicative of his highly unusual life style. On the other hand, high disclosure from a conventionally dressed individual is not expected and should be interpreted to indicate liking and trust. Thus, dress of the discloser was expected to interact with intimacy of disclosure to determine reciprocation of self-disclosure, as well as liking. The design was an analysis of variance, with a female confederate's disclosure (low and high) and appearance (conventional and deviant) as the independent variables. Ten female subjects were randomly assigned to each condition. The dependent variables included four behavioral and intentional measures of self-disclosure and one measure of liking.

The dramaturgical and the ethnomethodological positions on the definition of the situation is discussed, after a brief history of the concept. The ethnomethodologists claim to take their cues from Wittgenstein and Schutz, whereas the dramaturgists take theirs from G. H. Mead; these positions are examined in terms of their relative power to explain the problem of the definition of the situation, concluding that the Meadian position is the more powerful one. It is then argued that the essential sociological ontology&dmash; that given expression by Weber and Durkheim—is best realized by adopting some form of the dramaturgical argument. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experiment examined some conditions of the generality of the finding that a severe initiation leads to liking for a group. Sex, interest in joining a group. and severity of initiation were included in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design. It was found that females liked the group members most following a severe initiation,but this was not true for males, Males had the least interest in continuing with a group following a severe initiation, while the females' interest was almost unaffected by their initiations. Subjects who were most interested in joining in the beginning perceived the initiation as most severe. The perception of the meaningfulness of the initiation was influenced by all three independent variables in a triple interaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on cognitive complexity and impression formation in informal social interaction. In the typical impression formation study subjects are asked to form an impression of an unknown stimulus person described by a list of traits selected by the experimenter. The subject's impression is then usually assessed by allowing him to report an overall evaluative judgment of the other. Among the individual differences investigated, a principal research focus has involved the nature of the subject's cognitive dimensions for interpreting and understanding the behavior others.

The article discusses various issues related to signs, symbols and interaction theory. Symbolic interaction theory and sociology of understanding start from opposite points of departure but may be seen as moving toward each other. Their meeting ground is the concern with meaningful communication. However, symbolic interactionists' stress the means of communication, sociologists of understanding the content or meaning. The article argues that according to sociologist George Herbert Mead, this has led to equivocations in the use of the term, symbol. It designates a carrier of the connotation of words in everyday language as well as the use of such a carrier for indicating meanings, which are too esoteric to be expressable in the terms of any language. It is suggested to adopt the term, sign, for the first and the term, symbol, for the second connotation of symbolic in symbolic interaction. This would be in accordance with the clarification of the terminological issue achieved by sociologist Alfred Schutz. Mead stressed the central significance of vocal gestures in the development of significant symbols. On the elementary level of meaningful oral communication, his term, symbol, connotes the following relation between the physical process of speaking and the meaning expressed by the speaker: A combination of sounds is uttered which, by pre-established convention, stands for the object which is meant by the sound combination although, physically, the combination bears no resemblance to the designated object.

Despite a noteworthy empirical convergence by a number of investigators on at least two basic dimensions of social relationship, namely control and Affection (as they are often called), additional factors frequently emerge as well. This leads to some perplexity as to how many basic dimensions of interaction there are. To clarify the ambiguity, the concept of the division of labor is examined. The division of labor, it is suggested here, always involves some technical activity going on among the actors. Beyond this there is a need for co-ordination, response to exigency, setting of priorities, etc. These require that some actors do what other actors tell them to do. When it is asked why an actor complies with another actor's wish, demand or request, a possible answer, which underlies the model of social interaction presented here, is as follows: (1) compliance because of coercion, and (2) compliance because the actor wants to do so. There two bases for compliance may be understood to imply the two standard sociological categories of Power relations (in the Weberian sense) and Status relations. Respectively. It is argued further, for heuristic purposes, that all social relationships can be explicated by positioning actors in a two-dimensional space constituted by orthogonal axes of power and status Examination of disparate factor analytic evidence suggests strongly that factors in addition to Control and Affection, which are shown to be essentially equivalent to Power and Status, are either technical activity or are not of direct sociological interest. Support for this argument is also adduced from a consideration of learning theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]