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The article focuses on developments relevant to education in Great Britain as of October 1973. Nigel Grant, reader in education at the University of Edinburgh, joined the Editorial Board of "Comparative Education" magazine. The eight session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education was held in June 1973, which focused on "The Educational Needs of the 16-19 Age Group." UNESCO released its latest publication "Present Problems in the Democratization of Secondary and Higher Education." The Schools Council and the Standing Conference on University Entrance published the Working Paper 46, entitled "16-19: Growth and Response, 2. Examination Structure" and Working Paper 47, "Preparation for Degree Courses."

The article focuses on crew lists, agreements and official logs of the British empire from 1863 to 1913. As a result of negotiations during the last five years, the Memorial University has now acquired a collection of some 22, 500 boxes of shipping records which were previously stored at Hayes, Middlesex, England, under the custody of the Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen. These records are of two types, the Crew Lists and Agreements submitted by the masters of all merchant ships registered under the British Flag, and the Official Log Books of British Vessels. The Crew Lists, which form by far the greatest part of the collection, are basically the descendants of the ancient Muster Rolles submitted after 1730 by merchant captains. However, as a result of various pieces of legislation passed between 1835 and 1854, the method of recording and maintaining the agreements made between the captain and the crew was modified and improved, above all by the establishment of a registrar to supervise and have custody of the agreements once they had been signed. In 1854 the Merchant Shipping Act greatly improved the system of registering merchant vessels by allotting a distinct official number for every British merchant ship.

The article presents the author's response to the comments made on his paper "A.F. Leach on the Reformation." According to the author, his own approach was that of one interested in sixteenth and seventeenth century schooling who found that Leach's interpretation of events at the Reformation did not tally with the later evidence. This led to a detailed examination of the case argued in English Schools at the Reformation; then, since this case depended directly on a reading of earlier ecclesiastical and educational history, it was necessary to look further back. According to the author, it was the main object of his paper to suggest a reassessment of developments at the Reformation, in the interests of clarifying the course of educational history. According to the author, he suggested that there was a prima facie case for questioning Leach's assessment of the Chantries Act because it is at variance with the general views of medieval historians and with the later evidence, dealing mainly with the latter.

The article focuses on John English who was a member of a family of needle manufacturer in Feckenham village. English was the most remarkable member of a family whose needle-making business survived at Feckenham, a village near Redditch, Worcestershire, for over 170 years. English had personal charge of it for more than half a century until his death on January 31, 1876 at the age of 88. The article is based on the original, unpublished source material in the English Collection at Redditch Public Library and the Gutch Archives, at Worcester Record Office. Together these form a vast collection of personal papers, deeds, business ledgers, correspondence, bills and many other items. Job English founded the business about 1750, at a time when the Needle District of East Worcestershire and West Warwickshire was becoming the most important centre of production in Great Britain for needles and fishhooks. London, England and subsequently Long Crendon in Buckinghamshire had been the important centres of needle making in earlier times.

The paper draws attention to the profound changes that are taking place in the proportions of the population of Great Britain that are single, married and widowed at various ages. These changes are the net result of a number of demographic, economic and sociological developments, such as the decrease in mortality rates and the changing balance of the sexes. After discussing an abortive attempt to forecast the future progress of the proportions, based on changes that have taken place in the recent past, the paper describes a method of estimating the pro- portions of each sex that are likely to be found in each marital status at the various attained ages in future years if the experience of the years 1950-52 in Great Britain as regards rates of marriage, divorce, widowhood and re-marriage continue indefinitely, subject to minor modifications to ensure that the numbers of marriages, etc., for the two sexes are consistent, and that the total number of married men equals that of married women. The variations in the proportions in each marital status in Great Britain during the past thirty years and those to be expected during the next thirty years, and ultimately, if the experience of the years 1950-52 persists, are set out and analysed. It is shown that, whereas the proportion of men never marrying has up to the present been about half the proportion of women never marrying, the continuance of present trends would result in the proportion of men never marrying becoming double that for women. This notable change is to be attributed, in the main, to the effect of improved vitality in childhood in replacing the excess of women at the younger adult ages by an excess of men. It is pointed out that, in the event, this change may not be fully realised, because a net emigration of men or a net immigration of women may mitigate the relative dearth of potential brides in future; but the proportions never marrying set out in the paper show the directions towards which current conditions are tending. The consequential changes for other marital statuses are also set out and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the new proposed changes in the conditions of awarding the Scottish Leaving Certificate in the filed of education. According to the author, the proposed changes in the conditions of award of the Scottish Leaving Certificate would at once bring it more closely into line with the recommendations of the Advisory Council on Education in Scotland and with the General Certificate of Education in England. The changes, reportedly, involve the issue of a certificate to pupils who leave school around the age of sixteen after completing four years of secondary education, by the institution of papers at a lower level than those taken usually in the fifth year. Scotland, like England, is faced with the problem of early leaving. Recent figures published by the Secretary of State show that 56% of pupils leaving five-year courses of senior secondary education do so before reaching the age of sixteen, without completing even four years of the course. It is proposed to institute advanced level papers designed for pupils who have completed the university requirements in their fifth year, and who remain for a sixth year at school. The effect of the new proposals would, supposedly, be to encourage the extension of Sixth Form work, which has never flowered so freely in Scotland and England.

The article focuses on an aspect of confederate finance during the American Civil War. The attitudes of France and Great Britain toward the American Civil War were important to both the South and the North; and these attitudes also had a bearing on any European financial operations involving the disunited states. At the beginning of the war, the ruling classes of both France and Great Britain were in sympathy with the Confederacy. Because of his colonial plans in the western hemisphere, French President Louis Napoleon was in favour of intervening on the side of the South, but he could not do so without the concurrence of Great Britain with whom France was joined in an entente. Great Britain was unwilling to undertake such an overt action, partly because a large segment of English liberals and English working men saw the Civil War as a struggle of free versus slave labour and hence supported the North even though southern cotton was wanted for English mills. Although France and Great Britain both issued proclamations of neutrality, thus according to the South, the status of a belligerent nation rather than an internal territory in rebellion, neither they nor any European nation ultimately took the further step of granting diplomatic recognition to the Confederacy.

In a previous paper [12], an attempt was made to show how spectral techniques could be used to compare the effects of two seasonal adjustment procedures on the series to which they were applied. The two procedures compared were: (a) the technique currently used by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for seasonally adjusting employment, unemployment, and labor force monthly statistics, and (b) the so-called "residual" method, proposed by Brittain [2], Samuelson [16], and others. Spectra of the original and the seasonally adjusted series and the cross spectrum of the two were used to aid in the assessment of whether either procedure removed more than could be considered seasonal, introduced spurious regularities, and/or distorted temporal relationships. It was concluded that both techniques removed more than seasonal effects from, and produced some temporal distortion in, the series to which they were applied. Neither method appeared to be superior to the other. It is the purpose of this paper to carry the previous analysis one step further and to compare the BLS procedure with a modified version of the regression method of seasonal adjustment suggested by Cowden [3] and Mendershausen [11], and recently revived by Harman [9, 10] in an exceptionally sophisticated form. In addition to Hannan's work along the lines suggested, Nettheim [13] and Rosenblatt [15] have made studies. Rosenblatt [15] has carried out analyses similar to those reported here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melrose Ltd., Tea and Coffee Merchants, are one of the oldest Scottish firms in the trade. How the firm was first founded by Andrew Melrose is a story that goes back to the early nineteenth century. Studies of specific industries have described the period as one full of entrepreneurial innovation, but the changes occurring within the distributive trade have received little systematic study for the period before 1850. This paper aims to describe Melrose's business as a specific example of the entrepreneurial skill which characterized a small group of tea dealers in Great Britain, who managed, in less than twenty years after "Waterloo," to break up the quasi-monopoly of the old-established London wholesale dealers. In the 1833 parliamentary investigation of commerce and manufacturing, witnesses for the wholesale and retail trade agreed that during the previous ten or twenty years trade had improved as a result of better business methods. Melrose's surviving records show that he was well able to keep track of his multifarious activities and to assess his financial position. The accounts are clear and, in some ways, give a far more vivid picture of his business, than is possible under modem accounting methods.

Discusses French trade history during the American war for independence, 1776-1783, in light of the Boulton and Watt papers in Great Britain. The hazards challenging 18th century merchants trading overseas; Entry of the 'Steam Engine Parliament' into the shipping business; The business of Bouton and Wattt, selling steam pumping engines to Cornish mine proprietors, in collaboration with John Wilkinson, the chief supplier of heavy castings, operating at Bersham iron works; The issue of Wilkinson supplying canons to France; The problem of shipping equipment to French industrialists during war-time controls; Watt's contact in government, William the second earl of Dartmouth; Vessels used to transport engines; Influence of brothers Jacques Constantin Perier and Augustin Charles Perier.

Criticisms of the author's previous work on the estimation of illegal abortions in Britain before the 1967 Abortion Act, contained in a paper by Dr. W. H. James (Population Studies, 25, 2, 327, July 1971), under the four headings of maternal mortality, hospital in-patient statistics, N.O.P. Sample survey in 1966, and the Aberdeen data, are examined in detail and for the most part rejected. A comparison of legitimate and illegitimate birth rates before and after 1968, together with what is known of the incidence of legal abortion, strengthens the conclusion that estimates of 60,000-100,000 or more criminal abortions in Britain each year before 1967, as favoured by Dr. James and many other commentators, mast be grossly exaggerated, and that the true rate could not have exceeded 20,000 and was probably nearer 15,000 a year. The demographic and medical implications of this are briefly discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years several writers have drawn attention to the dangers of relying upon "calendar year" reproduction rates, such as the conventional net reproduction rate, as indicators of future population prospects. The synthesis considered in the present paper is of the births to generations of women, and is thus free from these objections. In brief the defence of an analysis limited to females in England and Wales today is based on the shrinking proportions of females to males at the younger ages in the unmarried population and one may suppose, the decreasing dependence of the proportions of women marrying on the availability of potential husbands. In the simplest case, the definition was in terms of mortality and fertility rates, progressing to mortality, marriage and legitimate and illegitimate fertility rates and, if the pendulum had not swung away from this approach, no doubt further complexity would have been added introducing considerations of widowhood, divorce and re-marriage and distinguishing duration of marriage as an additional factor in fertility rates.

This paper describes the results obtained in administering a modified Terman intelligence test to 327 Greek children aged from 7 to 12 years. A negative correlation between intelligence and family size was obtained. The results are compared with those obtained in similar inquiries in Britain and the U.S.A. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper on social class differences in mortality and morbidity during the first two years of life is based on the results of a survey on the health and development of a sample of children drawn from all parts of Great Britain and from all social classes. The 1946 survey provided a unique opportunity to keep the health and development of a national sample of children under review. In 1948, therefore, the Joint Committee, with the addition of representatives from the Institute of Child Health, made a further study of the babies enrolled in the 1946 survey. The completion of the 1948 survey was made easier by the fact that illegitimate children were excluded from the survey as also were twins. It would have been difficult, and embarrassing to trace unmarried mothers, many of whom had been confined away from home, sometimes without the knowledge of their relatives. Twins were excluded because it was felt that the small number in the sample would yield little useful information, but greatly complicate the analysis.

The article provides on the planning of the Education Bill of 1902 in Great Britain. The three people who were mainly responsible for planning the Bill, during the eight months before it was introduced to Parliament in March, 1902, were Sir John Gorst, A.J. Balfour and Sir Robert Morant. One of Gorst's main objects had been to help the voluntary schools and he did bring them some assistance by the Voluntary Schools Act, 1897. In December 1900, however, the way for a real revolution in education seemed to be open. The so-called Cockerton Judgment of that month showed that there was no legal foundation for some of the higher education given by the great school boards. Morant might not check the evidence for his prejudices; but he did not make the mistake of making positive proposals without carefully ascertaining the facts which supported them. By March 1901, one finds him drawing Gorst's attention to the implications of the figures for secondary education. The immediate problem was still whether the Bill was to be for secondary education only, or for both secondary and elementary. Moreover, argued Morant, the varying nature of the different types of institutions for secondary education suggested a complex pattern of organization.

This article briefly reports on some research papers and other resources revealing the history of scientific education in Great Britain. The contribution of studies in the history of science teaching towards contemporary problems in science education, reportedly, is suggested by professor H. Butterfield in his book "Man on His Past." According to the author, one of the most useful single study is Dorothy M. Turner's article "History of Science Teaching in England" which in the early part considers the beginnings of science instruction from the thirteenth century. Scientific societies have played their most notable and influential part in the spread of scientific knowledge during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The importance of all scientific societies from the learned bodies to the multiplicity of provincial and parochial associations in relation to the progress of science was emphasized in the "Annual Report of the British Association, 1879." Several studies reveal that the history of universities and in particular the impact of the scientific revolution and the subsequent development of science courses have been fully explored. The decline in effectiveness of the institutes and the middle class invasion resulted from deficiencies in both primary and secondary education.

This article presents some evidence and sources revealing the history of educational periodicals in England. Many educational periodicals in Great Britain were short lived and limited in circulation. The recent publication of the first three volumes of the book "British Union-Catalogue of Periodicals" has, reportedly, made it possible to trace the whereabouts of any periodical in a British library. The value of educational periodicals to the historian of education lies largely in their correcting of any over-simplified views of the growth of the educational system or the development of educational practices. The earliest educational periodicals to appear, in the first forty years of the nineteenth century, were edited by clergymen and contained articles on religious, scientific and literary topics, book reviews and sermons as well as model lessons. They were directed at both the teachers and their employers. The most influential of these periodicals were: "The Educational Magazine" and "The English Journal of Education." The British and Foreign School Society published "Quarterly Extracts From the Correspondence" during 1825-45 and "The Educational Record" during 1848-1929. The next group of periodicals were general teachers' magazines.

This article focuses on the need for establishing voluntary responsible bodies for adult education in Great Britain. Several recent articles and research papers have advised that consideration should be given to the question whether voluntary organizations should continue to be allowed to exercise the powers of Responsible Bodies under the Further Education Grant Regulations of the Ministry of Education. The term "Responsible Body" came into general use in relation to adult education after the publication of the "Adult Education Regulations of the Board of Education" in 1924. Those Regulations governed the payment of grants to bodies, not being Local Education Authorities, in aid of the liberal education of adults. They prescribed that each course must be under the control and direction of a Responsible Body, which will be held responsible by the British Board of Education for the efficiency of the instruction given in the course and for the observance of the regulations applicable to it. Responsible Bodies might, suggestively, be of two types: first, universities and university colleges for courses under Chapter 2 of the Regulations, which related to Preparatory, Three-Year, and Advanced Tutorial Classes, Tutorial Class Vacation Courses and University Extension Courses; and second, "Approved Associations" for courses under Chapter 3, which dealt with Terminal and One Year Courses, and Vacation Courses for selected students organized in connection with such classes.

Death rate variations for the United Kingdom and the United States are spatially compared by means of maps. The data mapped include death rates from all causes, and infant mortality. In the United Kingdom, the association between high death rates and areas of industrialization, exploitation, and dense population is very marked. Such an association is somewhat less definite in the United States where the high rates associate more easily with areas of poor socio-economic circumstances such as Indian reservations, Spanish-American districts, and most particularly, the high-proportion Negro areas of the South. In both countries, however, longevity in rural areas and in urban places of limited industry is likely to be greater than in areas not having these attributes. The quality, of biostatistics in the United Kingdom has been superior to the United States. The recently launched National Health Survey, however, promises to greatly improve the biostatistic position of the United States. The special contribution of medical geography is the mapping technique and the interpretations which potentially it allows. At the national scale the sensitivity limits of such an approach must be recognized and there can be no simple explanation of apparent mortality patterns. Such maps as these are designed to focus on areas where detailed studies may be of benefit in substantiating cause-and-effect relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is one of the ironies of history that while businessman William Wood's attempt to mint £100, 000 worth of copper halfpence is the best known project of the eighteenth century, his attempt to revolutionize the British iron industry through the erection of the first £1000,000 industrial corporation remains practically unknown. The notoriety of the coinage project is due, of course, to the genius of Jonathan Swift, but there is still no justification for the obscurity into which Wood's iron schemes have fallen. At the time they occupied the pamphleteers, filled the public press and wasted the time of the very highest branches of the administration. The principal law officers of the Crown spent six months on hearings and a report, the Privy Council itself suffered appeals and discussed the matter at no less than sixteen meetings over two years; and distinguished committees sat through several public trials. The background to the last and greatest of Wood's projects is a story of extravagant ambition and financial disaster. The failure of the Irish coinage scheme is well known, but the extent of Wood's losses and liabilities is not, and nothing has previously been known of the collapse of his earlier iron partnership.

The mail service between the West Indies and Great Britain had, since 1842, been maintained by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Co. under successive contracts with Her Majesty's Government. The existing agreement, due to expire in June 1905, embraced a fortnightly trunk time to Barbados, Trinidad and Jamaica and branches to the remaining British colonies in the West Indies. The service had recently proved unremunerative. Royal Mail enjoyed a small surplus in 1896 and 1897 but by 1903 the annual loss was over 75,000 pounds. In March 1905, as a result of twice calling for tenders, the government provisionally awarded the forthcoming West Indian mail contract to Elder Dempster. Royal Mail's tenders had proved unacceptable in terms of cost and through a disinclination to agree to certain restrictive conditions. Elder Dempster on the other hand, submitted offers some 3,000 pounds lower, conforming exactly to the government's requirements. The government now awaited the approval of a preponderance of the West Indian colonies before ratifying the contract with Elder Dempster. The alternative was no contract.

Several attempts have now been made to chart and explain the retardation in British growth rates in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Statistics relating to the growth of national income, exports and industrial productivity all show a distinct tendency to decelerate in the period from 1875-1914. The growth rates in Great Britain compare unfavourably with those registered abroad especially in the United States and Germany. Perhaps the most alarming feature was the lag in British manufacturing productivity; the rate of growth of output per worker fell continuously throughout this period. The reaction of British businessmen, to the less favourable market conditions was an unhappy one and merely served to accentuate their difficulties in the long run. They failed to recognize the significance of the challenge to their monopoly and instead of making adjustments along the technical front, they searched for the easiest escape routes in the insured markets of imperialism, in tariffs, restrictive practices, employers associations and wage cost reductions.

The present study attempts to analyze the broad features of commercial letterpress printing between 1850 and 1914, paying particular attention to last forty years or so of the period. The business records used in this analysis are those of firms that were originally located in London, but this in no way inhibits a general account for Great Britain. The under-developed state of the industry was certainly not due to an inability to devise new techniques. But despite these major advances the industry changed very little before 1860, because these new machines could be economically employed only by those having a reasonably assured demand, and the organization of the market meant that this condition applied to only a small number. Moreover, the introduction of new techniques demanded the re-organization of production, and the enterprise necessary for this naturally took some time to develop. The pattern set by large printers was followed on a more modest scale by the growing number of printers serving specialized branches of the market, especially in the jobbing section. Equipment was purchased when capital was available, rather than in accordance with a detailed plan of investment. The introduction of more convenient forms of power equipment accelerated the expansion of medium-size firms, and the gap between this group and large firms was narrowed. However, this trend was reversed when mechanical composing became available, as the bulk of installations were in large firms.

Presents the economic background on the first successful use of coke in iron smelting in eighteenth century Britain. Significance of water communications and markets in understanding the iron trade; Coke production in the Midland region; Overview of the iron industry; Trade patterns; Processes; Iron consumers; Role of water power; Transport costs; Economic significance of Abraham Darby's discovery at Coalbrookdale.

Focuses on Wilkins & Co., a private bank of South Wales during 1778-1890. History of banking functions and the types of banks that developed in Great Britain; Formation of the 'Old Bank' by four partners, including brothers Walter and Jeffreys Wilkins; The later membership of Wilkins & Co.; Financing of Wilkins & Co. through the Bank of England; The competition between country banks, which had districts in which their own notes were more acceptable; Disparity between the amount of notes issued by the Old Bank and the size of Wilkins' reserves and deposits; Caution used by Wilkins' in issuing their notes in South Wales; Industries financed by Wilkins and Brecon Bank; Firms and ships given long-term loans; Relations between the Brecon Old Bank and the Bank of England branch at Swansea, according to John Parry Wilkins.

Presents an article for business people to persuade them to consult economic historians. The problems in writing any company's history, including placing the story in the economic context of the industry; The advantages of hiring an economic historian; Factors contributing to interest in business history in America; The influence of George Unwin in Great Britain; The purpose of the Council for the Preservation of Business Archives society in Britain.

The article focuses on the impact of the 1870 Education Act in Great Britain on trade unionists and artisans. The advanced sections of the working class--the trade unionists and skilled artisans and their representatives--took a deep interest in education and played an active part in both the campaigns and the debates that accompanied the passing of Forster's Bill. In addition to purely economic issues, the trade unionists of the period interested themselves in a range of social questions, including the extension of the franchise (achieved by the great majority of the urban workers in 1867), legal security and a recognized position for trade unionism and an extended and improved system of popular education. This desire for improved instruction reflected the low level of education among the working class as a whole. According to Thomas Wright, who had extensive experience of workshop life, the educated working man was in a small minority in any place of work. Looked up to as a "scholard" by his fellow workers, he was constantly in demand to read or write letters, settle disputes, draw up petitions or addresses and act as spokesman in putting forward demands or grievances to the employer.

This paper examines the Family Allowances Scheme in Great Britain. The Family Allowances Scheme covers all families with more than one child and is the only current source of statistics giving the dates of birth of each child in the family. The main deficiencies of the statistics from the point of view of demographic analysis are the exclusion from the family of children who have left school or apprenticeship or who are over age 18, and the absence of any particulars about the parents. Comparison of the dates available with the total numbers of children in the population throws some light on recent changes in family composition in Great Britain.

The first nationally representative study of attitudes to contraception and of birth control practices has been undertaken by the Population Investigation Committee in collaboration with Social Surveys Ltd. in Great Britain. This article presents some of the results obtained from interviews with about 2,350 men and women married since the first World War. Almost all of these people are prepared to talk freely about contraception, though some are initially reluctant to admit the use of non-appliance methods, and a few may have successfully concealed their practices altogether.

The article discusses a study on fertility of teachers in England and Wales, Great Britain. A sample of teachers differs from a population sample as it may be reduced not only by death but also by other factors which may have a direct bearing on fertility, such as health or change of occupation. In order to compare the fertility of teachers with other occupational groups, the Family Census material was used. The two samples are not entirely identical. The Family Census included divorced and widowed women provided they were divorced or widowed after their 45th birthday. The analysis which follows the pattern set by the Family census' of 1946 describes fertility in terms of numbers of live-born children per married male teacher by marriage cohort and duration of marriage. The data were collected partly by postal questionnaire and partly by personal interview. The postal and interview data were compared and showed no significant difference with respect to the factors under discussion in the present study and only minor differences for other factors.

In their pioneer work "Social Mobility in Britain" the authors describe as one of their main objects "an assessment of the amount and direction of social mobility in Great Britain since the end of the nineteenth century." The authors define three points on the scale of intensity of association: "Complete association," which occurs when all sons have the same social status as their fathers; "perfect association," existing when all sons, whatever the status of their parents, have equal chance of reaching a given status category; and "complete dissociation," which occurs when all sons have a status different from their fathers. Neither perfect nor complete association are likely to occur in practice. Consequently, the authors of the symposium propose to assess and interpret social mobility with the aid of the three indices and the tests of significance based upon them. The conclusions reached in the symposium may be correct. They are, however, given no support by the heavy statistical framework, unless the authors choose to define association in terms of the index.

The article presents information on the studies in the recent marriage and fertility data of England and Wales. The article attempts to set forth the relevant particulars somewhat differently and, in illustrating the recent demographic history of England and Wales, to show ways in which this may with advantage be exhibited and to suggest methods for possible use in more advanced researches among marriage and fertility data. In January 1950 the inaugural meeting was held of a demographic Study Group formed by the Institute of Actuaries Students' Society. Many of the ideas in the article are based on the fruitful suggestions that were made at that time by members of the actuarial profession as to the objects to which attention should be devoted. Legitimate fertility data have been sub-divided according to such factors as age of parent, duration of marriage and size of family, but in spite of diligent search it has not been possible to find significant characteristics according to which the experience has been consistent year by year since 1938 within the limits of random variation.

The article presents information on some published sources for the study of contemporary British further education. It is first necessary to define the term British further education. British means concerning Great Britain, that is England, Wales and Scotland, but not Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man nor the Channel Islands. In one sense further education could mean any education undergone by someone who had left school, or was over a certain age, or both; but such a broad usage would cover activities conducted in a heterogeneous lot of establishments or in none at all. Because of this it is more useful to limit the term to a specifically-defined part of the statutory education system. In this article British further education is therefore defined as the education intended primarily for persons who have left school, through provision secured either by the British Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Education and Science acting in the capacity of the former Minister of Education, by the Secretary of State for Scotland or by local education authorities in accordance with appropriate Schemes or Plans approved by one of these ministers. Besides, the word sources is used loosely here; it means mainly government publications, reports of committees and conferences, and studies by individuals in published form.

This article discusses the problems in the use of educationist A.F. Leach's work by educationists and historians. General historians of the Middle Ages have not used Leach's work, but writers of educational history and of innumerable histories of individual schools' have. This poses the dilemma which faces the student of the history of mediaeval schools. If he wants information he must go to Leach's work, yet there is this doubt about Leach's reliability. Its the author's contention that the reason for this doubt is a mistaken interpretation of the review of "The Schools of Medieval England" by A.G. Little in "The English Historical Review." Scholar Joan Simon's criticism of the author's contention throws some light on this dilemma. She asserts that all subsequent critics have referred to the review. But there have not been any subsequent critics. She considers that the author has been unjust to these critics, and that every historian who has not used Leach's work has conducted some sort of independent inquiry into it but kept silent. Yet she says that criticisms were never followed up.

This article explores the origin of the general certificate of education in Great Britain. It is just over a hundred years since the University of Oxford held its first examination "for candidates who are not members of the University." Thus was born the system of University Local Examinations destined to grow into the General Certificate of Education. The initiation and success of the scheme is primarily dedicated to the works of educators Frederick Temple and Thomas Acland. Temple had started his professional career in the Examinations Section of the Education Department. He stressed the necessity of considering how to organize the education of the middle class. Acland, landowner and gentleman farmer, was also at this time being brought face to face with the problem of the improvement of the education of the middle class. As early as 1838 he had written a pamphlet entitled "National Education: The Present State of the Question Elucidated." Acland had strongly supported the claims of the National Society for the education of the poor under a religious rather than a secular aegis. The first idea that suggested itself to Acland for the conduct of the proposed examination was the establishment of self-constituted county boards.

This article focuses on the sources for the history of the British grammar schools. The most famous of all the girls' grammar schools of charity school origin are Red Maids' School, Bristol; Burlington School, Westminster; and the Grey Coat Hospital, Westminster. Usually a girls' grammar school incorporating or connected with an ancient foundation falls into one of two classes: it may be based on a charity school, or it was established in Victorian times, with a scheme under the Endowed School Act, for allotting it a cash endowment of its own. Parish records--even more varied in their content than are those of the counties--often throw light on the history of an ancient school. At the least, if a schoolmaster dwelt in the parish, the parish register should give the dates of birth of his children, and the date of his burial. Similarly a schoolmaster often served a parish office, and he may be found in the vestry minutes. Even before 1870 voluntary "higher grade" or "middle class" schools had developed among British and National School foundations. Of the rival institutions set up by the Boards, a very great number appear to this day in the list of recognized and grant-aided grammar schools. The movement for establishing them seems to have begun in Manchester.

\This article presents a study, which is part of a series of projects at the London School of Economics, London, England, exploring aspects of organizational change. A particular concern has been to understand the ways by which innovation is introduced and carried through in highly bureaucratic organizations, where it could be hypothesized that resistance to change is likely to be very important. For this reason, a study has been developed of a number of building maintenance organizations whose function is to maintain the structures and services of public housing estates in Great Britain. This study has dealt with the problems and organization of estates for Local Authority tenants and for members of the families of the Armed Services. The research leads the article author to the conclusion that many of the methods of data collection should be refined and modified if the data are to be really useful. In particular structured questionnaires are of little value in catching the meanings behind many of the actions of tenants, operatives, and foremen--what seems necessary is to develop semi-structured tape-recorded interviews combined with observation.

The article presents announcements and brief news items related to comparative education as of March 1974. They include the special issue of "Trends in Education" to mark British entry into the European Economic Community, a special issue of the "International Review of Education" devoted to the education of women, and the announcement made by the French-speaking comparative education society Association Francophone d' Education comparée that it will welcome new members from Francophone countries, particularly from Canada and Africa.

The currently accepted hypothesis that the British inter-war economy was 'over-committed' to a narrow range of staple industries has recently been extended to include the view that since private entrepreneurs were incapable of effecting the necessary structural transformation in their own industries and the economy as a whole then it was probably a matter for central action rather than something to be left to the "forces of the market." Here is an industry, which was manifestly incapable of finding a solution to its difficulties unaided and which in consequence had imposed upon it a highly restrictive and massively inconsistent scheme of central action. The degree of government intervention alone would ensure this and it is further confirmed by the fact that the extremity of the State's response was occasioned by uniquely disastrous labour relations in an industry, which could claim to lie at the heart of the industrial system. The purpose of the article, therefore, is twofold: first, to examine the response of entrepreneurs in another industry, cotton textiles, to changing market circumstances, which were at least as adverse as those in coal-mining; and secondly, to consider the rationale of State intervention which in comparison to that in coal-mining could be termed too little and too late.

Major technological changes are currently planned in an investment programme for the British steel industry. The relatively inefficient open-hearth technology is to be made redundant and production concentrated in large-scale plants employing the basic oxygen process. Further, rich foreign ores are more cheaply transported in large bulk carriers and therefore, production costs will be lowest at integrated plants with ready access to deep water ports. The impact of innovation must have consequences for the geographical distribution of the steel industry's workforce, irrespective of whether it foreshadows a change in the capital-labour ratio and/or in the total labour requirements. The British Steel Corp. and the government recognize that, the concentration of modern steelmaking at a few large works mean that older and smaller units at less suitable sites must be phased out, with the loss of the jobs in them. However, the proposed development strategy is, in the government's judgement, the course best calculated to assure for Great Britain an efficient, profitable, modern industry able to compete with the rest of the world and to assure future employment. In fact, given that the technological development of the British steel industry lags behind many of its competitors, it is perhaps surprising that innovation was not introduced earlier.

The article focuses on takeover bids in Great Britain before 1950s. In the course of the present century many British industries which were once characterized by a competitive structure of small, privately-owned firms have been transformed into monopolies and oligopolies dominated by large publicIy quoted companies. Together with the rapid expansion in the size of firms, there has been a significant change in the structure of ownership of these enterprises. Whereas the small firms of the nineteenth century were normally closely held by managing families and partnerships, by the mid-twentieth century the divorce of ownership and control in large corporations was already well developed. Yet the takeover bid, which has been seen by economists as one of the most important corollaries of this development! emerged only after a considerable time lag. The present article analyses some of the reasons for the virtual absence of the technique of takeover bidding in Great Britain before mid-century.

The dominant role of multinational corporations has strongly influenced the geography of the petrochemical industry in the United Kingdom. Certain oil companies have encouraged development of integrated oil refinery/petrochemical complexes. Despite similar motivations, these companies have adopted different approaches in their moves from oil refining into petrochemical manufacture. These differences have affected position of the complexes, both functionally and geographically, at local, national, and international scales, within the corporate systems to which they belong. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the early system of teacher training in Great Britain. The first training schools in England were located in the central model school of the British and Foreign School Society, established in Borough Road in 1808. Local teachers would visit the model school for short periods and then return to their own schools to try to apply what they had learnt of the mechanics of teaching children by the monitorial system of education. This rudimentary method of teacher training lasted until the late 1830s. The article also discusses the ideas of the pioneers of teacher education in Great Britain. The main concern is to delineate the varying concepts of teacher training which found expression during the 1830s and 1840s. Here for the first time in modern educational literature one finds various philosophies of education worked out in great detail both in theory and practice.

This article presents information on the role of the National Advisory Council on the Training and Supply of Teachers in Great Britain. The council was set up in 1949 to provide the Minister of Education with the means of obtaining advice on national policy relating to the training, qualification, recruitment and distribution of teachers. The advisory function of the NACTST, endorsed proposals put before it by the Minister. References to such endorsements are found in the Ministry of Education's Annual Reports during the 1950s and it is evident that the proposals put to the Council were generally of a minor and non-controversial nature. In 1949 the first task of the Council was to review the future supply of teachers for maintained schools. This it did in its Report on the Training and Supply of Teachers, in May 1951. In all these early published Reports the NACTST were operating within narrow fields of inquiry, and they produced unanimous recommendations which were either acceptable to the Ministry and subsequently implemented, or were quietly shelved until official policy had been formulated.

This article presents information on the criticism faced by the public schools education curriculum in the 1860s in Great Britain. In general critics found the curriculum of the public schools inadequate in two ways. In the first place it was too narrow. In the second place it was irrelevant to the new industrial society which had established itself. It was inevitable therefore that much of the debate should concern itself with the importance of expanding the curriculum through the development of the Sciences and the so called Modern subjects such as History and Geography. And it was likewise inevitable that considerable attention should be paid to the role of the mother tongue as a necessary field of study within a reformed curriculum. The article further informs that the debate on the mother tongue took place through Commission, through pamphlet, through speech, through editorial, with great vigor over a whole decade. The author comments on the clarity and insistence with which the failure to teach the mother tongue was picked out as a major deficiency of the school curriculum and the obscurity and half-heartedness of any practical proposals to remedy the deficiency.

This article focuses on the art education in Great Britain. There is little common agreement amongst educationalists or art teachers about the actual educational purposes which art serves. The author examines the many conflicting views on art and focus on the source of much of the confusion which surrounds art education at the moment. The orientation of what was art education, only in a very technical sense towards industry and manufacture excluded much that would come within the province of fine art and indeed it was not until the latter years of the century that the notion of fine art became acceptable as in any way relevant to art education, at least in its earlier stages. The author observes that the fine art concept of art education has also moved away from its earlier connotation, which implied a close adherence to the academic tradition in art education, a tradition which attached prime importance to the skill of drawing, and has moved towards a somewhat broader view which encompasses art appreciation, art history and those various inter-disciplinary and cross-subject groupings which link art with the broader pattern of learning as a whole.

The article presents information on dame schools. The article scrutinizes allusions to be culled from literary, biographical and artistic sources. One of the philosophers comments that the dame school appears so frequently in English literature both poetry and prose that it must have played a very important part in the beginnings of elementary education in England. The quest for dame schools before 1800 is fascinating. Two early references are both associated with English writer Samuel Johnson. Johnson quotes this in his Dictionary of 1755 in definition of schooldame that sending little children of two or three years old to a schooldame, without any design of learning one letter, but only to keep them, out of fire and water. In 1714 was born the boy who was later to adapt to the poetic convention of an earlier age some memories of his first schoolmistress. When William Shenstone thus commemorated Sarah Lloyd he established a romantic tradition which was followed by many other writers. Shenstone, along with Richard Jago, future clergyman and minor poet, attended a dame school at Halesowen conducted by Sarah Lloyd.

The article focuses on the rise and fall of businessman Owen Phillips, popularly known as Lord Kylsant and the Royal Mail Group PLC, which was an event of supreme importance in many fields. The shipping and shipbuilding industries, the stock market, the practice of accountancy and the law relating to companies were all shaken or modified as a direct result of these happenings. The Royal Mail Group had extensive ramifications in the world of shipping. In 1930 the fleet of the Royal Mail Steam Packet (RMSP) Company together with RMSP Meat Transports amounted to 331,418 gross register tons. The vessels owned by the other companies in the Group amounted to 2,304,370 tons making a grand total of 2,635,788 tons, exclusive of vessels being built. At this time the total gross tonnage belonging to Great Britain shipping companies amounted to 20,438,444 tons so Kylsant controlled nearly 13 per cent of all British vessels over 100 tons. In addition, the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, its associates, or Kylsant personally, possessed large holdings in other businesses.

The article discusses several issues related to the early merger movements in British manufacturing industries. A common pattern in those industries, which experienced large-scale amalgamations around the turn of the century, or in the inter-war period, was for the harsher facets of competition to be eliminated at first through a trade association agreement. When this method failed, as invariably it did, a large amalgamation of as many firms as possible in the industry was attempted in order to achieve more lasting control over prices. In other words, a major purpose of the multi-firm amalgamations was monopoly power, and this was also true in cases where growth to dominance was achieved largely through piecemeal acquisition. Equally significant, however, was the subsequent phase where the leading firms found their position weakened by competition from independents and thought it necessary, either to revive trade association agreements where they hoped to wield power in proportion to their size, or simply to acquire their competitors. Up until very recently, mergers in the post-Second War period have been mostly horizontal i.e. between firms producing similar products. In addition, since the 1956 Restrictive Practices Act a large number of overt trades association agreements have had to be abandoned. It is thus at least possible, though as yet unsubstantiated empirically, that a central motive in many recent mergers has been increased market power, just as it was in the earlier period.

Economists have all become familiar with, and complicated and conflicting arguments regarding Great Britain's entry or non-entry into the Common Market. It is not, however, so generally realized among historians that on the question of Free Trade versus Protection, in the first half of the nineteenth century, there was a similar confusion of motives and, arguments. British economic history has not yet, in fact, really escaped from the liberal tradition, dominant to the 1930's, in which the movement towards Free Trade was viewed as a triumph of right thinking over wrong, of progress over conservatism, and of the general over a sectional interest. This question still tends to be portrayed over-simply in textbooks, in theoretical laissez-faire terms, as a fairly straightforward contest between the manufacturers and merchants, on the one side, and the landowning interest on the other. Just as landowners and farmers formed views, according to their differing situations as and market possibilities though doubtless the major part of the agricultural interest favored protection in the same way there were considerable differences of opinion among the manufacturing and commercial interests according to their hopes or fears on the possible effects of Free Trade.