Search

Cremated human remains are a rather neglected research substrate in physical anthropology; its investigation is still mainly restricted to the osteological level. The application of archaeometric methods to cremations is limited because the organic skeletal components are fully combusted at high temperatures. Stable isotope ratios of heavy elements such as strontium and lead, however, are thermally stable and permit research targeting questions of mobility, migration, and trade. In many cremations, neither dental remains nor the petrous bone are preserved. In such case, no skeletal element that retains the isotopic signature of childhood is available and compact bone has to be chosen instead. This raises interpretive problems, since due to its slow remodeling rate, compact bone integrates the element uptake over many years prior to death. This can generate a mixed isotope ratio in migrants. Such mixed ratios are no longer compatible with the place of origin, and not yet with the place of recovery. Provenance analysis with a single isotope ratio (mostly 87Sr/86Sr) therefore has its limits. A combination of strontium and lead stable isotopes in cremations generates a multi-dimensional isotopic fingerprint that is however more difficult to interpret. Data mining methods that permit a similarity search are a promising approach. In this paper, possibilities and limitations of stable isotope analysis of cremated finds are discussed together with the substrate-specific methodological and interpretive problems. The research potential is demonstrated by use of selected examples.

87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratios in skeletal remains of archaeological vertebrates are used for provenance analysis since long. However, the definition of the past bioavailable isotopic ratio at the site of recovery is not known beforehand and geological maps can provide no more than gross expectations. Therefore, the assessment of the "local Sr isotopic signature" is still of crucial importance. In this study, we present a tool for the prediction of such local isotopic signatures by creating a concentration weighted mixing model that links lithospheric, biospheric, and atmospheric strontium per site. The major strontium sources and their input into an animal's body were assessed by choosing elemental strontium and its isotopic signature in groundwater, soil, vegetation, and precipitation as components for the mixing model, augmented by literature values. The model was applied to 24 sites located in the alpine transect of the Inn-Eisack-Adige-Brenner passage across the European Alps, a passage used since the Mesolithic. Predicted local bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr ratios were compared with measured values from locally excavated archaeozoological bone samples from three taxa of large and mainly residential vertebrates (cattle, pig, red deer) to verify the models' accuracy. With regard to the fact that the environmental samples predict the past local bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr at a specific site while the vertebrates had different and species-specific home ranges, thereby integrating strontium from a region of primarily unknown size, the model is capable of assigning reasonable expectation values. For 11 sites, up to 100% of the vertebrate isotopic signatures were correctly predicted. Mismatches at the remaining sites are explainable by special environmental factors, and also the fact that some import of animals can never be excluded beforehand. Suggestions for site-specific adjustments of the model are made.

RationaleDue to the spatial heterogeneity of stable isotope ratios of single elements measured in attempts to georeference bioarchaeological finds, multi-isotope fingerprints are frequently employed under the assumption that similar isotopic signatures are indicative of similar shared environments by the individuals studied. The extraction of the spatial information from multi-isotope datasets, however, is challenging. Methods: Gaussian mixture clustering of six- to seven-dimensional isotopic fingerprints measured in archaeological animal and human bones was performed. Uncremated animal bones served for an isotopic mapping of a specific reference area of eminent archaeological importance, namely the Inn-Eisack-Adige passage across the European Alps. The fingerprints consist of Sr-87/Sr-86, Pb-208/Pb-204, Pb-207/Pb-204, Pb-206/Pb-204, Pb-208/Pb-207, and Pb-206/Pb-207 ratios, and O-18(phosphate) values in uncremated bone apatite, while the thermally unstable O-18 values of human cremations from this region were discarded. Results: The bone finds were successfully decontaminated. Animal and human isotope clusters not only reflect individual similarities in the multi-isotopic fingerprints, but also permit a spatial allocation of the finds. This holds also for cremated finds where the O-18(phosphate) value is no longer informative. To our knowledge, for the first time Pb stable isotopes have been systematically studied in cremated skeletal remains and proved significant in a region that was sought after for its ore deposits in prehistory. Conclusion: sGaussian mixture clustering is a promising method for the interpretation of multi-isotopic fingerprints aiming at detecting and quantifying migration and trade.

Provenance analysis for the scope of quantifying the extent of population admixture and the direction of migration and trade will remain an important topic in the future and is not restricted to bioarchaeological science. We understand the maps as a starting point for the generation of an ecogeographic “isotopic landscape”, which can be of benefit for other sciences as well, such as ecology, biodiversity and forensic sciences. As outlined in chapter “The Isotopic Fingerprint: New Methods of Data Mining and Similarity Search”, identification of the structural importance and structural redundancy of single isotopic signatures within a multi-isotope fingerprint will significantly contribute to the probability with which a region of provenance can be identified for non-local individuals. While the results reported in this book are specific for the chosen reference region, the general methodological approach may be suitable for other regions as well.

This chapter summarizes the results achieved in an attempt to contribute to bioarchaeological research aiming at the reconstruction of migration and culture transfer in a region of eminent archaeological importance in Europe, namely, the Inn-Eisack-Adige passage via the Brenner Pass in the European Alps. 219 archaeological animal bone samples of three residential species (Bos taurus, Sus scrofa, Cervus elaphus) from 30 archaeological sites covering the transalpine passage have been analysed in terms of δ18Ophosphate, 87Sr/86Sr, 208Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, 206Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/207Pb and 206Pb/207Pb, thus generating a multi-isotope fingerprint. All measurement data and the laboratory processing methods are reported in detail. The isotopic map based on the spatial distribution of isotopic signatures in the bone finds is augmented by modern reference samples (water, soil, vegetation) to verify whether the choice of animal skeletal samples was appropriate and to perform a pilot study leading to a predictive model for 87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratios in local bioarchaeological specimens. Univariate statistics for each single isotopic signature and the related maps with the respective spatial distribution are presented.

The term “isotopic landscape” or “isoscape” is used to indicate a map depicting isotopic variation in the environment. The spatial distribution of isotopic ratios in environmental samples is an indispensable prerequisite for generating an isotopic landscape yet represents more than simply an assessment of this distribution. An isotopic landscape also includes the fundamental parameters of prediction and modelling, thus providing estimated isotopic signatures at sites for which no values are known. When calibrated, such models are very helpful in assessing the origin of geological and biological materials. Reconstructing the place of origin of primarily non-local archaeological finds is a major topic in bioarchaeology because it gives clues to major driving forces for population development through time such as mobility, migration, and trade. These are fundamental aspects of the past human behaviour. For decades, stable isotope analysis has been the method of choice, but still has its limitations. Bioarchaeological sciences have adopted “isoscapes” mainly as a term, but not as a contextual concept.

In this chapter, we show how to assess local bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratios of archaeological strata by analysis of water, leached soil samples and vegetation from selected archaeological sites. We present a detailed description and instruction of how to calculate the data. In this pilot study, calculation of cut-off values between local and non-local stable strontium isotopic ratios was performed for five locations in the Austrian Inn Valley. These cut-off values, determined as 87Sr/86Sr(fauna) ± 0.001, agree within acceptable limits with the measured isotopic signature of excavated animal bone material from the chosen archaeological sites. This way, the vertebrate consumer can clearly be classified as a local or non-local individual. Our model calculation, which leads to a reliable geo-dependent bioavailable 87Sr/86Sr isotopic ratio, reveals a high dependence on the isotopic signal from groundwater rather than from soil.

The Sierra de Velasco is formed of large plutons that are related to each other by intrusive contacts and separated by generally aligned deformation zones. The plutons are composed of calc-alkaline, syn-, late- and post-kinematic granitoids of different ages and intrusion levels. They are grouped in three large batholiths: Aimogasta, Bazán and Patquía. On the northeastern flank, the metamorphic country rock is represented by micaschists, phyllites and quartzites with hornfels (La Cébila Formation), to the north by tonalitic porphyries that in all cases demonstrate a shallow level of the granitoid intrusions. Shape of the plutons, as well as structural characters and grade of deformation indicate that the intrusive sequences began in Ordovician times and culminated in the Carboniferous, with deformation periods during Silurian and Devonian times. © 2007 E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlug. La Sierra de Velasco es un extenso afloramiento predominantemente granítico, integrado por plutones calco-alcalinos, sin-, tardío- a post-tectónicos, con edades diferentes y relacionados entre sí tanto a través de fajas de deformación, como por relaciones intrusivas. Los plutones se agrupan en los batolitos: Aimogasta, Bazán, y Patquía. Las rocas metamórficas de caja están representadas por micacitas, filitas y cuarcitas, con corneanas, sobre el flanco nororiental, y pórfiros tonalíticos en el extremo norte de la sierra, que evidencian el emplazamiento somero de los granitos. Las formas de los plutones, así como los caracteres estructurales y grados de deformación, indican que las secuencias graníticas se habrían iniciado en el Ordovícico y culminado en el Carbonífero, con edades de deformación en el Siluro-Devónico. Fil: Toselli, Alejandro Jose. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Departamento de Geología. Cátedra Geología Estructural. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica; Argentina Fil: Miller, Hubert. Universidad de Munich; Alemania Fil: Aceñolaza, Florencio Gilberto. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Departamento de Geología. Cátedra Geología Estructural. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica; Argentina Fil: Rossi, Juana Norma. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán; Argentina Fil: Söllner, Frank. Universidad de Munich; Alemania

The central-eastern part of the Sierra de Velasco (Sierras Pampeanas, NW Argentina) is formed by the large Huaco (40 x 30 km) and Sanagasta (25 x 15 km) granite massifs and the small La Chinchilla stock (2 x 2 km). The larger granites intrude into Ordovician metagranitoids and crosscut Devonian (?) mylonitic shear zones, whereas the small stock sharply intrudes into the Huaco granite. The two voluminous granites are biotitic-muscovitic and biotitic porphyritic syeno- to monzogranites. They contain small and rounded tonalitic and quartz-dioritic mafic microgranular enclaves. The small stock is an equigranular, zinnwaldite- and fluorite-bearing monzogranite. The studied granites are silica-rich (SiO2 > 70%), potassium-rich (K2O > 4%), ferroan, alkali-calcic to slightly calk-alkalic, and moderately to weakly peraluminous (A/CNK = 1.06-1.18 Huaco granite; 1.01-1.09 Sanagasta granite; 1.05-1.06 La Chinchilla stock). They have moderate to strong enrichments in several LIL (Li, Rb, Cs) and HFS (Nb, Ta, Y, Th, U) elements, and low Sr, Ba and Eu contents. U-Pb monazite age determinations indicate Lower Carboniferous crystallization ages: 350-358 Ma for the Huaco granite, 352.7 ± 1.4 Ma for the Sanagasta granite and 344.5 ± 1.4 Ma for the La Chinchilla stock. The larger granites have similar eNd values between ?2.1 and ?4.3, whereas the younger stock has higher eNd of ?0.6 to ?1.4, roughly comparable to the values obtained for the Carboniferous San Blas granite (?1.4 to ?1.7), located in the north of the sierra. The Huaco and Sanagasta granites have a mainly crustal source, but with some participation of a more primitive, possibly mantle-derived, component. The main crustal component can be attributed to Ordovician peraluminous metagranitoids. The La Chinchilla stock derives from a more primitive source, suggesting an increase with time in the participation of the primitive component during magma genesis. The studied granites were generated during a post-orogenic period in a within-plate setting, possibly as a response to the collapse of the previous Famatinian orogen, extension of the crust and mantle upwelling. They are part of the group of Middle Devonian-Lower Carboniferous granites of the Sierras Pampeanas. The distribution and U-Pb ages of these granites suggests a northward arc-parallel migration of this mainly post-orogenic magmatism with time. Fil: Grosse, Pablo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán; Argentina Fil: Söllner, Frank. Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität; Alemania Fil: Báez, Miguel Adolfo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Departamento de Geología. Cátedra Geología Estructural. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica; Argentina Fil: Toselli, Alejandro Jose. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Departamento de Geología. Cátedra Geología Estructural. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica; Argentina Fil: Rossi, Juana Norma. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Departamento de Geología. Cátedra Geología Estructural. Instituto Superior de Correlación Geológica; Argentina Fil: de la Rosa, J. D.. Universidad de Huelva; España

The crystalline basement of the Tauern Window is locally covered by Palaeozoic to Mesozoic sediments that experienced Alpine tectonometamorphism. The sedimentary cover has been subdivided into mappable lithological units. The correlation of these units, the use of some dated marker intervals and independent palinspastic restoration provide evidence that the depositional area was differentiated into basins and swells. At the end of the Variscan orogeny, during the Carboniferous and Permian, intermontane basins formed in basement rocks and mainly continental clastics accumulated in elongate troughs. Later, probably during the Triassic, there was levelling of the previous relief and subsidence of the basins, but continental sedimen- tation still prevailed although interrupted by some marine transgressions. Thereafter, probably during the Jurassic, the area was progressively flooded and the sedimentation became increasingly calcareous. The Upper Jurassic carbonates document complete submergence. In some areas, the Upper Jurassic carbonates directly rest on crystalline basement indicating renewed tectonic stretching. The sedimentary cover shows striking similarities with coeval deposits within the Germanic Basin and the study area is therefore considered to have been part of the southern European continental margin of the Tethys (the so-called Vindelician Land).

Four of the major plutons in the vicinity of the Candelaria mine (470 Mt at 0.95% Cu, 0.22 g/t Au, 3.1 g/t Ag) and a dike–sill system exposed in the Candelaria open pit have been dated with the U–Pb zircon method. The new geochronological data indicate that dacite magmatism around 123 Ma preceded the crystallization of hornblende diorite (Khd) at 118 ± 1 Ma, quartz–monzonite porphyry (Kqm) at 116.3 ± 0.4 Ma, monzodiorite (Kmd) at 115.5 ± 0.4 Ma, and tonalite (Kt) at 110.7 ± 0.4 Ma. The new ages of the plutons are consistent with field relationships regarding the relative timing of emplacement. Plutonism temporally overlaps with the iron oxide Cu–Au mineralization (Re–Os molybdenite ages at ∼115 Ma) and silicate alteration (ages mainly from 114 to 116 and 110 to 112 Ma) in the Candelaria–Punta del Cobre district. The dated dacite porphyry and hornblende diorite intrusions preceded the ore formation. A genetic link of the metallic mineralization with the quartz–monzonite porphyry and/or the monzodiorite is likely. Both of these metaluminous, shoshonitic (high-K) intrusions could have provided energy and contributed fluids, metals, and sulfur to the hydrothermal system that caused the iron oxide Cu–Au mineralization. The age of the tonalite at 110.7 Ma falls in the same range as the late alteration at 110 to 112 Ma. Tonalite emplacement may have sustained existing or driven newly developed hydrothermal cells that caused this late alteration or modified 40Ar/39Ar and K/Ar systematic in some areas.

The Wildschonau ophiolite complex represents the lowermost and probably oldest rock unit of the western part of the Greywacke Supergroup. Within this ophiolite complex, zircon grains from a metamorphosec gabbro yield a U-Pb SHRIMP age of 477±9 Ma (2σ), interpreted as age of crystallization. This age reflects the magmatic activity in Cambro-Ordovician times and is probably related to a continental rift environment during breakup of Gondwana. The 477±9 Ma age is a few m.y. younger than oldest ages estimated from biostratigraphy; reasons for this difference are evaluated.

In order to contribute to the continuing discussion of the mobility of the late neolithic Bell Beaker people, 69 skeletons from southern Bavaria were analyzed for the 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios in tooth enamel and compact bone. Whereas Sr isotope ratios in the enamel of the first permanent molar match the Sr isotopic composition at the place of early childhood, the respective value in the adult femoral bone matches the Sr isotope ratio characteristic of the place of residence over the last few years prior to death. Significant differences between 87Sr/86Sr in these tissues indicate that 17.5–25% of these individuals changed residence during their lifetime. The overall direction of the migration, according to archaeological finds from the area, was toward the southwest. A relative surplus of migrating females and two cases of evidence for migration in children argue for the movement of small groups; exogamy might explain the higher numbers of immigrating females. With regard to current information on migration rates in prehistory, the southern Bavarian Bell Beaker people were indeed highly mobile, especially since the archaeometric method used in this study is likely to underestimate movement.

In order to investigate the provenance, deposition age and metamorphism of metasedimentary gneisses from the pilot and the main holes of the German Continental Deep Drilling Program (KTB), zircons from volcano-metasedimentary (v-unit) and monotonous greywacke (g-unit) gneisses were dated by ion microprobe (SHRIMP) and conventional U–Pb zircon methods. The zircons were found to consist of anhedral detrital or subhedral cores surrounded by one or two metamorphic rims. Analysis of growth zones in 37 zircons indicated ages for the detrital cores between 2.25 and 2.05 Ga in a v-unit gneiss (sample K52), and 1.8–2.35 Ga in two g-unit gneisses (K747 and K798). Neo-Proterozoic (650–545 Ma) subhedral igneous cores were identified in all investigated KTB gneiss samples, and an additional two zircon growth episodes in the source area of the sediments at 712±15 and 525±11 Ma were also recognised. Zircon overgrowths dated at 487±13 Ma are interpreted to have formed during an early metamorphic episode following incorporation of the zircons into their host metasediments. A second metamorphic overprint indicated by a date of 381+22/–11 Ma was determined for zircon overgrowth in the g-unit gneisses. The dates determined for zircon growth phases suggest that the KTB metasediments were derived from northern Gondwana. Hypothetical provenance areas and a new model of terrane positions that is consistent with the geochronological, geodynamic and palaeo-geographic preconditions at the northern border of Gondwana in Late Precambrian to Early Ordovician times, are proposed.

Zwei Komplexe sind zu trennen, ein Liegendkomplex aus wechsellagernden Glimmerschiefern und Quarziten mit gegenseitigen Ubergangen und ein Hangendkomplex, der durch Einschaltungen von Hornblendegneisen, (Eklogit-)Amphiboliten und sparlich Amphibol-Eklogiten gekennzeichnet ist. Gerade die Amphibol-Eklogite dokumentieren eine polyphase Metamorphosegeschichte. Beide Einheiten sind durch eine horizontale bis sehr flach einfallende tektonische Grenze („Schuppenzone“) getrennt, an der als Leitgestein ein Mikroklin-Augengneis von wenigen Metern Machtigkeit auftritt. Hangend- und Liegendkomplex weisen ein verwickeltes und zum Teil gleichartiges tektonisches Inventar auf. Der Komplex der Eklogitamphibolite ist als eigenstandige tektonische Einheit zu betrachten. B1 ca. senkrecht B2 zeigt weitraumige Verbiegungen der Gesteine (geringe Amplituden, grose Wellenlangen, NE- oder SW-Tauchen). Die starkste Einengung verlauft NE-SW (isoklinales B2 mit 10–25° SE-Tauchen). Auch in den Schiefer- und Gneisserien finden sich zwei Faltenachsenrichtungen (B1′=25–35°-Tauchen nach ENE; Anlage von Storungen in 0kl und ac). B1 und B1′ sind ahnlich. B3 kann alpidisch sein (Tauchen flach nach E), was aber noch abgesichert werden mus. Das Maximum der Metamorphose liegt bei den Amphibol-Eklogiten zwischen Glaukophanschiefer- und Amphibolitfazies (350–550° C; 4,5–8 kb). In einer weiteren Phase ist die nachtragliche Amphibolitisierung der Eklogite auf eine Temperaturerhohung unter gleichzeitigem Druckabfall (Symplektitbildung) zuruckzufuhren. Der H2O-Druck spielt selektiv eine hervorragende Rolle. Die achsenparallele Lineation der progressiv metamorphen Minerale ist als syntektonische Kristallisation mit der B2-Faltenphase anzusehen. Von den Augen- und Flasergneisen sind Altersbestimmungen nach der Rb-Sr-Gesamtgesteinsmethode durchgefuhrt worden. Die gemessenen Proben (8 Proben aus dem Wangenitzseegebiet, dessen nachste Entfernung zum Tauernfenster 10 km betragt) ergeben eine Isochrone mit einem Alter von 439±20 (2σ) Mill. Jahren (λ Rb 87=1.47 · 10−11 · a−1) und einem Sr87/Sr86-Anfangsverhaltnis von 0.7107±0.0016 (2σ). Das „kaledonische“ Gesamtgesteinsalter stimmt mit der bisher bekannten geodynamischen Geschichte des Gebietes uberein.