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Disaster clusters refer to major disasters that cluster in space and time without any linkage, resulting in large direct damage and economic ripple effects (EREs). However, the cumulative EREs caused by a disaster cluster may not be equal to the summation EREs of the individual disasters within a cluster. We constructed a global economic ripple input-output model suitable for the analysis of disaster clusters and demonstrated the extent of this difference with the example of two typical catastrophes that occurred in 2011 (the Great East Japan Earthquake and the Great Thailand Flood), within an interval of only 136 days. The results indicate that: (1) The EREs suffered by 11 of the 35 countries affected (30%) are “1 + 1 > 2”, and “1 + 1

The impacts of human activity (denoted by population), economic, and social development (denoted by gross domestic product–GDP) on extremely wet/dry (or drought) events are important for humans to tackle extreme hazards. This research aims to investigate the variations in maximum values (SPEI_MAX) and minimum values (SPEI_MIN) of a 12 month standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI12-month) for the selected 525 sites at different socioeconomic development levels (SDLs) (classified by population and GDP) in China between 2000–2018, and to analyze the impacts of increased population/GDP/SDLs on extremely wet/dry events. The linear correlations between SPEI12-month/SPEI_MAX/SPEI_MIN and population/GDP were conducted for all the sites. The relationship between linear slopes of population (PopuLS)/GDP(GDPLS) and SPEI_MAX (SPEI_MAXLS)/SPEI_MIN (SPEI_MINLS) were further studied. The results show that the extremely wet events denoted by SPEI_MAX become worse and the extreme drought events denoted by SPEI_MIN tend to be milder over time. The years 2016 and 2011 were extremely wet and extremely dry in China. There were general increasing trends in SPEI_MAX and decreasing trends in SPEI_MIN as the SDL increased from 1 to 6. This gradual, continuous increase/decrease potentially affected levels 5 and 6. Moreover, extremely wet events were more severe in developed big municipal cities of higher SDLs and extreme drought events were more severe for lower SDLs. This research can supply references for policy makers to prevent extreme disasters.

Background Salar is a Turkic-speaking Islamic ethnic group in China living mainly in Xunhua Salar Autonomous County (Xunhua or Xunhua County), Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Salar people are skilled in horticulture and their homegarden (HG) management. They are regarded as the first people on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to practice horticulture, especially manage their HGs, traditional farming systems, and supplementary food production systems. Traditional knowledge of Salar people associated with their HGs always contributes significantly to the local livelihood, food security, ornamental value, and biodiversity conservation. The cultivation of different plants in HGs for self-sufficiency has a long tradition in China’s rural areas, especially in some mountainous areas. However, Salar traditional HGs have not been described. The present paper aims to report the features of Salar HGs mostly based on agrobiodiversity and its ecosystem services. Methods The methods used in this work included semi-structured interviews and participatory observation. A total of 60 households in three townships, 9 villages were surveyed. There are 4–12 family members in each household, aged from 20 to 86 years old. The homestead size is between 200 and 1200 m2. Plant species cultivated in Salar HGs were identified according to Flora of China. Based on a comprehensive survey of Salar HGs and related to background data, we identified and characterized the most important services and functions provided by Salar HGs. Results According to primary production systems, there are 4 different types of Salar HGs, including ornamental focus, product focus, dual-purpose and multi-purpose. In total, 108 (excluding weeds and bonsai) plant species were recorded in Salar HGs, within 43 plant families. The most important and frequently used plants are Rosa chinensis, Armeniaca vulgar, Prunus salicina, and Ziziphus jujuba. About 4 to 32 plant species were recorded in each homegarden. We found that the Salar HGs, as a typical agroecosyste, prossess multiple servcices and functions that directly benefit households according to the field investigation. Conclusion This paper reveals the floristic diversity of Salar HGs. It presents useful information in the homegarden agroecosystem of Salar people, such as HG types and species diversity in Salar HGs. Ecosystem functions and services research suggested that the Salar HG agroecosystem provides agroecosystem services mainly related to supply and culture services. Salar HGs are important as food supplement resources, aesthetics symbol, and cultural spaces.

China is one of the countries most affected by earthquakes. Improving public cognition and response to earthquake disaster (EDCR) is an effective means to reduce seismic risk and losses. The 2013 Lushan earthquake area was also stricken by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Most of the residents in this area have been affected by both earthquakes, which provides a rare opportunity to gain insight into the interaction between public’s EDCR and their earthquake disaster experience. Using a questionnaire survey on over 200 local residents selected by stratified sampling method, this paper investigates the public’s cognition and response capability with regard to earthquake disaster in the 2013 Mw6.6 Lushan earthquake area, Sichuan Province, China, with a particular emphasis on exploration on the relationship between people’s earthquake disaster experience and their disaster cognition and response behaviors. The results show that the overall EDCR level of local residents is moderate—their average cognition and response score for earthquake disaster is only 0.60. The number of earthquakes experienced, education, and family income level are the three most important factors that significantly impact an individual’s overall EDCR capability. Those who have experienced more earthquakes better adapt to the impacts of disaster. Especially, the experience learned from the 2008 Mw7.9 Wenchuan earthquake played a positive role in the cognition and response of the public to the 2013 Lushan earthquake. In addition, people with higher education could master more knowledge of earthquake disaster and better control their emotions. Similarly, respondents with a higher family income had more resources and ways to engage in more reasonable response behaviors to manage disaster effects. Based on these findings, it is suggested that local policy-makers implement targeted earthquake disaster education and knowledge dissemination strategies, especially develop and expand various experiential learning modes (e.g., emergency exercise/drilling, situational learning, virtual reality, scenario approach, safety/disaster experience center, participatory activities) for the local public and beyond to more effectively strengthen their cognition of disaster and response capability.

Soil moisture is a key land surface parameter that reflects conditions of drought in agricultural areas, such that variations in soil moisture significantly impact agricultural production. At a large spatial scale, soil moisture can be indicated using the temperature vegetation drought index (TVDI), which is based on soil moisture monitoring. Such metrics allow us to know whether or not the soil in a region is experiencing drought. The TVDI can be estimated by using either the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) or the enhanced vegetation index (EVI) combined with land surface temperature (LST) data. Our objectives were to study the applicability of the NDVI-based TVDI (TVDINDVI) and EVI-based TVDI (TVDIEVI) in the monitoring of soil moisture at a large time-space scale. The TVDINDVI and TVDIEVI were calculated by constructing a feature space based on the NDVI (or EVI) and LST to obtain the corresponding dry/wet-edge equation. By establishing a correlation relationship between the TVDIs and soil moisture at soil depths of 0–10, 0–40, 0–100, and 0–200 cm, the applicability of the TVDIEVI and TVDINDVI was investigated for seven different climatic regions in mainland China. The relationships between soil moisture at the 0–10-cm depth and the NDVI (or EVI) in cold and warm seasons were obtained. Linear functions of soil moisture and the TVDINDVI (TVDIEVI) were constructed. From the results, both the TVDINDVI and TVDIEVI were more suitable for monitoring soil moisture at the 0–10-cm depth than at the other depths. The regions that had the best correlations between soil moisture and the TVDINDVI (TVDIEVI) were in northwestern China during the cold season and southeastern China during the warm season (from April to September), meaning that the TVDI was more applicable in these region/season combinations. The TVDINDVI showed better performance in reflecting soil moisture conditions than the TVDIEVI, especially in the warm season. The applicability of the TVDIEVI for soil moisture at the 0–10-cm depth was better than that of the TVDINDVI in northwestern China. However, in the other regions, the TVDINDVI performed better. The performance of TVDINDVI (TVDIEVI) was better than TVDIEVI (TVDINDVI) under different circumstances, which was related to the goodness of fit for wet/dry-edge equations, natural variability of NDVI/EVI/LST, depths, changes in seasons (vegetation cover), and regions. This research compared the applications of the TVDI in China comprehensively.

The assessment of wetland changes on the Tibetan Plateau (TP) is an important component of global change research. The Damqu River Basin (DRB) lies within the southern source of the Yangtze River and is part of the core wetlands area of the Three Rivers Source Region (TRSR). We examined the distribution of wetlands across this region based on remote sensing image interpretations. The results revealed clear evidence of changes over the period between 1988 and 2015, with the ​​wetland area in 2015 being 8964.51 km2 (53.52% of the total basin). Wetlands at this time were concentrated between 4700 and 5000 m (upper limit: 5600 m), with land slopes between 0 and 6°, and a northward aspect. The data also showed that the wetland area decreased by 71.16 km2 between 1988 and 2015, equivalent to 0.79% of the 1988 total. The annual value of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) decreased over 63.36% of the region within the DRB during 1988–2015. The area of three major lakes in the DRB declined from 2009 to 2015. The results of this analysis demonstrated that precipitation variation was the underlying cause of the observed vegetation index and lake area changes within the DRB between 1988 and 2015.

WXGEN, a weather generator model based on stochastic process theory and mathematical statistics, was widely used in hydrological monitoring models, crop yield estimation models and derived fields of meteorological data. In this study, we used WXGEN to evaluate the simulation accuracy of hydrothermal conditions in the highlands of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Results showed that: (1) The Markovian chain transfer parameters P(W|D) and P(W|W) of each station were between 0.03–0.30 and 0.12–0.74, which was basically consistent with the temporal and spatial distribution of actual precipitation; (2) In the thermal data simulation, more than 96% of the meteorological stations passed the 0.05 level in three different significance tests of monthly mean minimum and maximum temperature and solar radiation, and the measured deviations of simulated annual mean temperature and solar radiation were 0.686 °C and 1.65 MJ/m2, respectively. In all, 94% of the stations in the hydrological simulation passed the monthly precipitation significance test; (3) The simulated vs. measured deviations of annual precipitation, heavy rain days and wet days were 8.04 mm, 1.023 d and 8.374 d, respectively; (4) The simulation of extreme hydrothermal conditions that may affect the yield of highland barley was very close to the measured situation, and the R2 of simulation and measured value was all above 0.85. The simulation of freezing damage was less accurate, but also higher than 0.85.

The household energy mix has significant impacts on human health and climate, as it contributes greatly to many health- and climate-relevant air pollutants. Compared to the well-established urban energy statistical system, the rural household energy statistical system is incomplete and is often associated with high biases. Via a nationwide investigation, this study revealed high contributions to energy supply from coal and biomass fuels in the rural household energy sector, while electricity comprised ∼20%. Stacking (the use of multiple sources of energy) is significant, and the average number of energy types was 2.8 per household. Compared to 2012, the consumption of biomass and coals in 2017 decreased by 45% and 12%, respectively, while the gas consumption amount increased by 204%. Increased gas and decreased coal consumptions were mainly in cooking, while decreased biomass was in both cooking (41%) and heating (59%). The time-sharing fraction of electricity and gases (E&G) for daily cooking grew, reaching 69% in 2017, but for space heating, traditional solid fuels were still dominant, with the national average shared fraction of E&G being only 20%. The non-uniform spatial distribution and the non-linear increase in the fraction of E&G indicated challenges to achieving universal access to modern cooking energy by 2030, particularly in less-developed rural and mountainous areas. In some non-typical heating zones, the increased share of E&G for heating was significant and largely driven by income growth, but in typical heating zones, the time-sharing fraction was

Crop yields are threatened by global climate change. Maize has high water requirements, and precipitation fluctuations can impact its yield. In this study, we used the Environmental Policy Integrated Climate (EPIC) model to simulate maize yields in eight northeastern U.S. states. We used precipitation fluctuations and the coefficient of variation (CV) of yield as indicators to construct a vulnerability curve for the CV of yield and precipitation fluctuations. We then evaluated the vulnerability of maize yields under precipitation fluctuations in the region. We obtained the following results: (1) the fitted vulnerability curves were classified into three categories (positive slope, negative slope, and insignificant fit), of which the first category accounted for about 92.7%, indicating that the CV of maize yield was positively correlated with precipitation fluctuations in most parts of the study area, and (2) the CV of maize yield under 11 precipitation fluctuation scenarios was mapped to express the CV at the spatial level, and the maize yield in Connecticut and Maryland proved to be the most sensitive to precipitation fluctuations. This study provided a theoretical and experimental basis for the prevention of maize yield risk under fluctuating precipitation conditions.

Over the past 50 years, temperatures on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) have risen roughly twice as fast as the global average, making it the most unpredictable region of environmental change due to global warming. In this paper, an Environmental Area Index model was developed using data from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project to assess the ecological risk faced by QTP ecosystems under the influence of climate factors. The results show that ecological risk gradually decreases from northwest to the southeast, and there are different trends in ecological risk for each class in areas with different elevation gradients. As elevation increased, the proportion of potential risk areas gradually decreased, and the proportion of high- and higher-risk areas gradually increased. We predict that in the period 2021–2100, the overall ecological risk change trend on the QTP will not be obvious, but there will be a more obvious change on the vertical gradient. In general, under the existing global climate change scenario, the ecological risk faced by the QTP show a decreasing trend under the influence of climate factors, and the decrease in ecological risks is much higher at higher elevations than at lower elevations.

The Tibetan Plateau (TP) is an important ecological security barrier for China and, indeed, for all Asia. Land use and land cover changes in the plateau not only affect the ecological environment and regional development of the plateau itself but also affect the stability and economic development of ecosystems in eastern China and other parts of Asia. This paper is based on an examination of the achievements of land use and cover change in the TP and a reanalysis of data including that of Climate Change Initiative Land Cover from 1992 to 2015; land use data provided by the Resource and Environmental Science Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences for 1995, 2000, 2010 and 2015; and statistical data from Qinghai and Tibet. The paper analyzes the overall characteristics of land use and land cover changes in the TP and the spatial and temporal processes and their driving forces of land use and land cover change in typical regions and land types. This research is important not only for land change science and global change research but also for the promotion of the plateau and its adjacent areas. In recent decades, research has shown that the land use and land cover structure of the TP is stable, and the proportion of first-level land use type change was less than 7% from 1992 to 2015. Most of these changes are single time changes, with multiple land change occurring only in 1.85% of the total change area. The quality of land cover has been improved in areas where no land type change occurred. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) showed an increasing trend in 24.45% of the area and a decreasing trend in only 1.31% of the area. The area of cultivated land, forest, grassland, wetland, and construction land on the plateau has increased, whereas bare land, glacier, and snow cover area has decreased. In most parts of the TP, the quality of alpine grassland has improved; however, in some areas, it has degraded at a local scale. Most of the woodland has recovered well after phased changes. Prior to 1980, there was a rapid increase in cultivated land area, but this has since become stable with only minor increases. However, the utilization intensity of cultivated land has increased significantly in recent years. Construction land has expanded significantly, and the recent growth rate has accelerated since 2010. Both the increasing speed of change and the construction land area in Qinghai Province are higher than in Tibet. There has been a general trend of a slight decrease in bare land change. In densely populated areas in the Yellow River-Huangshui River Valley and the One-River-Two-Tributaries area, land types that are closely related to human utilization such as construction land, cultivated land, and artificial woodland have undergone obvious changes. In pastoral areas, such as the Northern Tibetan Plateau and the Source Regions of The Three Rivers, overgrazing and ecological construction have significantly affected land cover. In the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve, land use types are diverse; changes are complex; and land cover is more sensitive to both climate change and human activity. There are limitations to the study of land change in the plateau, such as the difficulty of meeting the needs of ecological construction with existing data and the lack of in-depth understanding of the process of land use change and its environmental effects. Field monitoring and remote sensing techniques must be strengthened in order to clarify the process of land use intensity change and its impact on the ecological environment of the TP. These improvements will better serve the construction of an ecological security barrier and the sustainable development of the region.

Based on data from a questionnaire survey about the 2010 Ms 7.1 Yushu earthquake in Qinghai Province, China, this study examines the impacts of belief in Tibetan Buddhism on Tibetans’ response to the earthquake disaster. The results reveal that (1) impacted by their belief in Tibetan Buddhism, some Tibetans attribute the cause of the earthquake to punishment from God even though some of them understand a naturalistic explanation of the earthquake. Religious attribution of the earthquake has negative effects on Tibetans’ awareness of the importance of earthquake disaster risk reduction such as learning about earthquakes and developing earthquake survival skills; their ability with regard to their behavioral response is affected, but their psychological reaction is not. (2) Tibetan Buddhist belief and Tibetan Buddhist clergy served as important resources and support to help Tibetans cope with the earthquake disaster. The degree of religiosity was found to be positively correlated with people’s willingness to seek religious support and with their self-evaluations on the importance of religious support for disaster response. The findings of this study highlight the need to carefully consider local religious beliefs when planning disaster risk reduction strategies in Tibetan communities.

The standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) of the Tibetan Plateau was calculated using the CRU4.03 gridded dataset from 1901 to 2018 in this paper. Then, based on the SPEI data, drought on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was studied in terms of its spatial and temporal distributions and its changing characteristics over the last 100 years. The results revealed that the precipitation in the southeastern part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has been steadily rising over the last 100 years, in conjunction with only minor temperature shifts. In the northwestern part of the plateau, precipitation has decreased significantly, accompanied by a significant increase in temperature. The drought on the Tibetan Plateau showed a clear gradual increase in aridity from southeast to northwest over the last hundred years. The SPEI also showed distinct seasonal patterns, steadily increasing in spring and summer and decreasing significantly in autumn and winter. In addition, each season had its own spatial characteristics. The northeastern part of the plateau, except the Qaidam Basin, showed a significant aridity trend in all seasons. A wet trend prevailed in the southeastern and southern areas. Drought on the Tibetan Plateau exhibits apparent cyclical oscillations with a main period of 54 years and has different cyclical characteristics in different seasons.

Extreme temperature events, which are part of global climate change, are a growing threat to crop production, especially to such temperature-sensitive crops as rice. As a result, the traditional rice-growing areas are also likely to shift. The MaxEnt model was used for predicting the areas potentially suitable for rice in the short term (2016–2035) and in the medium term (2046–2065) and under two scenarios developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, namely representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 (the intermediate scenario) and RCP 8.5 (sometimes referred to as the worst-case scenario). The predictions, on verification, were seen to be highly accurate: the AUC—area under the curve—value of the MaxEnt model was &gt, 0.85. The model made the following predictions. (1) Areas highly suitable for rice crops will continue to be concentrated mainly in the current major rice-production areas, and areas only marginally suitable will be concentrated mainly in the rainforest region. (2) Overall, although the current pattern of the distribution of such areas would remain more or less unchanged, their extent will mainly decrease in the subtropics but increase in the tropics and in high-latitude regions. (3) The extent of such areas will decrease in the short term but increase in the medium term.

The latest Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG) dataset version 6, which is the successor of the multi-satellite 3B42 dataset from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA), is now recommended for many purposes. It is unclear how the quality of the latest IMERG data products compares to that of the delisted TMPA series data sets. This study evaluated the accuracy of TRMM 3B42 version 7 and IMERG final version 6 products at 677 stations in the 7 subregions of China over 2000–2019 at the daily, monthly and annual timescales based on gauge-observed precipitation data. The performance of TMPA and IMERG precipitation products was assessed by six statistical indices. The product with the best performance was corrected based on the linear relationship of monthly precipitation between remote sensing products and ground-observed precipitation. The correction was then used for the predicting and mapping of precipitation in July 2019. The results showed that (1) IMERG outperformed TMPA at all three timescales, and the accuracy increased with the expanding timescale. (2) IMERG exhibited better performance in all subregions than TMPA and performed best in the mid-temperate semihumid zone and worst in the mid-temperature arid zone. (3) IMERG showed higher accuracy than TMPA in all months for most subregions and mainland China but performed worse in dry (December, January and February) and wet (July, August and September) months. (4) The linear relationship between remote sensing products and ground-observed precipitation could be used to correct and predict satellite precipitation data without up-to-date gauge observations, the predicted map indicated the good spatial variation in precipitation and better accuracy than the original IMERG data. In conclusion, the IMERG dataset was more accurate and could be used for precipitation investigations at large scales in China.

Global climate change, mainly characterized by warming, has resulted in significant migration of temperature-sensitive crops from traditional planting areas, making crops more vulnerable to climate change and natural disasters, increasing yield losses caused by disasters. Based on the MaxEnt model, combining Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5, the potential suitable areas for highland barley planting on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau were estimated, and the results showed that: (1) Over 30% of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is unsuitable for highland barley cultivation, the area of moderately suitable area for highland barley planting is close to 50%, and the marginally suitable and highly suitable area is less than 20%; (2) From the past distribution to the near and medium-term distributions, the unsuitable area for highland barley planting is gradually shrinking. In the moderately suitable area for highland barley planting, some of the area with relatively low suitability was transformed from unsuitable area, and some of the area with relatively high suitability was transformed into marginally suitable area, so that the total area remained basically unchanged. A small part of the marginally suitable area was converted into high-suitability area, which increased the highly suitable area; (3) From the perspective of different scenarios, in the near and medium term, the area with a slight decrease or no change in suitability under RCP 8.5 was smaller than under RCP 4.5, but the area with a significant increase was larger than under RCP 4.5. The areas with a small decrease or no change in suitability accounted for 23.66–33.77% of the total plateau area and were concentrated in the northwestern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Qaidam Basin. Areas with a large increase in suitability accounted for 3.47–15.64% of the total area and were located in the southern, central, and eastern parts of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, this area increased significantly with time; (4) Judging from the average altitude change in highland barley planting, the average altitude of the highly suitable area will rise from 3759 m to 3937 m (RCP 4.5) and 3959 m (RCP 8.5) in the near term. By the medium term, the average elevation of the highly suitable area will increase from 3759 m to 4017 m (RCP 4.5) and 4090 m (RCP 8.5). The trend of rising average altitude continues to strengthen.

Potential evapotranspiration (ETp) and reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) are two key parameters in hydrology, meteorology, and agronomy. ETp and ETo are related to each other but have different meanings and applications. In this study, the ETp and ETo were distinguished and calculated with the Penman and FAO56 PM equations using the weather data of 551 stations in China from 1961 to 2018. The differences in their spatiotemporal variations were examined with an MMK test, an R/S test, and wavelet analysis. The monthly ETp and ETo were close but the ETp was always larger than the ETo, with values ranging from 1 to 356 mm and 2 to 323 mm, respectively. Their differences varied in different months and sub-regions. The maximum monthly difference transferred from south to north and then back to the south in a yearly cycle, showing spatiotemporal heterogeneity. The annual values of the ETp and ETo were also close, but the ETp was significantly higher than the ETo. The increasing future trends of ETp but decreasing trends of ETo were tested at most sites in China. Although the primary periods were almost the same, their spatial distribution was slightly different. In conclusion, ETp is different from ETo and they should be applied carefully. This study performs a thorough comparison and reveals the underlying basis of and discrepancy between ETp and ETo.

Salar people are Turkic-speaking Islamic people and an ethnic group with a small population in China. Wattled-wall house of Salar people is a type of traditional house threatened by extinction. In 2008, the wattled-wall house construction skills were selected for the national intangible cultural heritage list. It is mainly distributed in Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, Qinghai Province of China. So far, Salar people′s traditional wattled-wall house knowledge has been poorly documented. Therefore, a study supporting cultural preservation efforts is needed, including preserving plants used in its construction. This study mainly applied ethnobotanical methods based on data collection through observation, interviews, and documentation. Additionally, ArcGIS data analysis is also used to supplement the evaluation of the traditional wattled-wall house. This study aimed to (1) document traditional knowledge about the wattled-wall house construction, (2) and evaluate the current status of the wattled-wall house from different angles like the environmental adaptability and internal advantages and disadvantages. The result showed that the local people still apply the knowledge about the wattled-wall house from generation to generation. However, due to some practical reasons, the wattled-wall house is on the verge of extinction. There are 11 plant taxa used as construction materials in wattled-wall house. Conservation efforts for species involved in the wattled-wall house are needed, especially the ones with limited availability. Re-use of wattled-wall house is needed in order to maximize the economic benefits and to safeguard its historical and architectural values. It is recommended that the conservation of this cultural heritage needs more attention and effort from the local government or the society.