Search

In developing countries such as South Africa, diarrhoeal diseases are reported to be linked to inadequate drinking water quality, sanitation, and hygiene behaviours. The consumption of microbiologically contaminated drinking water has been reported to cause diarrhoea, mortality, and morbidity in children under the age of five years. This study evaluated the microbiological pathogens detected in municipal drinking water and diarrhoea trends for children under 5 years of age in South Africa between 2008 and 2018. A trends analysis study was conducted using secondary data on diarrhoea for children under the age of five years and microbial drinking water quality compliance. A negative correlation was found between the occurrence of microbial pathogens in water, morbidity, and mortality rates of children under the age of 5 years in South Africa. As compliance status improved, the mortality rate among children under 5 years old decreased by 31% over the study period. A conclusion can thus be drawn that the microbiological pathogens detected in drinking water at levels complying with SANS 241:2015 Edition 2 standards and diarrhoea incidences were not the primary cause of the mortality of children under 5 years old in South Africa between 2008 and 2018.

This study assessed the impact of sanitation practices, hygienic and storage conditions on the quality of drinking water treated at point-of-use in Makwane Village. Subsequent to implementation of low-cost Household Water Treatment Devices which are the biosand filter with zeolite-silver (BSZ-SICG) and silver-impregnated porous pot (SIPP) filters in Makwane village, a structured questionnaire was designed to collect the following information: age of caretakers, number of children under the age of five, water storage conditions, sanitation amenities, and hygiene practices. Water quality from the sources to household level was assessed using culture-based and molecular techniques. The results revealed a significant association between the presence of Escherichia coli in treated drinking water with the age group of caregivers and the number of children ofless than the age of five [OR (95% CI) = 8.4737 (0.147-3.3497), p = 0.0141923 and OR (95% CI) = 9.1667 (0.1848-3.0159); p = 0.0165830, respectively]. Moreover, significant association was noted between hygiene practices (washing of hands with/without soap) and water quality in storage containers [OR (95% CI) = 16.000 (0.6763-3.9495), p = 0.0000125]. These findings further prove that there is still a dire need for reconsidering hygiene education in rural areas as the health benefits of water treated at point of use (POU) coupled with safe-storage condition interventions might not be guaranteed without proper hygiene. The results further highlighted the importance of washing hands in improving microbial quality of drinking water, which is the key factor for fighting against infectious diseases.

Enteric infections and water-related illnesses are more frequent during times of relative water abundance, especially in regions that experience bimodal rainfall patterns. However, it is unclear how seasonal changes in water availability and drinking water source types affect enteric infections in young children. This study investigated seasonal shifts in primary drinking water source type and the effect of water source type on enteric pathogen prevalence in stool samples from 404 children below age 5 in rural communities in Limpopo Province, South Africa. From wet to dry season, 4.6% (n = 16) of households switched from a source with a higher risk of contamination to a source with lower risk, with the majority switching to municipal water during the dry season. In contrast, 2.6% (n = 9) of households switched from a source with a lower risk of contamination to a source with higher risk. 74.5% (n = 301) of the total households experienced interruptions in their water supply, regardless of source type. There were no significant differences in enteric pathogen prevalence between drinking water sources. Intermittent municipal water distribution and household water use and storage practices may have a larger impact on enteric infections than water source type. The limited differences in enteric pathogen prevalence in children by water source could also be due to other exposure pathways in addition to drinking water, for example through direct contact and food-borne transmission., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

Anthropogenic activities in catchments used for drinking water production largely contaminates source waters, and this may impact the quality of the final drinking water product. These contaminants may also affect taxonomic and functional profiles of the bacterial communities in the drinking water. Here, we report an integrated insight into the microbiome and water quality of four water treatment plants (NWC, NWE, WCA and NWG) that supply portable water to communities in South Africa. A new scoring system based on combined significant changes of physicochemical parameters and microbial abundance from raw to treated water was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment plants at water purification. Physicochemical parameters which include total soluble solids, turbidity, pH, nitrites and phosphorus among others, were measured in source, treated, and distributed water. There were general statistically significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences between raw and treated water, demonstrating the effectiveness of the purification process. Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene was used for taxonomic profiling of the microbial communities and this data was used to infer functional attributes of the communities. Structure and composition of the bacterial communities differed significantly (P < 0.05) among the treatment plants, only NWE and NWG showed no significant differences (P > 0.05), this correlated with the predicted functional profile of the microbial communities obtained from Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Observed States (PICRUSt), as well as the likely pollutants of source water. Bacteroidetes, Chlorobi and Fibrobacteres significantly differed (P < 0.05) between raw and distributed water. PICRUSt inferred a number of pathways involved in the degradation of xenobiotics such as Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, atrazine and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. More worryingly, was the presence of pathways involved in beta-lactam resistance, potential pathogenic Escherichia coli infection, Vibrio cholerae infection, and Shigellosis. Also present in drinking and treated water were OTUs associated with a number of opportunistic pathogens., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Despite increased public health concerns on the occurrences of potentially pathogenic/mycotoxigenic fungi in public drinking water system, dissemination of hygienically relevant fungi and their associated mycotoxins via distribution system under the dual burden of ageing infrastructure and ancillary distribution network lacking infrastructure for high-pressure water delivery systems is unknown. In this study, the diversity of fungi and occurrence of mycotoxins at 30 different points along treated piped water supply and ancillary distribution networks in Johannesburg, South Africa, were monitored for 12 months. Mycological analysis using cultural and molecular methods yielded 282 fungi belonging to phylum Ascomycota, having Aspergillus (91%), Penicillium (65%) and Trichoderma (31%) as dominant genera, with Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium citrinum, Purpureocillium lilacinum and Aspergillus flavus as the most prevalent species. Communal standpipe and reservoir outlets had significantly higher prevalence than other water samples. There was no strong correlation between total coliforms (r = 0.4266) and residual chlorine (r = - 0.1937), and fungal prevalence at p < 0.05. LC-MS/MS analysis detected aflatoxins B1, M1, G1 and G2 in 50, 9, 9 and 46% of water samples analysed, respectively, ranging between 0 and 3.18 ng/l. Deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyl DON and 15-acetyl DON levels were between 8.4-96.1, 18.7-145.7 and 15.2-71.6 ng/l, respectively. However, the estimated average daily dose (ADD) for detected mycotoxins was below the tolerable daily intake (TDI), suggesting no toxicological risk. Presence of potentially mycotoxigenic fungi, despite the low toxicological risk, demonstrates a need for appropriate monitoring for fungi and mycotoxins in treated drinking water distribution systems for improved water quality and long-term public health assurance.

People living in rural areas still rely on the use of environmental water that is contaminated by human and animal activities. This study assessed the occurrence of human enteric pathogens in rivers that are used by rural communities Vhembe District of South Africa as a source of drinking water covering two seasons (winter and summer) over a one-year period. Water quality was assessed using physico characteristics and indicator organisms (total coliforms, E. coli , Clostridium perfringens ). Pathogens tested included bacteria (Pathogenic E. coli , Salmonella -, Shigella - and Vibrio spp.), protozoa (Cryptosporidium- and Giardia spp.), and enteric viruses (Rota-, Noro-, Entero-, and Adenoviruses) while using published molecular protocols. The results showed that the indicator bacteria counts exceeded South African drinking water quality guideline limits and pathogenic E. coli was detected in the samples. No Shigella spp. were isolated, while Vibrio spp. and Salmonella spp. were present; parasites were detected in four rivers and Enteric viruses were predominantly detected in the winter season. The results indicated the poor condition of water and the potential health risks to consumers highlighting the need for implementing river catchment management strategies for continued sustainability in these rivers.

Diarrhoeal disease is a significant contributor to child morbidity and mortality, particularly in the developing world. Poor sanitation, a lack of personal hygiene and inadequate water supplies are known risk factors for diarrhoeal disease. Since risk factors may vary by population or setting, we evaluated the prevalence of diarrhoeal disease at the household level using a questionnaire to better understand household-level risk factors for diarrhoea in selected rural areas in South Africa. In a sub-sample of dwellings, we measured the microbial quality of drinking water. One in five households had at least one case of diarrhoea during the previous summer. The most widespread source of drinking water was a stand-pipe (inside yard) (45%) followed by an indoor tap inside the dwelling (29%). Storage of water was common (97%) with around half of households storing water in plastic containers with an opening large enough to fit a hand through. After adjusting for confounders, the occurrence of diarrhoea was statistically significantly associated with sourcing water from an indoor tap (Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR): 2.73, 95% CI: 2.73, 1.14⁻6.56) and storing cooked/perishable food in non-refrigerated conditions (AOR: 2.17, 95% CI: 2.17, 1.44⁻3.26). The highest total coliform counts were found in water samples from kitchen containers followed by stand-pipes. Escherichia coli were most often detected in samples from stand-pipes and kitchen containers. One in four households were at risk of exposure to contaminated drinking water, increasing the susceptibility of the study participants to episodes of diarrhoea. It is imperative that water quality meets guideline values and routine monitoring of quality of drinking water is done to minimise diarrhoea risk in relevant rural communities. The security of water supply in rural areas should be addressed as a matter of public health urgency to avoid the need for water storage.

Mafikeng, the capital of the North West Province, receives water from two sources, namely the Molopo eye and the Modimola dam. Once treated, the potable water is mixed and supplied to the city via distribution systems. This study was designed to assess the quality of drinking water in Mafikeng and also to determine whether the water from the two sources has an impact on the mixed water quality. Physico-chemical parameters and bacteriological quality (faecal coliforms (FCs), total coliforms (TCs), heterotrophic bacteria and Peudomonas spp.) was monitored at three drinking water sites weekly for 4 months. The results revealed that the physico-chemical quality of the water was generally acceptable. The pH ranged from 5.7 ± 0.18 to 8.6 ± 0.14, the temperature ranged from 18.3 ± 0.69 to 25.1 ± 0.69 °C and the total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 159.9 ± 22.44 to 364.4 ± 12.44 mg/l. These values are within the target water quality range for drinking water as prescribed by WHO, Department of Water Affairs and SANS 241. What is of concern was the microbial quality of the water. FCs, TCs, heterotrophic bacteria and Pseudomonas spp. were present in some of the treated water samples. The most significant finding of this study is that all drinking water samples were positive for Pseudomonas spp. (>100/100 ml).

The cost and complexity of traditional methods for the detection of faecal indicator bacteria, including E. coli, hinder widespread monitoring of drinking water quality, especially in low-income countries and outside controlled laboratory settings. In these settings the problem is exacerbated by the lack of inexpensive media for the detection of E. coli in drinking water. We developed a new low-cost growth medium, aquatest (AT), and validated its use for the direct detection of E. coli in temperate and sub-tropical drinking waters using IDEXX Quanti-Tray®. AT was compared with IDEXX Colilert-18® and either EC-MUG or MLSB for detecting low levels of E. coli from water samples from temperate (n = 140; Bristol, UK) and subtropical regions (n = 50, Pretoria/Tshwane, South Africa). Confirmatory testing (n = 418 and 588, respectively) and the comparison of quantitative results were used to assess performance. Sensitivity of AT was higher than Colilert-18® for water samples in the UK [98.0% vs. 86.9%; p<0.0001] and South Africa [99.5% vs. 93.2%; p = 0.0030]. There was no significant difference in specificity, which was high for both media (>95% in both settings). Quantitative results were comparable and within expected limits. AT is reliable and accurate for the detection of E. coli in temperate and subtropical drinking water. The composition of the new medium is reported herein and can be used freely.

Waterborne pathogens present a significant threat to people living with the human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH). This study presents a randomized, controlled trial that evaluates whether a household-level ceramic water filter (CWF) intervention can improve drinking water quality and decrease days of diarrhea in PLWH in rural South Africa. Seventy-four participants were randomized in an intervention group with CWFs and a control group without filters. Participants in the CWF arm received CWFs impregnated with silver nanoparticles and associated safe-storage containers. Water and stool samples were collected at baseline and 12 months. Diarrhea incidence was self-reported weekly for 12 months. The average diarrhea rate in the control group was 0.064 days/week compared to 0.015 days/week in the intervention group (p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney). Median reduction of total coliform bacteria was 100% at enrollment and final collection. CWFs are an acceptable technology that can significantly improve the quality of household water and decrease days of diarrhea for PLWH in rural South Africa.

Although a number of studies have reported on water supply improvements, few have simultaneously taken into account the reliability of the water services. The study aimed to assess whether upgrading water supply systems in small rural communities improved access, availability and potability of water by assessing the water services against selected benchmarks from the World Health Organisation and South African Department of Water Affairs, and to determine the impact of unreliability on the services. These benchmarks were applied in three rural communities in Limpopo, South Africa where rudimentary water supply services were being upgraded to basic services. Data were collected through structured interviews, observations and measurement, and multi-level linear regression models were used to assess the impact of water service upgrades on key outcome measures of distance to source, daily per capita water quantity and Escherichia coli count. When the basic system was operational, 72% of households met the minimum benchmarks for distance and water quantity, but only 8% met both enhanced benchmarks. During non-operational periods of the basic service, daily per capita water consumption decreased by 5.19l (p<0.001, 95% CI 4.06-6.31) and distances to water sources were 639 m further (p ≤ 0.001, 95% CI 560-718). Although both rudimentary and basic systems delivered water that met potability criteria at the sources, the quality of stored water sampled in the home was still unacceptable throughout the various service levels. These results show that basic water services can make substantial improvements to water access, availability, potability, but only if such services are reliable., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Diarrhoea is a hallmark of HIV infections in developing countries, and many diarrhoea-causing agents are often transmitted through water. The objective of the study was to determine the diversity and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of bacterial organisms isolated from samples of household drinking-water consumed by HIV-infected and AIDS patients. In the present study, household water stored for use by HIV-positive patients was tested for microbial quality, and isolated bacterial organisms were analyzed for their susceptibility profiles against 25 different antibiotics. The microbial quality of water was generally poor, and about 58% of water samples (n=270) were contaminated with faecal coliforms, with counts varying from 2 colony-forming unit (CFU)/100 mL to 2.4x10⁴ CFU/100 mL. Values of total coliform counts ranged from 17 CFU/100 mL to 7.9x10⁵/100 mL. In total, 37 different bacterial species were isolated, and the major isolates included Acinetobacter lwoffii (7.5%), Enterobacter cloacae (7.5%), Shigella spp. (14.2%), Yersinia enterocolitica (6.7%), and Pseudomonas spp. (16.3%). No Vibrio cholerae could be isolated; however, V. fluvialis was isolated from three water samples. The isolated organisms were highly resistant to cefazolin (83.5%), cefoxitin (69.2%), ampicillin (66.4%), and cefuroxime (66.2%). Intermediate resistance was observed against gentamicin (10.6%), cefepime (13.4%), ceftriaxone (27.6%), and cefotaxime (29.9%). Levofloxacin (0.7%), ceftazidime (2.2%), meropenem (3%), and ciprofloxacin (3.7%) were the most active antibiotics against all the microorganisms, with all recording less than 5% resistance. Multiple drug resistance was very common, and 78% of the organisms were resistant to three or more antibiotics. Education on treatment of household water is advised for HIV-positive patients, and measures should be taken to improve point-of-use water treatment as immunosuppressed individuals would be more susceptible to opportunistic infections.

This article examines the water distribution systems in Johannesburg and Mumbai to argue that the political and institutional contexts of service delivery shape people’s access to the state and its resources, and also mediation between citizens and government institutions by councillors. Through ethnographies of water supply and distribution systems in Mumbai and Johannesburg, I explain how the organizational structure of the water utility, institutional arrangements of service delivery, regulatory systems, councillors’ proximity to decision makers and their relationship with municipal officials, civil servants and party members variously influence councillors’ mediation capacities and their ability to fulfil the claims of their constituencies for piped water supply and connections.

Water treatment plants (WTPs) in developing countries play an important role in providing potable water to rural and urban areas. However, they often face many challenges, making them unable to produce quality water for consumers. We surveyed the performance of two rural WTPs from the Vhembe District Municipality, South Africa for eight months using secondary water quality data from each plant. Turbidity at the WTPs and most points of use (POU) exceeded the aesthetic (5 NTU) and operational (1 NTU) risk guidelines. Fluoride, iron, and manganese were within the regulated limits of < 1 mg/L, <3 mg/L and < 4 mg/L, respectively), but with signs of post-treatment change in the concentration of iron and manganese in the distribution system. At both WTPs, the free chlorine residual was below limits (<5 mg/L,), posing a risk of proliferation of pathogens in the distribution system. The results indicated problems with water disinfection at both WTPs. The study suggested the existence of challenges with the integrity, good operation, and maintenance of the water treatment system and distribution network. It is necessary to continuously monitor the performance of WTPs and POU to ensure public health and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a rapid spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment. However, the impact of antibiotic resistance in drinking water is relatively underexplored. Thus, this study aimed to quantify antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic residues in two drinking water production facilities (NW-E and NW-C) in North West Province, South Africa and link these parameters to bacterial communities. Physicochemical and ARG levels were determined using standard procedures. Residues (antibiotics and fluconazole) and ARGs were quantified using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) chemical analysis and real-time PCR, respectively. Bacterial community compositions were determined by high-throughput 16S rRNA sequencing. Data were analysed using redundancy analysis and pairwise correlation. Although some physicochemical levels were higher in treated than in raw water, drinking water in NW-E and NW-C was safe for human consumption using the South African Water Quality Guideline (SAWQG). ARGs were detected in raw and treated water. In NW-E, the concentrations of ARGs (sul1, intl1, EBC, FOX, ACC and DHA) were higher in treated water than in raw water. Regarding antimicrobial agents, antibiotic and fluconazole concentrations were higher in raw than in treated water. However, in NW-C, trimethoprim concentrations were higher in raw than in treated water. Redundancy analysis showed that bacterial communities were not significantly correlated (Monte Carlo simulations, p-value >0.05) with environmental factors. However, pairwise correlation showed significant differences (p-value <0.05) for Armatimonas, CL500-29 marine group, Clade III, Dickeya and Zymomonas genera with environmental factors. The presence of ARGs and antibiotic residues in the current study indicated that antibiotic resistance is not only a clinical phenomenon but also in environmental settings, particularly in drinking water niches. Consumption of NW-E and NW-C treated water may facilitate the spread of antibiotic resistance among consumers. Thus, regulating and monitoring ARGs and antibiotic residues in drinking water production facilities should be regarded as paramount. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water loss due to onsite leakage is a problem in the effective management of potable water mostly in semi-arid and arid countries of the world whose quantity of freshwater is depleted, and recharge is highly variable. This study assessed the quality and quantity of water loss in an academic institution due to onsite leakage resulting from various drivers such as leaks, corrosion, pressure, ageing infrastructure, and student attitude. An observational approach was used for water loss analysis. Samples were collected from each point from which water is lost and analyzed for physicochemical parameters, indicator microbes, and trace metals using standard procedures. It was observed that a high amount of water is lost in the study area which was partly influenced by high water pressure, the corrosion of taps and faucets, tap faults, and leaks. A total water loss of 9013.56 L/day in three selected residences of the institution was recorded. The wasted water was found to be of good quality with no harmful contamination. The Metal Pollution Index (MPI) showed that the water poses no threat from trace metals with a maximum MPI value of 7.76. The sampled water quality complied to the South African National Standard and World Health Organization standards for drinking water. The hazard quotient and hazard index both showed a level less than one, implying no possible non-carcinogenic risk associated with the consumption of the water. The wasted water from the institution's residences is therefore of a very high quality and needs to be conserved for better usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South African rivers generally receive waste from inadequate wastewater infrastructure, mines, and farming activities, among others. The uMsunduzi River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is among these recipients with recorded poor to very poor water quality. To identify parts of the uMsunduzi River that are polluted by Cryptosporidium and Escherichia coli (E. coli), this study mapped out pollutants emanating from point and non-point sources using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Streamflow calibration in the upper and lower reaches of the catchment showed good performance with R² of 0.64 and 0.58, respectively. SWAT water quality output data were combined with a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) to understand the microbial health implications for people using river water for drinking, recreational swimming, and non-competitive canoeing. QMRA results for Cryptosporidium and pathogenic E. coli showed that the probability of infection for most users exceeds the acceptable level for drinking and recreation as outlined in the South African water quality guidelines, and by the World Health Organization (WHO). The results of this study can be used as a baseline to assess the economic and health implications of different management plans, resulting in better-informed, cost-effective, and impactful decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ga-Selati River is subjected to different forms of pollution from mining, industrial and agricultural activities, and human settlements. The objectives of the study were to assess heavy metal pollution and to determine possible sources of pollutants in the river. Water and sediment samples were collected and analysed for the following selected metals: arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn) using sequential Inductively Coupled Plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The enrichment factor (EF) and geo-accumulation index (Igeo) were used to determine the level of metal pollution in the sediment. The results indicated that Cr and Ni were the most accumulated elements in the sediments, and the midstream sites (S4 and S5) showed a much higher pollution level than the upstream and downstream sites. The main sources of pollutants were mining, wastewater/sewage and agricultural discharges. This may pose a serious threat to the river and health risk to the nearby rural communities, which rely on the river, especially for drinking water. Proper management strategies to reduce pollution is therefore necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the hydrochemical characteristic changes of open-pit groundwater (OPGW) near a closed metalliferous mine proposed for drinking and irrigation usage were investigated. Water samples from an OPGW in O'Kiep were collected in April (dry season) and August (wet season), 2017. Data analysis methods, such as the coefficient of variation, correlation coefficient, piper trilinear plot analysis and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) among others were used to assess of the seasonal variation in the OPGW quality. The hydrochemical characteristics of the OPGW were also compared with drinking water guidelines. Based on the results, it was evident that the OPGW quality varied seasonally. The most abundant cation and anions were Ca2+ and SO42−, with recorded concentrations of 631 and 6020 mg/L, (dry season); 541 and 4450 mg/L (wet season), respectively. The OPGW was relatively rich in SO42− > Cl− > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > Na+ > K+ during the dry season; however, these cations and anions were reduced during the wet season with Cl− and Na+ subsequently increasing. PHREEQC indicated that cation exchanges played a significant role in the OPGW chemistry with Sb and Ca appearing to be the minerals with the highest precipitation potential followed by Cu7S4 and Blaubleil, respectively. Covellite, CdSe2 and NiSe were likely to be in equilibrium while Ca3Sb2 will remain in a dissolution state. Furthermore, the seasonal fluctuation in the OPGW quality characteristics was attributed to the water table level fluctuations and the water quality did not satisfy the guidelines stipulated by the South African National Standard, SANS241-1 (2015) and World Health Organisation, WHO (2011). The trilinear piper plot classified the OPGW into three types: Ca2+–Mg2+–Cl−–SO42; Ca2+–Mg2+–F−; and Ca2+–Mg2+–SO42−. Overall, the SAR values were within the permissible levels for irrigation purposes; however, long-term use of the OPGW might be detrimental for plant growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa faced challenges related to potable water quality that has periodically deteriorated, coupled with inconsistent supply of tap water (TW) to households. These challenges are a primary exasperation in the arid O'Kiep region, where the community has few alternatives regarding drinkable water sources. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of drinking TW supplied to the O'Kiep community, focusing on health risks associated with the ingestion of such water. The study included both the quantitative assessment of water quality parameters and a qualitative assessment of adverse human health outcomes experienced by the residents. Furthermore, disease patterns which were associated with ingestion of supplied water were also identified and subjected to appropriate statistical data analyses. Due to the inadequate drinking water supply and shortages in O'Kiep, households often are dependent on water tankers and commercially bottled water, amongst other potential sources of drinkable water. Water samples (n = 53) from O'Kiep' drinking water supply system (DWSS), that is, n = 3 were collected from source and (n = 50) point-of-use (TW) while the questionnaires were simultaneously administered in households. None of the statistical models suggested physicochemical properties as predictors of any of the health symptoms. Approximately, 88% of community members indicated that the water supplied is often turbid, while a high number of people with teeth discolouration (72%) are living in the area and experience diarrhoea-like symptoms, which are likely to be associated with the ingestion of toxin-contaminated water. This was confirmed by some physiochemical parameters quantified, that is, low dissolved oxygen of 2.0 mg/L, a high electrical conductivity of 595 mg/L, and SO4 2- and chlorine concentrations of 557 and 47.1 mg/L, respectively, which were not within the range prescribed for drinking water guidelines. Furthermore, a positive confirmatory test indicated the presence of toxins in the water. Therefore, regular monitoring and evaluation of DWSS is essential for this vulnerable community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the levels of detection of selected agricultural pesticides in river and tap water in the Letsitele, Lomati and Vals–Renoster catchments, South Africa. Agriculture plays a major role in the development of communities through job creation and poverty eradication. However, exposure to agricultural pesticides can result in serious human health and environmental effects. This study, therefore, identified critical areas where specific pesticides might result in high environmental and human health risks. Three water catchment areas, namely, Letsitele, Lomati and Vals–Renoster, were identified for raw and tap water analysis. The results confirmed the presence of selected agricultural pesticides: atrazine, terbuthylazine, imidacloprid, metolachlor, simazine and alachlor. Although low concentrations of most of these pesticides were detected, pesticides such as atrazine, alachlor and simazine are known for endocrine disruption. A critical finding of this study is the detection of these pesticides in tap water (drinking water) of a primary school in the Lomati catchment. This reveals a high exposure potential for human health. It is thus recommended that further research be conducted to determine the potential health risks associated with these pesticides among vulnerable communities, through epidemiological studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When purifying water for potable use, wastewater is generated, due to the class of the water treatment plant and the quality of the source water. Midvaal Water Company recycled wastewater that included residue from the dissolved air flotation (DAF), sedimentation and filtration processes in an attempt to save water and reduce costs. The aim of this study was to determine functionality and water quality of such a wastewater recycling system. Samples were collected for analysis, at the sections that contributed to the total wastewater system as well as after various treatment processes. The water quality of these samples was determined, as well as the incidences of water quality failures of the final water, to establish whether the recycle stream that enters the plant together with the source water had any impact on the water quality after the different treatment processes. Data were grouped into periods prior to, during and after recycling to enable comparisons. The water quality of the recycle stream was poorer than that of the source water from the Vaal River with regard to the mean values for total chlorophyll, suspended solids, turbidity and dissolved organic carbon, but the sedimentation process of the wastewater system improved the wastewater quality by drastically reducing total chlorophyll, suspended solids and turbidity. The risk-defined compliance for the final water was excellent (≥95%), despite aluminium, turbidity and total chlorophyll failures of the final water quality during the recycling period. Total chlorophyll was identified as the largest risk during wastewater recycling, especially after the filtration process. It is evident from the data that wastewater recycling, which included wastewater from the DAF, into the main inlet stream of the water treatment plant proved to be effective, based on compliance with national legislation, and had no detrimental impact on overall treatment processes or final water quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to safe drinking water is a basic human right in South Africa. Therefore, the accurate measurement of water quality is critical in ensuring the safety of water prior to its intended use. Proficiency testing schemes (PTSs) are a recognised form of assessing the technical competence of laboratories performing these analyses. There are over 200 water testing laboratories in South Africa, with only 51 being accredited for testing some or all parameters (physical, chemical and microbiological content) prescribed in SANS 241. Only a limited number of laboratories test for organic contaminants, as this requires advanced, costly analytical instrumentation, such as GC-FID/ECD/MS and LC-UV/MS, as well as skilled staff. These laboratories are either looking at selected organic contaminants listed in the World Health Organisation (WHO) drinking water guidelines or performing the minimum requirements, as stipulated in SANS 241, for phenols, atrazine, trihalomethanes and total dissolved organic content. Whereas several local PTS providers are addressing the competent assessment of microbiological, physical and inorganic chemical testing of water, a clear need for a South African PTS provider for organic contaminant analysis in water was identified by NMISA (National Metrology Institute of South Africa) in 2012. The key drivers for the coordination of a local PTS stem mainly from the limited stability of analytes in the samples for analysis and the high cost and logistics of international PTS participation. During 2012 and 2013, NMISA conducted a PTS trial round, a workshop and 2 additional PTS rounds for organochlorine pesticides in water, for South African laboratories, and also several international participants from other countries in Africa. This paper will highlight some of the challenges faced by laboratories when analysing organochlorine pesticides at the ng/l concentration level. Issues surrounding the comparability of measurement results, traceability, method validation and measurement uncertainty are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Resource-limited communities throughout the developing world face significant environmental health problems related to the myriad of coliform sources within those communities. This study comprehensively investigated contamination sources and the biological and chemical mechanisms sustaining them in two adjacent communities in rural Limpopo, South Africa. An 8-month study was conducted of household () and source water quality, measurements of biofilm layers on the inside of household water storage containers and water transfer devices, and also hand-based coliforms and hand-washing effectiveness. A 7-day water container incubation experiment was also performed to determine the biological and chemical changes that occur in a household water storage container independent of human interference. Results indicate that household drinking water frequently becomes contaminated after collection but before consumption (197 versus 1,046 colony-forming ; ; ). The most important contamination sources include biofilm layers on the inside of storage containers ( colony-forming ; ), hands ( colony-forming ; ), and coliform regrowth resulting from high assimilable organic carbon (AOC) levels during storage. A maximum specific growth rate, , of was determined for total coliform bacteria on AOC, and a high correlation between AOC concentrations and the growth potential of total coliform bacteria was observed. These results support the implementation of point-of-use water treatment and other interventions aimed at maintaining the safe water chain and preventing biological regrowth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In low and middle income countries, public perceptions of drinking water safety are relevant to promotion of household water treatment and to household choices over drinking water sources. However, most studies of this topic have been cross-sectional and not considered temporal variation in drinking water safety perceptions. The objective of this study is to explore trends in perceived drinking water safety in South Africa and its association with disease outbreaks, water supply and household characteristics. Methods: This repeated cross-sectional study draws on General Household Surveys from 2002-2009, a series of annual nationally representative surveys of South African households, which include a question about perceived drinking water safety. Trends in responses to this question were examined from 2002-2009 in relation to reported cholera cases. The relationship between perceived drinking water safety and organoleptic qualities of drinking water, supply characteristics, and socio-economic and demographic household characteristics was explored in 2002 and 2008 using hierarchical stepwise logistic regression. Results: The results suggest that perceived drinking water safety has remained relatively stable over time in South Africa, once the expansion of improved supplies is controlled for. A large cholera outbreak in 2000-02 had no apparent effect on public perception of drinking water safety in 2002. Perceived drinking water safety is primarily related to water taste, odour, and clarity rather than socio-economic or demographic characteristics. Conclusion: This suggests that household perceptions of drinking water safety in South Africa follow similar patterns to those observed in studies in developed countries. The stability over time in public perception of drinking water safety is particularly surprising, given the large cholera outbreak that took place at the start of this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is a country of contrasts with far ranging variations in climate, precipitation rates, cultures, demographics, housing levels, education, wealth and skills levels. These differences have an impact on water services delivery as do expectations, affordability and available resources. Although South Africa has made much progress in supplying drinking water, the same cannot be said regarding water quality throughout the country. A concerted effort is currently underway to correct this situation and as part of this drive, water safety plans (WSP) are promoted. Rand Water, the largest water services provider in South Africa, used the World Health Organization (WHO) WSP framework as a guide for the development of its own WSP which was implemented in 2003. Through the process of implementation, Rand Water found the WHO WSP to be much more than just another integrated quality system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is a water constrained country with a large mining industry. Effluents from the mining industry, which is rich in calcium sulphate, resulted in salination of the limited amount of surface water. South Africa is also a large importer of sulphur because it is required for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. It is argued that importation of sulphur can be replaced by recovering it as a by-product during treatment of sulphate-rich effluents. The removal of acid, metals and sulphate from mine water was assessed using the CSIR ABC (Alkali-Barium-Calcium) Desalination process. The CSIR ABC Desalination process was used for neutralization and removal of the total dissolved solids content from 7600 to 400 mg/l. Metals were removed effectively through precipitation with CaS or Ca(HS)2. The latter compound had a high solubility with higher metal removal rates compared to CaS. Sulphate remained in solution during metals precipitation with sulphide. The rate of sulphate removal during gypsum crystallization was influenced by the gypsum seed crystal content. The rate of sulphate removal during BaCO3 treatment was influenced by pH, CaCO3 solids and BaCO3 solid concentration. Ca(HS)2 was produced from CaS by passing CO2 through a CaS slurry. Further CO2 additions resulted in H2S-stripping. BaSO4 and CaCO3 were converted simultaneously to BaS and CaO, respectively. The optimum temperature was 1050°C. The cost of raw materials for the treatment of water with a TDS content of 7 600 mg/l amounted to R2.21/cubic metre (m3). The potential value of the water and by-products amounted to R11.10/m3 (US$1.00 = ZAR7.60). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of safe water is defined by three principles: the health-related quality must be suitable, the supply/source must be accessible and the water must constantly be available in quantities sufficient for the intended use. If any one (or more) of these three elements is missing from a water services improvement programme, providing safe water is not successfully achieved. A study in a deep rural area in South Africa showed that providing small communities, using untreated river water as their only water source, with good quality water through a piped distribution system and accessible at communal taps did not fall within our parameters of safe water. The parameters for measuring the three principles were: absence of Escherichia coli in drinking water samples; accessibility by improving tap distances to within 200 m from each household; availability by assessing whether households have at least 25 L per person per day. Results show that although E. coli levels were reduced significantly, households were still consuming water with E. coli numbers at non-compliant levels. Access (distance) was improved from an average of 750 m from households to river source to an average of 120 m to new on-tap source points. This did not result in significant increases in household quantities, which on average remained around 18 L per person per day. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the effect of long storage and household containers on the microbiological quality of water in a rural community, borehole water from the reservoir and seven standpipes was used. Borehole water was stored for a period of 72 h in household containers (polyethylene-PE and galvanised steel-GS), which are commonly used by the rural community of Mgquba village. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) and faecal coliform bacteria were used as the main parameters. Standard spread plate procedure and membrane filtration method were used to enumerate HPC and faecal coliform bacteria respectively. The results of this study revealed three factors that affected the microbiological quality of drinking groundwater used by the rural community of Mgquba village: the intake water, the duration of storage and the household container. The initial levels of faecal coliform (range of faecal coliforms: 0.1–2 cfu · 100 m-1 in the reservoir water, 0–57 cfu · 100 ml-1 in the standpipe water) and HPC bacteria (average counts: 5 log cfu · ml-1 in the reservoir water, 7 log cfu · ml-1 in the standpipe water) in both reservoir and standpipe waters far exceeded the limit allowed by the South African Water Quality Guidelines for Domestic Use (no risk target water quality range: 0 count · 100 ml-1 for faecal coliforms, 0–100 counts · ml -1 for HPC bacteria). The persistence of faecal coliforms in polyethylene-stored water was observed after 72 h of storage while their complete elimination in the galvanized steel-stored water occurred after 48 h of storage. Escherichia coli was the most dominant faecal coliform found in the initial and stored waters. Although the yield of HPC bacteria increased in water samples during storage in both polyethylene and galvanised steel containers, the microbiological quality of drinking groundwater deteriorated consistently with the length of the storage. Water stored for 72 h displayed a higher yield of HPC (average counts: 7 log-8 log cfu · ml-1 in PE-stored water, 6 log-8 log cfu · ml-1 in GS-stored water) than the water stored for 48 h or 24 h (average counts: S log-8 log cfu · ml-1 in PE-stored water, 5 log-7 log cfu · ml-1 in GS-stored water). Statistical analysis indicated a significantly higher number of HPC bacteria in the water stored in polyethylene than in the water stored in galvanised steel (P=0.02). Significant differences in HPC bacteria were also noted within household container-stored water from standpipes (P=0.0001 for PE, P=0.0002 for GS). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts to provide water to developing communities in South Africa have resulted in various types of water supplies being used. This study examined the relationship between the type of water supply and the quality of water used. Source (communal taps, private outdoor and indoor taps) and point-of-use water samples were examined for heterotrophic plate counts (HPC), total and faecal coliforms, E. coli, and coliphages. Ten percent of samples were also analysed for enteric viruses, Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Approximately 320 households were included in a case-control study. In addition, a cross-sectional study was conducted. Both studies examined the relationship between different types of water facilities and diarrhoea among pre-school children. The source water was of good microbial quality, but water quality was found to have deteriorated significantly after handling and storage in both case and control households, exceeding drinking water quality guideline values by 1-6 orders of magnitude. Coliphage counts were low for all water samples tested. Enteric viruses and Cryptosporidium oocysts were not detected. Giardia cysts were detected on one occasion in case and control in-house samples. Comparisons of whether in-house water, after handling and storage, complied with water quality guideline values demonstrated households using communal taps to have significantly poorer quality than households using private outdoor or indoor taps for HPC and E. coli (χ² = 14.9, P = 0.001 χ² = 6.6, P = 0.04 respectively). A similar trend (although not statistically significant) was observed for the other microbial indicators. The cross-sectional study demonstrated an apparent decrease in health risk associated with private outdoor taps in comparison to communal taps. This study suggests that a private outdoor tap is the minimum level of water supply in order to ensure the supply of safe water to developing communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to a recent report by the World Health Organization (WHO), the countries which still have limited access to water for drinking purposes are mainly those in the Sub-Saharan region. In this context, the current study provides an overview of the quality of surface water and groundwater in rural and peri-urban areas of the Republic of South Africa (RSA) and Mozambique (MZ) in terms of concentrations of conventional pollutants, inorganic chemicals, microorganisms, and micropollutants. Their values were compared with the drinking water standards available for the two countries. Regarding surface water, it was found that microorganisms occur at high concentrations; nickel (RSA) and boron (MZ) are other critical parameters. Regarding groundwater, arsenic and lead (RSA) and boron, sodium, and chloride (MZ) are the main critical substances. With regard to micropollutants, their surface water concentrations are much higher than those in European rivers. The highest values were for ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, clozapine, and estriol. Suitable treatment is necessary to produce safe water depending on the main critical pollutants but, at the same time, action should be taken to improve wastewater treatment in rural areas to improve and safeguard surface water bodies and groundwater which are sources for drinking needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is facing population and climate-related challenges such as pressure on arable land, provision of clean and safe drinking water, and water-borne health problems. The devastating drought during 2014-2018 further amplified those problems and put additional pressure on already stressed water resources in the uMngeni River basin in the KwaZulu-Natal province. Even today, additional water is being transferred from the neighbouring basins to satisfy the needs of the rapidly increasing urban population. Understanding the impact of changing climate can lead to an increase in the region's resilience by providing direction for adaptation strategies. The uMngeni River basin supports two large urban centres, subsistence and intensive commercial agriculture, forestry, and dairy farming. Apart from the limited amount of water available in the catchment itself to support these activities, the usability of its waters is threatened by decreasing water quality, in particular nutrient enrichment and eutrophication due to the farming, old infrastructure, and improper solid waste management. A set of scientific tools (e.g. http://hypeweb.smhi.se/) helps the decision makers to understand how the water availability and nutrient loads might change in the future and to plan appropriate adaptation strategies. We present here climate impact indicators (CIIs) produced from the outputs of the HYPE model (Lindström et al., 2010) that quantify the changes in the simulated discharge and nutrients in the greater uMngeni River area projected due to climate change. We used climate data from 18 Global Climate Models (GCM's) developed at various institutions with different initial conditions (https://climate.copernicus.eu/) and emission scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) to force the HYPE model. From these 18 GCM's, the six that adequately described the current local climate in the study area were used to quantify the CIIs. The period 2011-2100, broken into three 30-year segments was used to evaluate the impacts in the near future, mid-century, and far future as compared to the current period (1971-2000). Four out of the six models predicted deterioration in water quality, which might amplify the eutrophication problem. Eutrophication would impact human health, increase treatment costs, algal blooms; and possibly reduce agricultural land productivity. The change in total nitrogen concentrations was projected between -5 and 20% across all future periods but the percentage changes for phosphorus were generally higher than for nitrogen. The total phosphorus concentration is projected to change by -2 to 35%. The models also predicted a decrease in the water discharge of up to 40%, which would reduce drinking water availability and increase infrastructural costs. The decision makers need to identify the spatial patterns in order to implement mitigative measures like improvement of land management to reduce fertiliser demand, undertake solid waste management but also invest in water efficient technologies e.g., drip irrigation. Lindström G. et al. (2010). Development and test of the HYPE (Hydrological Predictions for the Environment) model – A water quality model for different spatial scales. Hydrology Research 41.3-4:295-319. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]