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During the nineteenth century, common salt (NaCl) was liberally applied to Australian farmland as a manure to improve productivity and as a fungicide to prevent, or at least reduce, the impact of rust in wheat. In an age where salinity control is paramount for biodiversity and agricultural productivity alike, it is worth reflecting that during the nineteenth century salt was intentionally applied as a manure to improve soil productivity. This paper traces the origin and extent of this practice in Australia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study is to assess the socio‐economic impacts of the São Francisco River Integration Project (PISF). In order to do that, a dynamic inter‐regional computable general equilibrium model is used, called TERM‐NEPISF. An increase in investments and in the total productivity of factors in the agricultural sectors was simulated. In general, the results reveal that greater investment and increase productivity has positive effects on GDP, employment, and household consumption, with rural workers and lower‐income households benefited the most. Furthermore, the results show a negative variation of the Gini index for almost all regions, expressing reduction of regional disparities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Objective] The objective of the paper is to provide the scientific basis for rational fertilization in Jianhe County of Guizhou Province and similar areas. [Method] The effects of soil nutrient indexes(total N .organic matter, available N .available K, available P, total P and total K)on soil fertility are explored by using variation coefficient method, correlation coefficient method and weighted mean method, and then the soil fertility in paddy field and dry' land is evaluated by using improved Nemerow comprehensive evaluation method combined with the weight coefficient mean value of the three methods. [Result] The soil available k in paddy field and total P in dry land were at a lower level, while other nutrient indexes were at a medium-high, high and higher level. The soil available N content in six dry' land sampling sites with different plants was high. Soil total P and available k fluctuate greatly among sampling sites, while organic matter content fluctuates less. The soil available P in fertility factor weighted coefficient of paddy field and dry land was the highest, respectively 0. 2710 and 0. 2358 comparing the mean value of the three weighted method weighted coefficient. The available P is the main factor influencing soil fertility in paddy field and dry' land and soil fertility indexes is 1.52 and 1.63 separately. The soil comprehensive fertility was at a fertile level. [Conclusion] The soil fertility of paddy field and dry land in Jianhe County is at a fertile level, and available P is the main factor influencing soil fertility in paddy field and dry land. The soil N content in paddy field and dry land is high, which can meet the demand of crop production. Therefore, N fertilization should be reduced in production. The soil K content in paddy field is low, and the corresponding fertilization measures should be taken to improve K supply level in paddy field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyzes the socio-economic determinants of Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHS) in Pakistan. The study was based on a survey of 200 farming households selected from two villages in Pakistan. A binary logit model was used to identify determinants of RWHS. The study found that the age of respondents, size of non-irrigated land, and household monthly income were statistically significant and positively related to the adoption of RWHS. On the contrary, variables such as occupation as laborer and membership of any Community-Based Organization (CBO), though significant, had an inverse effect on the adoption of RWHS. The overall model was significant as shown by P< 0.05 which depicts that the socio-economic characteristics of the population are the main factors contributing to the adoption of RWHS. The study recommends that increased public and private investment and active involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and voluntary organizations for social mobilization are essential for the promotion of RWHS in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A causal characterization between nexus problems and multi-level, conflictive goals. • Conceptualization of nexus networks through the lens of relational analysis. • Formalization of nexus networks with metabolic processors and a taxonomy of relations. • An illustration of a water-food nexus network with interconnected causal mechanisms for groundwater over-draft. • A range of social-ecological patterns demanding different adaptation strategies. While a large number of descriptive studies have delineated the interlinkages between water, food and energy resources in the last decade, there is still need for systematic conceptualization of resource nexus interconnections. This paper proposes a theory of relational analysis of the nexus based on the analytical concept of nexus networks. A taxonomy of nexus interconnections, detailing sequential and hierarchical connections, is characterized between and amongst the technosphere and biosphere. We illustrate the use of a novel diagnostic tool with regard to its ability to integrate macro-, meso- and microscale drivers of nexus problems. We apply this framework to problems generated by intensive crop production for exportation in an arid landscape (driven by external markets) and sustainable management of water resources (driven by public policies) in a southern Spanish region. We elucidate interconnected causal mechanisms for groundwater overexploitation and profile different social-ecological patterns on a spatially-explicit basis. The proposed approach is capable of accounting for the water-energy-food resource nexus in an integrated and multi-level fashion, addressing the tensions generated by both multi-functionality and resource entanglement in complex social-ecological systems. Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper develops a two-region trade model to consider how the uneven allotment of water resources and the availability of interbasin water transfers affect the intraregional distribution of land between urban and agricultural use and the interregional distribution of the population when regions vary in natural amenities, agricultural productivity, and urban agglomeration economies. In each region, urban and agricultural sectors compete over a fixed quantity of land and agricultural goods face transport costs. Three different trade regimes for the agricultural good are considered: autarky, incomplete specialization, and complete specialization. Under autarky, a rise in the agricultural productivity of the water importing region increases the local urban sector. Once regions begin to trade, an increase in the agricultural productivity of the water importing region increases the urban sector in the water exporting region. An increase in natural amenities in the water importing region increases the local urban population driving agricultural production to the less productive water exporting region. Urban agglomeration economies have a small impact when the population is more evenly divided but large impacts when there are large population differences between regions. Reductions in the available supply of water increases both water and agricultural prices and may reduce the quantity of land devoted to agricultural production. A graphical example is presented to show the impact of the parameters on land use patterns, population size and regional prices. The model is then calibrated to reect stylized facts for California. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochar is proposed as a soil amendment to improve soil physical-chemical properties and crop productivity. However, the effect of biochar on crop yield is not consistent and the mechanisms affecting plant growth are still not well-understood. In this paper, field experiments were carried out to investigate the impact of biochar addition on soil properties, water and fertilizer productivity of tomato in semi-arid area of Inner Mongolia, China. The tested biochar was made from maize straw by slow pyrolysis. Four biochar treatments were conducted including addition of 10, 20, 40 and 60 t ha −1 and no biochar as a control. Addition of biochar reduced the bulk density and increased the porosity of soil. Electrical conductivity of soil increased with increasing biochar application rate. Soil pH was not affected by addition of biochar in one growing season. Yield, crop water productivity and partial factor productivity for fertilizer were nonlinearly (quadratic) proportional to application rate of biochar. Highest water and fertilizer productivity obtained from the 40 t ha −1 biochar treatment. Comprehensive analysis of biochar impact on yield, water and nutrient productivity, and cost-benefit for the grower indicate that addition of approximate 30 t ha −1 is an appropriate rate for tomato production in the study area. This suggestion is based on the relatively short term effect and local market conditions. A prolonged experiment is desirable to understand the long term response of soil and crop to biochar addition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In complex mixed crop-livestock systems with limited resources and biomass scarcity, crop residues play an important but increasingly contested role. This paper focuses on farming systems in the semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe, where biomass production is limited and farmers integrate crop and livestock activities. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is promoted to intensify crop production, emphasizing the retention of surface mulch with crop residues (CR). This paper quantifies the associated potential economic trade-offs and profitability of using residues for soil amendment or as livestock feed, and explores alternative biomass production options. We draw on household surveys, stakeholder feedback, crop, livestock and economic modeling tools. We use the Trade-Off Analysis Model for Multi Dimensional Impact Assessment (TOA-MD) to compare different CR use scenarios at community level and for different farm types: particularly the current base system (cattle grazing of maize residues) and sustainable intensification alternatives based on a CA option (mulching using maize residues ± inorganic fertilizer) and a maize–mucuna ( Mucuna pruriens ) rotation. Our results indicate that a maize–mucuna rotation can reduce trade-offs between CR uses for feed and mulch, providing locally available organic soil enhancement, supplementary feed and a potential source of income. Conservation Agriculture without fertilizer application and at non-subsidized fertilizer prices is not financially viable; whereas with subsidized fertilizer it can benefit half the farm population. The poverty effects of all considered alternative biomass options are however limited; they do not raise income sufficiently to lift farmers out of poverty. Further research is needed to establish the competitiveness of alternative biomass enhancing technologies and the socio-economic processes that can facilitate sustainable intensification of mixed crop-livestock systems, particularly in semi-arid environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims at assess district-wise vulnerability index of the state of Karnataka State, which is predominantly is rainfed and is highly susceptible to climatic variability. Secondary data on relevant indicators were collected to prepare indices viz., crop production losses, exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Following normalization and using appropriate weights for indicators, these four indices were used for constructing vulnerability index, which can be used a rapid assessment method for prioritizing districts that need measures to moderate the detrimental impact of climate change. It has been observed that Climatic variability caused higher production losses in cereals, pulses and oilseeds in Davangere, Gulbarga and Raichur districts, respectively. Districts like Koppal, Raichur, Bijapur Gulbarga, Gadag, Bagalkote and Bellary were placed under extreme degree of exposure. As per the sensitivity index scores, Kolar district is the most sensitive. Further, Bengaluru (Urban), Dakshin Kannada and Kodagu are ranked first, second and third in terms of adaptive capacity in the state. Overall, vulnerability index scores indicate that Gulbarga, Koppal, Raichur, Bellary, Bagalkote, Bijapur and Belgaum are extremely vulnerable districts in the state. It was also estimated that around 70% of the cultivated area, which supports 60% and 67% of livestock and rural population of the state, respectively are facing ‘extreme to high’ level of vulnerability. The ranking based prioritization of the vulnerable areas calls for a holistic approach for each district or a group of districts to reduce their sensitivity, minimize exposure to rainfall variability through implementation of site-specific and leverage adaptive capacity through better health and education facilities, expansion of employment opportunities in other sectors or reducing over dependence on agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses that affect crop production in arid and semiarid areas. Seed germination and seedling growth are the stages most sensitive to salinity. Salt stress causes adverse physiological and biochemical changes in germinating seeds. It can affect the seed germination and stand establishment through osmotic stress, ion-specific effects and oxidative stress. The salinity delays or prevents the seed germination through various factors, such as a reduction in water availability, changes in the mobilization of stored reserves and affecting the structural organization of proteins. Various techniques can improve emergence and stand establishment under salt conditions. One of the most frequently utilized is seed priming. The process of seed priming involves prior exposure to an abiotic stress, making a seed more resistant to future exposure. Seed priming stimulates the pre-germination metabolic processes and makes the seed ready for radicle protrusion. It increases the antioxidant system activity and the repair of membranes. These changes promote seed vigor during germination and emergence under salinity stress. The aim of this paper is to review the recent literature on the response of plants to seed priming under salinity stress. The mechanism of the effect of salinity on seed germination is discussed and the seed priming process is summarized. Physiological, biochemical and molecular changes induced by priming that lead to seed enhancement are covered. Plants’ responses to some priming agents under salinity stress are reported based on the best available data. For a great number of crops, little information exists and further research is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigations demonstrate that the wind is the factor that causes the biggest negative influence on water application of sprinkler irrigation systems. Therefore, this paper aims to evaluate, in in-field conditions, the influence of wind on the water distribution uniformity of a mechanical lateral move sprinkler system used for irrigation in rice crop in the South of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. The equipment is located at the Campo Experimental de Terras Baixas (ETB) of EMBRAPA/CPACT and operates with water emitters model I-Wob installed in drop tubes in a distance of 2.8m above the soil surface, having a uniform space of 2.3m between each other and pressure regulators of 68.9kPa. Sixteen in-field evaluations were done and they permitted to infer that the higher is the wind speed, the lower are the values of Christiansen Uniformity (CU) and of Distribution Uniformity (DU) coefficients. Besides, it can be affirmed that even in unfavorable wind conditions, the mechanical lateral move irrigation equipment presented desirable indexes of water application uniformity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Irrigation is essential for agricultural production in semi-arid areas, but it is also an important consumer and contaminator of water. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the efficiency of water and nitrogen use. This paper analyzes the relation between nitrogen fertilization practices, irrigation and the nitrate concentration in the drainage waters of the sprinkler-irrigated LASESA district (LD) in Northeast Spain. The methodology is based on developing water and nitrogen balances in the seven main basins that drain LD (9980ha) from November 2008 to October 2010, covering the agricultural campaigns of 2009 and 2010. The results show that the hydrological properties of each basin determine the evolution of the flow of and nitrate concentration in drainage waters. In basins with soils located on Quaternary terraces, the drainage fraction (DF) and the concentration of nitrate are 22% and 120mgL-1, respectively, and the annual mass of nitrogen exported is 64kgha-1. In those with soils located on Tertiary marls and sandstones, the lower DF and nitrate concentrations (9% and 90mgL-1) lead to an annual mass of exported nitrogen which is five times lower (12kgha-1). The excess of irrigation and fertilizer use in corn make this crop the main source of nitrogen pollution. In recent years, corn fertilization has been reduced. Nevertheless, 26% of the nitrogen applied as mineral or organic fertilizer is still lost in the drainage water. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flood-based Agricultural Systems (FAS), which rely on temporary floods, provide livelihoods for nearly 50 million smallholder farmers across water-stressed African basins. This paper analyses the impact of externally driven agricultural production and productivity improvement interventions in FAS, taking the Ethiopian Fogera floodplain as a case study. Ostroms' Governing the Commons Principles were used as analytical framework. Field data was gathered through focus group discussions and interviews with 266 farmers and pastoralists, and 10 local administration staff, while the AquaCrop model was used to simulate maize yield under varied floodwater management and farming practices. The interventions in the Fogera floodplain replaced vital maize and teff food crops with high-return upstream rice cultivation. It has characteristics similar to other interventions across Africa: 1) inadequate integration of local agricultural water management practices; 2) narrow focus on short-term economic gains and insufficient attention to long-term sustainability of livelihoods and environmental issues; and 3) lack of detailed ex-ante analysis of basin-wide consequences – it failed to prioritize the needs of downstream vegetable producers and pastoralists using shallow wells. The intervention missed several low-cost opportunities, including the establishment of rules to protect downstream water rights; the construction of gabion-strengthened on-farm structures to efficiently distribute floods or raised brick-walls to reinforce shallow wells; and the implementation of measures for improved soil fertility and weed management. The study establishes that these missed opportunities could have enhanced livelihoods by doubling rice yield to 6 tons/ha; increased teff and maize harvests by one-third, to 3 and 5 tons/ha respectively; and mitigated 25% vegetable yield loss and 40% reduction in grazing land. These opportunities could have also produced environmental benefits, including reduced soil moisture and fertility depletion. Lessons from the Fogera floodplain on making interventions cost-effective and considering basin-wide livelihood impacts are relevant to FAS globally. • Analysed external improvement interventions in Flood-based Agricultural Systems. • Farmer-led systems have fair floodwater sharing, but low agricultural productivity. • Implemented interventions have not improved floodwater management and productivity. • Many low-cost improvement opportunities missed due to lack of basin-wide approach. • Identified affordable and up-scalable basin-wide livelihood improving interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper investigates the long-term impacts of water storage infrastructure (dams) on agriculture and the natural environment in the semi-arid U.S. West. We conduct an empirical analysis of the agricultural impacts associated with major dams in Idaho, focusing on their crop mixes, crop productivities, and overall agricultural land values using an integrated county-level repeated cross section dataset. Our results suggest that the presence of a dam resulted in significant increases in total crop acreage, particularly in those counties in which farmers have predominantly junior water rights. Dams led to an increase in the acreage of the higher-valued, more water-intensive crops and positively impacted some crop productivities, particularly during periods of severe droughts. In contrast to the traditional literature, we find that the presence of a dam had a small, positive, but non-significant effect on farmland values. Finally, we evaluate long-term patterns in stream flow change and examine the impacts of dams on the natural environment. We find that the presence of dams enabled the spatiotemporal transfer of water resources from cold (non-agricultural) to warm (agriculturally-intensive) seasons, reduced the potential availability of water resources for ecosystem use, and increased the seasonal volatility in water supplies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper investigates the environmental sustainability and competitiveness perceptions of small farmers in a region in northern Brazil. The main data collection instruments included a survey questionnaire and an analysis of the region's strategic plan. In total, ninety-nine goat and sheep breeding farmers were surveyed. Data analysis methods included descriptive statistics, cluster analysis, and chi-squared tests. The main results relate to the impact of education, land size, and location on the farmers' perceptions of competitiveness and environmental issues. Farmers with longer periods of education have higher perception scores about business competitiveness and environmental sustainability than those with less formal education. Farmers who are working larger land areas also have higher scores than those with smaller farms. Lastly, location can yield factors that impact on farmers' perceptions. In our study, farmers located in Angicos and Lajes had higher perception scores than Pedro Avelino and Afonso Bezerra, despite the geographical proximity of these municipalities. On the other hand, three other profile variables did not impact on farmers' perceptions, namely: family income, dairy production volume, and associative condition. The authors believe the results and insights can be extended to livestock farming in other developing countries and contribute generally to fostering effective sustainable development policies, mainly in the agribusiness sector. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Recurrent droughts in arid and semi-arid regions are already rendering agricultural production, mainstay of subsistence livelihoods, uncertain. In order to mitigate the impact of drought, agricultural organizations must increase their capacity to adapt. Institutional adaptation refers to the creation of an effective, long-term government institution or set of institutions in charge of planning and policy, and its capacity to develop, revise, and execute drought policies. Using the Fars Agricultural Organization in Iran, as a case study, this paper explores the institutional capacities and capabilities, necessary to adapt to the drought conditions. The STAIR model was used as a conceptual tool, and the Bayesian network and Partial Least Squares (PLS) path modeling was applied to explain the mechanisms by which organizational capacities influence drought management. A survey of 309 randomly selected managers and specialists indicated serious weaknesses in the ability of the organization to apply adaptation strategies effectively. Analysis of the causal models illustrated that organizational culture and resources and infrastructure significantly influenced drought management performance. Moreover, managers and specialists perceived human resources and strategy, goals, and action plan, respectively, as the main drivers of institutional adaptation to drought conditions. Recommendations and implications for drought management policy are offered to increase organizational adaptation to drought and reduce the subsequent sufferings. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Salinity is a major problem in arid and semi-arid regions, where irrigation is essential for crop production. Major sources of salinity in these regions are salt-rich irrigation water and improper irrigation management. The effects of salinity on crops include inhibition of growth and production, and ultimately, death. There are two main approaches to alleviating the adverse effects of salinity on agricultural crops: (i) development of salt-tolerant cultivars by screening, conventional breeding or genetic engineering, and (ii) the traditional approach dealing with treatments and management of the soil, plants, irrigation water, and plant environment. The success of the first approach is limited under commercial growing conditions, because salt-tolerance traits in plants are complex. The present paper reviews, analyzes, and discusses the following traditional approaches: (i) improving the plant environment, (ii) exploiting interactions between plant roots and bacteria and fungi, and (iii) treating the plant directly. With respect to improving the plant environment, we review the possibilities of decreasing salt content and concentration and improving the nutrient composition and concentration in the root zone, and controlling the plant's aerial environment. The interactions between salt-tolerant bacteria or mycorrhizal fungi and root systems, and their effects on salt-tolerance, are demonstrated and discussed. Discussed treatments aimed at alleviating salinity hazard by treating the plant directly include priming of seeds and young seedlings, using proper seed size, grafting onto tolerant rootstocks, applying non-enzymatic antioxidants, plant growth regulators or compatible solutes, and foliar application of nutrients. It can be concluded from the present review that the traditional approaches provide promising means for alleviating the adverse effects of salinity on agricultural crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conradie et al. (2009a and 2009b) identified the Central Karoo as the worst performing area in the Western Cape, but left the reasons for the region's declining total factor productivity (TFP) unexplained. The current paper uses a combination of literature review and analysis of anecdotal evidence to evaluate a set of hypothetical reasons for the decline. The world wool price clearly affected farm-level profitability, putting up to 50% of sheep farms out of business in some parts of the Central Karoo. If census data were properly collected, this in itself should not have affected TFP. The evidence for overgrazing and increasingly ineffective predator control was less convincing. For example, there is no conclusive evidence yet on whether game and lifestyle farms exert any negative externalities on remaining sheep operations. The cost-price squeeze resulting from falling prices and rising input costs has led to an extension of production systems and poor maintenance which will no doubt lead to a further decline in productivity. We concluded that the rate at which the Central Karoo is shedding sheep farming, and the reasons for and effects of it, should be investigated further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Long-term soil carbon (C) dynamics in agro-ecosystems is controlled by interactions of climate, soil and agronomic management. A modeling approach is a useful tool to understand the interactions, especially over long climatic sequences. In this paper, we examine the performance of the Agricultural Production Systems sIMulator (APSIM) to predict the long-term soil C dynamics under various agricultural practices at four semi-arid sites across the wheat-belt of eastern Australia. We further assessed the underlying factors that regulate soil C dynamics in the top 30cm of soil through scenario analysis using the validated model. The results show that APSIM is able to predict aboveground biomass production and soil C dynamics at the study sites. Scenario analyses indicate that nitrogen (N) fertilization combined with residue retention (SR) has the potential to significantly slow or reverse the loss of C from agricultural soils. Optimal N fertilization (Nopt) and 100% SR, increased soil C by 13%, 46% and 45% at Warra, Wagga Wagga and Tarelee, respectively. Continuous lucerne pasture was the most efficient strategy to accumulate soil C, resulting in increases of 49%, 57% and 50% at Warra, Wagga Wagga and Tarlee, respectively. In contrast, soil C decreases regardless of agricultural practices as a result of cultivation of natural soils at the Brigalow site. Soil C input, proportional to the amount of retained residue, is a significant predictor of soil C change. At each site, water and nitrogen availability and their interaction, explain more than 59% of the variation in soil C. Across the four sites, mean air temperature has significant (P <0.05) effects on soil C change. There was greater soil C loss at sites with higher temperature. Our simulations suggest that detailed information on agricultural practices, land use history and local environmental conditions must be explicitly specified to be able to make plausible predictions of the soil C balance in agro-ecosystems at different agro-ecological scales. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Pasture productivity depends on soil hydro-physical properties, which in turn are deeply affected by livestock grazing. However, the comparative response of different soil types, and particularly gypseous soil types, to grazing has hardly been studied before. This paper compares the effect of grazing on the soil hydro-physical properties of silty gypseous (Gy) and non-gypseous (NGy) soils located in a semi-arid region (Middle Ebro Valley, NE, Spain). Two different soil managements were selected: ungrazed natural shrubland (N) and grazed shrubland (GR) soils. The gypsum, CaCO3 and organic matter content (OM), soil texture, soil bulk density (ρ b ), penetration resistance (PR), saturated sorptivity (S), hydraulic conductivity (K), and the water retention curve (WRC) for undisturbed soil samples from 1 to 10cm depth soil layer were measured. The ρ b and PR in NGy soils were significantly higher than those observed in the Gy ones. Soil compaction due to grazing treatment tended to increase ρ b and decrease the K and S values. While no differences in PR were observed in the Gy soils between grazing treatments, the PR measured in the NGy soils under GR was significantly higher than the corresponding values observed under N. Differences in K and S between GR and N treatments were only significant (p <0.05) in NGy soils, where K and S values under the N treatment were almost four times greater than the corresponding values measured under GR. Overall, no differences in the WRCs were observed between soil types and grazing treatments. While the WRCs of NGy soils were not significantly affected by the grazing treatment, Gy soils under N treatment present a significantly higher level of soil macropores than under GR treatment. The hydro-physical features of Gy soils tended to be less affected by grazing than those of the NGy soils. These results suggest that livestock grazing, in both Gy and NGy soils, has a negative effect on the physical soil properties, which should be taken into account by land managers of these semi-arid regions where silty gypseous and non-gypseous areas coexist. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This study analyzed the effect of three levels of drip irrigation in sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) production in the Middle Anatolian region of Turkey. Two deficit irrigation treatments 75% and 50% of measured soil water depletion were compared with a full irrigation control treatment. In this paper, root yield, NEY (net energy yield), EEP (efficiency of energy production) and EWUE (energy water use efficiency) were investigated. Energy consumption of irrigation was found to be about 60% of total energy input in sugar beet production under full and deficit irrigation treatments. It was found that sugar beet had the highest EEP value (6.29) under the partial deficit irrigation (representing 75% of full irrigation). However, it was observed that full and severe deficit irrigation (representing 50% of full irrigation) treatments had a lower value. Results of this study indicated that the partial deficit drip irrigation technique can be applied in sugar beet production. In practice, deficit irrigation technique can reduce irrigation water use up to 25% compared to full irrigation technique. In addition, partial deficit drip irrigation technique may save 11.2% of total energy inputs, 16.1% of irrigation energy inputs, 21.2% of total fuel use and 25% of fuel use in irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Waterlogging and dryland salinity in Western Australia (WA) as well as in many other parts of the world have long been recognized as major constraints to productive pastures and crops. In the late 90s, bed-furrow systems were introduced to waterlogged non-saline land in high rainfall areas of Australia. That resulted in significant yield increases of broad-acre crops through a reduction of the waterlogging. It was expected that yield gains could also be realised on waterlogged and saline land, of which more than 1million ha is present in WA. This paper examines the productivity of crops and pasture of waterlogged and salt-affected land after the implementation of bed-furrow systems. Three sites were selected in the south western Wheatbelt of WA, with different rainfall regimes and with soil salinity ranging from none to extreme. The treatments were: pasture, cropping and raised beds (RB), no-till beds (NTB) and the Control. The distribution of salinity was mapped using an electromagnetic instrument (EM38). Pasture biomass and distribution were obtained from validated multispectral images. Grain yield and distribution were obtained from calibrated yield maps. In 4 of the 12 site-years, grain yields from the bed-furrow systems were statistically significantly compared to the Control. These were mostly associated with the site in the high rainfall region. The pasture biomass declined under the impact of summer and winter grazing and salinity. Bed-furrow systems did, in general, not generate higher grain yields for a given soil salinity compared to the Control. Relative yield - salinity relationships revealed a higher salt tolerance of the various crops compared to criteria published previously. It was also found that the interaction between waterlogging and salinity was not applicable since the timing of both issues did not coincide. Despite the grain yield gains at the high rainfall site using bed-furrow systems, cropping the low-lying salt-affected and potentially waterlogged land carries high risks. Provided these are accepted, growers with access to such land may be able to extend their cropping areas considerably. It is expected that bed-furrow systems are also beneficial in the waterlogged and salt-affected regions where topographical conditions and a precipitation surplus have created such conditions, like in some of the prairie states of North America. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Soil erosion is a growing problem in Central Chile, particularly in coastal dry lands, where it can significantly decrease the productivity of rainfed agriculture and forestry. In this study, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) was integrated into a Geographic Information System (GIS), and used to evaluate the effects of different combinations of vegetative cover on soil erosion rates for Santo Domingo County in Central Chile. Implementing RUSLE in the GIS required a complete description of the county's soils, climate, topography and current land use/land cover. This information was compiled in rasters of 25 x 25 m cells. RUSLE parameter values were assigned to each cell and annual soil loss estimates were generated on a cell by cell basis. Soil losses were estimated for the current and for three alternate scenarios of vegetative cover. Under current conditions, 39.7% of the county is predicted to have low erosion rates (< 0.1 t ha-1 yr-1), 39.8% has intermediate rates (0.1-1.0 t ha-1 yr-1), and 10.4% has high erosion rates (> 1.1 t ha-1 yr-1). The remainder of the surface (10.2%) is not subject to erosion. Under the recommended alternate scenario, 89.3% of the county is predicted to have low erosion rates, and no areas are affected by high soil loss, reducing soil erosion to a level that will not affect long term productivity. This paper describes how RUSLE was implemented in the GIS, and the methodology and equations used to evaluate the effects of the land use/land cover changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop production is a major source of food and livelihood for many people in arid and semi-arid (ASA) regions across the world. However, due to irregular climatic events, ASA regions are affected commonly by frequent droughts that can impact food production. In addition, ASA regions in the Middle East and Africa are often characterised by political instability, which can increase population vulnerability to hunger and ill health. Remote sensing (RS) provides a platform to improve the spatial prediction of crop production and food availability, with the potential to positively impact populations. This paper, firstly, describes some of the important characteristics of agriculture in ASA regions that require monitoring to improve their management. Secondly, it demonstrates how freely available RS data can support decision-making through a cost-effective monitoring system that complements traditional approaches for collecting agricultural data. Thirdly, it illustrates the challenges of employing freely available RS data for mapping and monitoring crop area, crop status and forecasting crop yield in these regions. Finally, existing approaches used in these applications are evaluated, and the challenges associated with their use and possible future improvements are discussed. We demonstrate that agricultural activities can be monitored effectively and both crop area and crop yield can be predicted in advance using RS data. We also discuss the future challenges associated with maintaining food security in ASA regions and explore some recent advances in RS that can be used to monitor cropland and forecast crop production and yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate variability and change coupled with small landholdings, low land productivity and water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions contribute to environmental degradation, reduced agricultural productivity, and increased vulnerability to the rural communities. With the aid of the fuzzy cognitive maps constructed by 427 community groups with 4–5 members in each group, drawn from 96 villages in 12 districts of arid and semi-arid India, the paper evaluates the effectiveness of various adaptation pathways. The ongoing adaptations in arid and semi-arid India face adaptation deficits. The FCM-based simulations revealed that integrated adaptation measures that embrace nature-based solutions, including integrated water resource management, natural farming-assisted soil rejuvenation, and improved agricultural productivity are most likely to enhance the resilience of small and marginalised farming communities to climate variability and change. Facilitation of such adaptation measures requires inclusive and adaptive local institutions, sufficient financial assistance, and climate information services. Besides, gender-nuanced, inclusive, and adaptive governance and processes would be helpful for the implementation of appropriate adaptation interventions in arid and semi-arid drylands worldwide. Hence policy-makers must enable polycentric and adaptive governance, and inclusive institutions and processes. The emphasis on multiple factors in a socio-ecological system often makes it difficult to understand the critical role of a particular factor. However, the FCM-based simulations in this study helped us overcome such limitations. Image 1 • FCM-based simulations used to examine the effectiveness of current adaptations. • Current adaptations face adaptation deficit and provide limited resilience. • Integrated adaptations embracing nature-based solutions could provide resilience. • Lack of finance, technology, and locally relevant information are the key barriers. • Polycentric-adaptive governance and inclusive institutions & processes are crucial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Profitability of soil and water conservation practices vary with seasons. • During masika , profitability can still be achieved by growing crops as rainfed. • It's unprofitable to grow maize and beans on terraces as irrigated in rainy seasons. • Combining SWC techniques with auxiliary practices can enhance profitability. Soil and water conservation techniques are known to be profitable and widely promoted in sub-Saharan Africa. However, how their profitability vary across cropping seasons has not been fully explored. Thus, farmers are often faced with the dilemma of which agricultural technique(s) and/or combination(s) thereof to implement in which cropping seasons, and for which crops to maximize profits. In this paper, we investigated the profitability of two soil and water conservation techniques (terraces and borders) and compared them against the conventional flat cultivation in Makanya catchment Tanzania. Farmers in the area grow maize, beans, lablab and cowpeas over three cropping seasons (locally called masika , vuli and chamazi/kipupwe). Based on field survey of 382 farmers in 2019, it was found that aggregate yields were generally higher on fields with intercrop than those with monocrop with more than 0.5 ton/ha of total grain yields. Borders were generally more profitable (399 USD/ha) than terraces and flat cultivation during all three cropping seasons while flat cultivation was more lucrative during the masika than vuli season. Terraces was only lucrative for rainfed beans with Benefit Cost Ratio of 1.5 (208.7 USD/ha) and 1.2 (90.5 USD/ha) in masika and vuli respectively. Beans grown on borders during chamazi season had the highest profitability with Benefit Cost Ratio of 1.9 (399 USD/ha) compared to terraces and flat cultivation in all three cropping seasons. Whereas it was more profitable to grow maize, beans and lablab on borders, farmers could still realize appreciable profits by growing these crops as purely rainfed on flat cultivation especially during the masika season. It was concluded that in semi-arid zones, soil and water conservation techniques used in combination with other auxiliary practices such as irrigation, intercropping with legumes, mulching and manure application could greatly enhance profitability, but that depends on cropping season and market factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]