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• The impact of delivery pressure on the design and cost of CO 2 liquefaction is investigated. • Different impurity and purity requirement scenarios are considered. • The CO 2 liquefaction cost decreases significantly with pressure for the range 7–40 bar. • Impurities have a strong impact on design, cost and comparison of the different pressures. • Purity requirements can have a strong impact on the pressure level comparison. As a first step towards identifying the optimal transport conditions for shipping CO 2 , this study investigates the impact of post-liquefaction delivery pressure on the design and cost of CO 2 liquefaction for (a) pure CO 2 (b) three impurity scenarios (c) two purity requirements. For pure CO 2 , the highest liquefaction cost is obtained at 7 bar amongst the range considered (7 to 70 bar), while a minimum lies around 40–50 bar. When different potential impurity scenarios are considered, impurities need to be purged for the low-pressure cases as these are not necessarily soluble in the liquefied CO 2 stream. As a consequence, the liquefaction cost increases significantly for low-pressure cases (up to 34% compared to the pure CO 2), and wider differences between the pressure levels are obtained. Purity requirements also have a significant impact on comparisons of delivery pressures, although this impact depends on both the impurities present and the purity requirement considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Cost engineering and economic analysis are key elements of the performance assessment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology. The CCS field has seen noticeable advances in the transparency and rigor of costing studies, but there is still significant room for improvement in three major areas: the more rigorous application of good cost engineering practices; the inclusion (and progression) of recent methodological advances; and adaptation to changing policy focus. Here, we discuss each of these three areas, bringing diverse information sources together into one paper, and summarising important advances made in recent years, with the goal of strengthening CCS cost engineering and economic analysis in general. The first part of the paper discusses equipment design and sizing; cost indices and location factors; process and project contingency costs; CO 2 transport and storage costs; and uncertainty analysis and validation. The second part discusses new insights and advances in capture plant integration costs; the costs of steam supply; flexible dispatch of power plants with CCS; a hybrid method for the costing of advanced CCS technologies; qualitative uncertainty analysis methods; and calculation methods for CO 2 avoidance costs in non-power industries. The third part highlights several recent changes in the policy environments and how they affect the requirements of CCS costing studies. We close the paper by echoing earlier calls for the transparent reporting of assumptions and input variables underlying costing studies and by prioritising three CCS costing issues for further methods and guideline development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Lacking a carbon market, potential cost reduction can reflect improved future profitability. • Extensive cost reductions are possible by implementing CCS technology innovations. • There is potential for cost reduction in all parts of the CCS chain. • Cost reductions in a few full-scale CCS implementations exceed research investments. • Value creation from large-scale CCS deployment by far exceeds research investments. Abstract Globally, large private and public funds are invested into CO 2 capture and storage (CCS) research to provide the knowledge and technology required to mitigate CO 2 emissions below a sustainable level. A pertinent question to ask is whether this is the best way of spending limited resources. This paper presents a study aiming to quantify the potential economic gains from selected CCS innovations created in the international research centre BIGCCS and its successor NCCS. Development of CCS technology is currently driven by technology push and the lack of a market makes it hard to predict future potentials for increased revenue. Consequently, the study investigates potential cost reductions from implementing the innovations in full-scale industry projects based on qualified assumptions. The results show that even with limited deployment of CCS the potential cost savings from implementation of the innovations by far exceed the research investment. Additional value not considered is in this work is expected from commercialisation of the technologies for the technology providers, improved competitive edge for providers of CO 2 free products and enhanced safety for people, equipment and environment. By developing illustrative examples from technology innovations, the study aims to contribute to a broader public CCS debate addressing also potential gains and commercial opportunities in addition to the current focus on costs and safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the cost reduction opportunity of lower CO 2 capture ratios (CCR) on membrane-based CO 2 capture. A numerical model based on the attainable region approach is used to optimise and assess the cost of membrane-based processes for CO 2 capture from post-combustion flue gases containing 10–35% CO 2 , analysing five membranes and CO 2 capture ratios from 50 to 90%. Overall, these cost evaluations demonstrate that membrane-based post-combustion CO 2 capture can significantly benefit from lower CCRs (up to 55% reduction in CO 2 avoidance cost for a flue gas containing 35% CO 2 ). Considering lower CCRs could therefore enable early deployment of CCS despite low carbon emission cost, however the evaluations show that the optimal CCR and corresponding cost reduction potential shall be assessed considering the whole chain characteristics (CO 2 content in the flue gas, impurities, membrane module properties, CO 2 transport system, etc.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates different strategies for CO 2 conditioning and transport options for the CO 2 to be captured at a lignite-fired IGCC in the Czech Republic, including the impact of impurities present in the captured CO 2 streams. Four transport cases, combining two transport delivery location scenarios (Czech storage and European transport hub) and two transport technology options (pipeline-based and train-based transport), are designed and evaluated. For the Czech storage case, the cost evaluation of the CO 2 conditioning and transport results in costs of 10.5 and 18.3 €/t CO2 for the pipeline and train options respectively. In the European hub scenario, the CO 2 conditioning and transport costs are estimated at 15.4 and 24.9 €/t CO2 . These results clearly identify the pipeline transport options as the cost-optimal solutions for CO 2 transport in both delivery location scenarios, due to the longer transport distances and higher conditioning costs involved for train-based export. Moreover, the comparison of transport delivery location scenarios also shows that if CO 2 storage is not possible at the Czech storage location and the CO 2 has to pass through the European hub, this would result in an increase of at least 4.9 €/t CO2 , plus the additional transport and storage costs after the European hub stage. In addition, further assessments are performed to evaluate the impact of impurities in the CO 2 streams from the capture plant on the CO 2 conditioning and transport costs for the four combinations of transport scenarios and technology options. The results show that the impurities present in the CO 2 streams lead to increases in CO 2 conditioning and transport costs ranging from 1.6 to 11.4% (0.2–1.9 €/t CO2 ). However, the energy and cost impacts associated with the impurities are highly dependent on the transport technology and transport delivery location scenario considered. Furthermore, the process energy and cost performances of two alternative CO 2 liquefaction processes, designed to reduce CO 2 losses through the purged gas, are also evaluated. These two alternative processes result in higher CO 2 conditioning cost than the base case process, which suggests that reducing the CO 2 losses compared to the base case would not be a good strategy, unless high costs (70–110 €/t CO2 ) were spent to capture the CO 2 that is purged. Finally, the potential of train-based transport is evaluated beyond the four cases considered by comparing the CO 2 conditioning and transport costs of pipeline and train transports as a function of the distance for different train conditioning cost scenarios and different project economic valuation periods. The results show that train-based transport could potentially be a cost-optimal alternative to pipeline-based transport for medium to long distances especially in cases where the additional conditioning costs of train-based transport compared to pipeline are limited, or in cases of financial risk-averse decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper present the techno-economic assessment of an MEA-based CO 2 capture from a cement plant and the importance of the steam supply on the costs. The evaluations present the energy performances of the CO 2 capture process based on a cement plant with a clinker capacity of 3,000 t/d. The cost evaluation lead to a cost of cement of 45 €/t cement without capture, while the cost of cement with CO 2 capture is estimated to 81 €/t cement , resulting in a CO 2 avoided cost of 83 €/t CO2,avoided . As the steam consumption accounts for close to half of the CO 2 avoided cost, the impact of six alternative steam supply scenarios are considered. The evaluations show that the CO 2 avoided cost can decrease by up to 35% depending on the steam supply and electricity price. However the possibility of these steam supply alternatives are specific to the considered cement plant, emphasizing therefore that CO 2 avoided cost from cement shall rather be given as a range depending on the steam supply than as a unique value as often illustrated in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural gas (NG) is the fossil fuel with the lowest emissions of CO 2 per kilowatt of energy produced. In the case of transporting the natural gas through pipelines, the CO 2 specifications depend on each country but are around 2-4%, so in case that the natural gas contains more than this percentage, CO 2 has to be removed to meet specifications. In this study, we have evaluated the feasibility of using a Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) process for the removal of carbon dioxide from natural gas. This process is not commercially available yet and thus faces several challenges regarding the utilization of proper materials and efficient regeneration schemes. Our study has considered the effect of different PSA process operation modes. The PSA unit was designed to upgrade natural gas with a composition of 83% CH 4 , 10% CO 2 and 7% C 2 H 6 available at 70 bars at a temperature of 313 K and with an inlet flowrate of 500,000 Sm 3 /h. The analysis also considered several process variables. An economic comparison of the price of capture has also been done. Our analysis indicated that the cost of CO 2 capture using PSA is around 40% higher than using amines dominated by poor performance in process recovery (NG lost with CO 2 ). Since this is the first study of its kind, there is a lot of room to improve process performance and that adsorption processes for this application should not only be limited to very low concentrations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Four different post-combustion capture technologies are compared for the same NGCC (electric efficiency 58.1% without CO 2 capture). The technologies are aqueous amine, polymeric membranes, a low temperature sorbent and Ca-looping. The effect of 40% Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is compared for all technologies except Ca-looping. At 90% CO 2 capture rate, polymeric membranes (as expected) give a very poor efficiency (34.9-46.2%). Ca-looping efficiency spans over a wide range, 45.6-53.1%, depending on process configuration and Ca-looping sorbent applied. The NGCC electric efficiency with aqueous amine capture (MEA or a Novel Generic Solvent) spans from 49.5-51.8%. The low temperature sorbent electric efficiency was found to be 50.8-52.3%. Aqueous amines, with their maturity, relative ease of process integration and potential for performance improvement when reducing reboiler approach, improving solvent performance and applying EGR appears to be a good option for CO 2 capture from the NGCC. The performance of the low temperature sorbent appear interesting enough to merit further investigations. Polymeric membranes could be interesting to evaluate further when aiming for lower capture rates, whereas Ca-looping mainly should be of interest to develop further for base load NGCC applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates various alternatives for the application of CCS at a cement plant which is one of the focus site for CCS deployment in Norway. A matrix consisting of nine CCS alternative chains is analysed in order to quantify cost reduction potentials across the CCS value chain based on an in-house techno-economic assessment methodology and tool called iCCS. In particular, the paper quantifies the strong cost reduction potential of second generation capture technologies and transport technology selection. CO 2 EOR is also identified to have a strong potential to reduce the overall CCS cost, however the cost benefits are strongly dependent on the oil value and the considered EOR injection period. The impact of the inclusion of CO 2 capture and conditioning in the cost of cement shows that public financial support will be required to ensure that the plant remain competitive under current cement market price. Finally, comparison of the full-scale capture versus part-scale capture shows, in this case, that the economies of scale are nearly compensated by the additional steam cost, therefore limiting the interest for full-scale implementation. However, joint deployment with the two other CCS potential sites in Norway (Yara and Klemenstrud) may bring more synergies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a detailed technical and economic assessment of conditioning and transporting 13.1 MTPA CO 2 with impurities in an on-shore pipe-line over a distance of 500 km. The impurities that are included in the study represents 5 mol% residuals from air-components (N 2 and O 2 ) and 10 mol% residuals from natural gas components (N 2 and CH 4 ). The analysis includes compression from low pressure, after the captures process, to the pipeline conditions in the dense phase of 150 bar. In the technical analysis of the pipeline transport, thermo-physical properties depending of the pressure and temperature locally as the stream evolves through the pipeline are used as well as heat transferred with the surroundings. The case studies investigate different pipeline diameters from 18″ to 28″ to find the most economical pipeline diameter for each impurity level. The cost model includes the material, labour and energy costs and the result are dependent on the number of required, booster stations, the pipeline wall thickness, the energy consumption and cooling demand. The wall thicknesses are chosen for each investigated diameter based on strength design and rounded off to the next available standard wall thickness according to the API-standard. In the second part, a 24″ pipeline with 4 booster stations is selected and the feed flow rate has been adjusted to match the installed compression power. The results show that for the cost-optimal diameter the specific conditioning and transport cost increases by 13 and 22% for the two cases compared to transporting pure CO 2 . This represents an increase from 2.3 to 3.8 €/ton CO2 . The second scenario, where impure CO 2 is transported in an existing pipeline, the cost is shown to be around 20–40% more expensive than transporting pure CO 2 . The effect on energy consumption and cost from different ambient conditions are also discussed and it is shown that for the selected case the cost of transport will vary 0.01 €/ton/K with change in average temperature from 15 °C as the baseline. Impurities can also be expected to have a significant impact on the technical and economic performances of the whole CCS chain and it is therefore important to evaluate this on a case-to-case bases in order to find possible trade-offs between capture, conditioning, transport and storage and to provide recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While most works on CCS in connection with CO 2 EOR credit all the benefit of the additional oil production to the CCS entity, this work investigate the impact of alternative EOR methods on the valuation on CO 2 EOR storage. Based on a generic model suitable for CO 2 EOR in Norwegian oil fields, EOR production with CO 2 injection is compared to the EOR production with chemical EOR for different scenarios. The comparison shows that depending on the scenario combination considered the added value of using the CO 2 EOR method instead of the chemical EOR method varies from -4 to 33 €/bblproduced equivalent to -4 to 56 €/tCO 2 ,avoided. In most of the cases considered, the CO 2 EOR method would therefore be preferred with however more or less value creation depending on the case. The evaluation shows that for an oil price minus the normal production costs equal to 50 €/bbl, the oil value which shall be considered for CO 2 EOR application varies between 8 and 41 €/bbl, which can therefore be significantly lower than the 50 €/bbl which shall be considered if chemical EOR is not an alternative. The value one would be willing to pay to have CO 2 delivered at a field varies between -4 and 56 €/tCO 2 depending on the scenario combinations considered and can therefore also be significantly lower than in cases in which chemical EOR is not an alternative. For example, in the medium CO 2 EOR scenario, the CO 2 value is between 27 and 60% lower if chemical EOR is considered as an alternative option for EOR. As a consequence, a CCS chain including CO 2 EOR would overestimate its benefits if it does not considered chemical EOR as an alternative to CO 2 EOR for Oil & Gas companies. Finally, the sensitivity analyses identify the factors having the largest influence on the value one would be willing to pay to have CO 2 delivered at its field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BIGCCS Centre is an international research center aiming at extending and releasing the potential for large scale deployment of CO 2 capture and storage. A consistent and transparent methodology and tool, called iCCS, was developed in BIGCCS SP4 as one of the measures aimed at bringing CCS closer to commercial realization. iCCS allows critical evaluation of CCS chains with respect to multiple techno-economic and environmental criteria. The tool has modular structure and enables the user to build different CCS chain configurations from capture, transport and storage modules available in the tool library. This makes it possible to simulate a large number of CCS chains and to compare them in a consistent manner. The philosophy of this methodology and the tool developed are presented in this work and is illustrated through case studies; for example to compare different capture, transport or storage cases, as well as for a full chain analysis. This paper presents a list of case studies performed under the BIGCCS framework and brings together the results of three latest studies. Two of these studies focus on comparison of technologies for CO 2 capture from a) an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, and b) a coal fired power plant and a cement plant. The third case study looks at valuation of CO 2 for Enhanced Oil Recovery. The presented case studies illustrate how the methodology and tool could be used to provide support for technology selection. Additionally, the tool allows smart design and operation of CCS chains and thereby enables selection of most suitable CCS chain configurations for specific cases with respect to techno-economic and environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capture conditions for cement plant flue gas differ substantially from other industrial flue gases due to the high partial pressure of CO 2 , presenting an opportunity for polymeric membranes to compete with other capture technologies. In this work, two membrane processes are designed by applying a recently developed graphical methodology to identify promising membrane properties, number of stages and operating points for each stage. The net present values of cost and the CO 2 avoidance costs are compared with an MEA based capture unit when applied to a 0.7 MtCO 2 /year cement plant. The membrane designs are shown to have a significantly lower investment cost (32.6 M€ vs. 294 M€) and CO 2 avoidance cost (27 €/t vs 55 €/t) than the reference MEA based capture process. The investment cost for turbomachinery and the operating cost for electricity are also shown, in this particular case, to be more important than the membrane investment and replacement costs over the lifetime of the membrane capture plant. The present work underlines the importance of using a cost-based approach to balance the trade-offs in membrane process design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gas separation membranes, considered among one of the promising emerging capture technologies for post-combustion capture, requires a two-stage process with significant compression work for CO 2 capture from a coal fired power plant flue gas. A hybrid membrane–liquefaction process for post-combustion CO 2 capture from the power plant flue gas is developed to mitigate the deficiencies of the two-stage membrane process. The energy efficiency of the process depends on the permeate CO 2 composition from the membrane unit. The performance envelope of the hybrid process is evaluated and shows that the optimum CO 2 concentration in the permeate is 65%– 67% depending on the targeted CCR. A techno-economic analysis for 85% CCR was performed and the cost of CO 2 avoided is calculated to 48 €2008/tCO 2 ,avoided, that is, 9% more cost-efficient than the baseline MEA absorption process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, four illustrative CO 2 capture, utilization and storage chains are investigated in order to evaluate the economic feasibility of CCUS technologies in connection to the cement industry. A CCS reference chain in which 90% of the CO 2 emissions (or 0,694 MtCO 2 /y) are stored in a saline aquifer is first studied. Due to emissions related to energy usage in the capture, conditioning and transport processes, a total of 0,504 MtCO 2 /y are avoided, or 65% of the CO 2 emitted by the cement plant at a cost of 114 €/t CO 2 avoided. Then, production of ethanol, polyols or food-grade CO 2 is integrated to the chain, composing three alternative CCUS chains. These products are chosen based on an assessment of market, energy demand, and technology readiness level of technologies. For CCUS, we show that the economic feasibility is case dependent. The cost of producing blue ethanol is estimated as 656 €/t, slightly above the market value of 633 €/t. The cost per tonne of CO 2 avoided drops from 114€ (CCS) to 111€ (sugarcane-based displacement) and the amount of CO 2 avoided increases by 3%, to 0,518 MtCO 2 /y. In the second CCUS scenario, we have evaluated the integrated production of polyols. The entire CCUS chain avoids 0,708 MtCO 2 /y, and produces 288 kt/y of polyols, generating a profit of 18 €/t CO 2 avoided. In the third CCUS scenario, we show that the production of food-grade CO 2 is feasible as long as it is used to replace fossil-derived CO 2 , with a total CO 2 avoidance of 0,504 MtCO 2 /y at a cost of 108 €/t. A general conclusion from this work is that the average cement plant emits much more CO 2 than can be utilized in a single CO 2 utilization plant. That is either due to market constrains or limited availability of raw materials. For the routes evaluated in this work, the fraction of the emitted CO 2 directed to the utilization plant was always below 10%. Therefore, when connected to the cement industry, utilization is not likely to be applied as a stand-alone solution, but as an integrated link in the CCUS chain. • The economic feasibility of CCUS is case dependent. • Cement plants emit more CO2 than can be utilized. • Polyols may lead to profitable CCUS scenarios. • The economic benefits of synthetic ethanol are limited. • The economic benefits of using captured CO2 in greenhouses are limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper continues the illustration of the methodology and the functionality of the CCS value chain tool developed within the BIGCCS Research Centre through the use of two new transport assessment modules for offshore pipeline and shipping to an offshore site. Technical, costs, and climate impact characteristics of each transport infrastructure are assessed and used to benchmark offshore pipeline and CO2 shipping to an offshore site transports in a base case for a range of distances and capacities. As expected, the base case illustrates that short distances and large capacities favour pipeline transport while ship transport is favoured by long distances and small capacities. The results show that the distance effect is stronger in the case of transport to an offshore site than in the case of transport between harbours, due to both higher pipeline investment costs and the pipeline pressure drop limitation for offshore. The base case is used to draw conclusions regarding specific case studies under the hypotheses described in this paper. Our methodology also appears to lead to results consistent with cases available in the literature when the same cost hypotheses are taken into consideration. Sensitivity analyses are used to quantify the impact of several important parameters and show that the four most influential parameters regarding the transport technology selection are: (1) the geographical context through the distance ratio, (2) the regional effect of pipeline costs and uncertainties in pipeline investment costs through the pipeline investment costs, (3) the project ownership effect through the discount rate, and (4) the First Of A Kind effect and uncertainties on investments through the overall investment costs. The CO2 avoided transport costs of the two transport technologies are illustrated in order to emphasise the importance of selecting the most efficient transport technology. The evaluation of costs underlines the fact that knowing the actual costs and limiting uncertainties is very important for the selection of the cost-optimal technology, to avoid cost overruns, and limit financial risks. The cost evaluation is also used to demonstrate the impact of limiting transport cost on the conditions in which CO2 transport is economically viable. The results demonstrate that the stronger the cost constraint, the more "long" distances and "small" capacities should be ruled out. The methodology and results are also used to illustrate how constraint on initial investment, in order to limit financial exposure, is to the disadvantage of pipeline transport due to the large investments required for transport via pipeline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We illustrate the functionality of two transport assessment modules developed. [•] Onshore pipeline and shipping are compared for different distances and capacities. [•] The base case enables to draw conclusions on particular cases. [•] Sensitivity analyses highlight the most important factors involved in the technology selection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The COCATE project is a three-year collaboration project under the EU 7th framework program for research. One of the objective of COCATE project is to tackle the problems of rolling out a shared transportation infrastructure capable of connecting geological storage sites with various CO2 emitting industrial facilities. An economic model based on a dynamic linear programming system was developed, which all along the analyzed period of deployment of CO2 network, matches the capacity left in each storage site with the CO2 transported flow rates, in order to decide how, when and where to invest in a transport facility. The model defines in this way an optimized transport network system, with the only objective of minimizing the overall costs of CO2 transport. Five case studies were developed leading to find a cost optimized network between 3 sources of different emission profiles, 3 sinks of different capacities, with 2 defined harbours. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper illustrates a methodology for multi-criteria analysis of CCS chains by comparing two transports technologies for a case study in which 10 Mt/y of CO2 from an industrial cluster are transported over 500km by onshore pipeline and CO2 shipping. This case study compares not only project costs but also other criteria such as the greenhouse gas emissions, the energies and cooling water consumptions etc. The multi-criteria analysis of the two cases shows that the pipeline technology exhibits the best key performance indicators except regarding the initial investment. Indeed the pipeline transport is less expensive, consumes much less utilities (fuel, water and electricity) and is less climate intensive than the shipping transport. The shipping transport required however lower upfront investments for similar overall project costs. A consequence of this might be that even if the pipeline transport has most of the best criteria, shipping might be used during the first CCS chains deployment in order to limit investment upfront, and therefore financial risk, while pipeline transport will be used in a well established CO2 market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: For a commercial Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) chain to be successful, it must satisfy a whole range of requirements: technical, economic, environmental, safety, and societal. A comprehensive, understandable and reproducible assessment of CCS projects is a complex task due to several reasons: wide range of actors and factors involved, substantial differences in the type and nature of both actors and factors, and numerous associated uncertainties. In this paper, a standardised methodology is described and illustrated on a few examples of relatively simple case studies. The proposed methodology provides means and tools for evaluation of several economic, environmental, and in the future also risk associated criteria and thereby enables selection of the most promising options for CCS. The methodology will also help to reduce the uncertainty by improving understanding of the most important dependencies and trends for the investigated key performance indicators as enlightened by the case studies examples. It could also help to design efficient incentives and measures to stimulate realization of CCS by identifying and evaluating the most important non-technical factors affecting the CCS chain viability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A systematic methodology for integrated techno-economic and environmental assessment of CCS value chains is presented and applied to assess the impact of the CO2 concentration on an amine-based post-combustion CO2 capture process. In this methodology, the technical assessment, economic evaluation, and environmental assessment (focusing on the global warming effect) are integrated in order to avoid the unilateral understandings obtained when these assessments are performed separately. Seven cases with CO2 concentrations between 2.5 and 20.5% (mol) are investigated in terms of energy consumptions, the overall costs, as well as the climate impact of the capture process. The process simulation is performed with Aspen Plus ® , and the techno-economic evaluation using Aspen Process Economic Analyzer®. A hybrid life cycle assessment approach is used to estimate the climate impact of the capture based on the results of techno-economic assessment. The CO2 avoided capture cost, which reflects both the techno- economic and environmental performances, is used to assess the comprehensive impact of the CO2 concentration on the capture process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper summarizes key results from the Collaborative COCATE Project for the European Commission (FP7). The costs of transporting a total of 13.1 MtCO2/y from small- to large-scale emitters around Le Havre (France), to Rotterdam (Netherlands) via onshore pipeline or shipping are evaluated. Sources send emissions to five CO2 capture centres, which are then linked via a 40km long collection network to deliver the treated CO2 to the point of export. This network was designed to accommodate peak flow rates and multiple network designs were considered for the various export scenarios evaluated in the study. The economic evaluation established that conditioning CO2 at the cluster level, rather than at the point of export, and transporting it in dense phase was the most cost-effective solution for both export systems. As for exporting the CO2 from Le Havre to Rotterdam, the evaluation highlighted three potential transport solutions: either onshore via one 24in. or one 28in. diameter pipeline or offshore using three ships with effective capacities of 30,000m3 each. The onshore pipeline options proved to be 10% cheaper than the shipping scenario. Sensitivity analyses confirmed that the onshore options remained the best choice. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides a regression analysis of the debt ratio of project-financed LNG infrastructures and gas pipeline projects, by using data relating to projects whose financial close occurred between June 2004 and March 2011. The projects located in risky countries tend to exhibit lower debt ratios, which is consistent with the basic view of risk-averse funds suppliers. However, surprisingly enough, the more concentrated the equity ownership, the lower the debt ratio. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The timing and selection of CO2 sources will affect the cost of achieving projected CCS based emission reductions. Performed process simulations and cost estimations clearly point out the impact of CO2 concentration and steam supply when capturing CO2 from an atmospheric gas stream with MEA-based chemical absorption. An incremental increase in CO2 concentration reduces both operating and investment costs, mainly due to lower energy consumption and reduced equipment capacity. Reduced investment costs dominate the sharp decline in net present value of costs when increasing CO2 concentration from 2.5% to 10%, while a more moderate cost decline is present when going from 10% to 20% CO2. The impact of steam cost is evident for all studied CO2 concentrations. The cost sensitivity illustrate how important it is to understand the dynamics of cost components when selecting sources appropriate for CCS or struggle to improve performance of capture processes. This work contribute to highlight the relative importance of CO2 concentration and steam supply, realizing that final selection of CO2 source for CCS will involve addition decision variables. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Coupling flexible power generation with Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technology may be important for substantial reductions in CO2 emissions. In this paper we consider some of the implications of flexible power plant operation on the CCS process. Specifically, we consider the CCS chain capacity selection decision, by which we mean the choice of the optimal plant size, to understand what determines the amount of CO2 that is efficient to capture and how the decision to invest in CCS chain capacity is affected by price volatility of CO2 emissions quotas. We found that the plant''s emissions profile determined a range of CCS capacities that could be efficient with the tradeoff between the price of CO2 emissions quotas and the cost of CCS technology determining the specific optimal chain capacity. Secondly, investment into CCS technology for a flexible load power plant was more likely to be delayed in a multiple time point investment decision tree model as a result of price volatility, compared to investment in CCS technology on a base load power plant. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper focuses on identifying the cost limits of two single-stage pressure–vacuum swing adsorption (PVSA) cycles for post-combustion CO 2 capture if the "ideal" zero-cost adsorbent can be discovered. Through an integrated techno-economic optimisation, we simultaneously optimise the adsorbent properties (adsorption isotherms and particle morphology) and process design variables to determine the lowest possible cost of CO 2 avoided (excluding the CO 2 conditioning, transport and storage) for different industrial flue gas CO 2 compositions and flow rates. The CO 2 avoided cost for PVSA ranges from 87.1 to 10.4 € per tonne of CO 2 avoided, corresponding to CO 2 feed compositions of 3.5 mol% to 30 mol %, respectively. The corresponding costs for a monoethanolamine based absorption process, using heat from a natural gas plant, are 76.8 to 54.8 € per tonne of CO 2 avoided, respectively showing that PVSA can be attractive for flue gas streams with high CO 2 compositions. The "ideal" adsorbents needed to attain the lowest possible CO 2 avoided costs have a range of CO 2 affinities with close to zero N 2 adsorption, demonstrating promise for adsorbent discovery and development. The need for simultaneously optimising the particle morphology and the process conditions are emphasised. • Minimum cost of capture for the ideal "zero-cost" adsorbent calculated. • Process inversion optimises adsorbent properties and process simultaneously. • Minimum CO 2 avoided cost: 10.4 €/t (30% CO 2 in feed) to 87.1 €/t (3.5% CO 2 in feed). • PVSA attractive for high CO 2 concentration streams (steel, cement). • Ideal adsorbent: Wide range of CO 2 affinity and negligible N 2 affinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• We develop improved guidelines for cost evaluation of CCS from industry. • We recommend understanding the impact of possible energy supply strategies on cost. • We provide basis on how to better account for retrofitting costs. • We recommend including case representative transport and storage costs. • We discuss how to better reflect technological maturity for industrial applications. This paper contributes to the development of improved guidelines for cost evaluation of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) from industrial applications building on previous work in the field. It discusses key challenges and factors that have a large impact on the results of cost evaluations, but are often overlooked or insufficiently addressed. These include cost metrics (especially in the context of industrial plants with multiple output products), energy supply aspects, retrofitting costs, CO 2 transport and storage, maturity of the capture technology. Where possible examples are given to demonstrate their quantitative impact and show how costs may vary widely on a case-by-case basis. Recommendations are given to consider different possible heat and power supply strategies, as well as future energy and carbon price scenarios, to better understand cost performances under various framework conditions. Since retrofitting CCS is very relevant for industrial facilities, further considerations are made on how to better account for the key elements that constitute retrofitting costs. Furthermore, instead of using a fixed unit cost for CO 2 transport and storage, cost estimates should at least consider the flowrate, transport mode, transport distance and type of storage, to make more realistic cost estimates. Recommendations are also given on factors to consider when assessing the technological maturity level of CCS in various industrial applications, which is important when assessing cost contingencies and cost uncertainties. Lastly, we urge techno-economic analysis practitioners to clearly report all major assumptions and methods, as well as ideally examine the impact of these on their estimates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Uncertain weather conditions increase the need for flexibility and buffer capacity. • Deterministic planning will lead to under investments in buffer storage. • Increased fuel prices increase the value of buffer storage. This study investigates the impact of operational fluctuations and uncertainties on the design and expected cost of ship-based CO 2 transport. The model analysis is based on a two-stage stochastic investment model for a single-source single-sink CCS value chain with a ship-based transport system. The sailing time of the ship is uncertain due to changing weather conditions. The optimal investment decisions are driven by the expected cost of operating the value chain in the stochastic operational scenarios. This approach is demonstrated on a case study in which 0.4 MtCO 2 /y is transported over 715 km, from a cement plant located in Brevik to a harbor in Kollsnes in Norway. The results show that a transport rate of 99 % of the available CO 2 leads to the lowest average cost of transport at 33.8 €/ton. Once the delays caused by the weather are considered, the buffer storage capacity that is 18 % above the ships transport capacity, seems to be the most efficient solution for recovering normal operation after weather delays. The expected transport cost increases with 1.9 €/ton (i.e. 5%) when the uncertainty in weather conditions is neglected in the value chain design decisions. Furthermore, seasonal variations in emissions lead to the need of a larger ship rather than maintaining the same ship size and increasing the power when required. The seasonal storage of CO 2 never appears to be a cost-efficient strategy, compared to increasing ship capacity. Finally, the risks of higher future fuel prices and ship breakdowns will cause the value of buffer storage capacity to increase, and thus resulting to select a buffer capacity up to 73 % larger than the ship size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Sound uncertainty analysis is indispensable to CCS techno-economic analysis and its communication. • Many different uncertainty analysis methods exist, all with their merits and drawbacks. • Guidelines for method selection are presented based on analysis purpose and other criteria. • Emerging and advanced uses of uncertainty analysis are presented. • Available software is discussed, including current limitations. Uncertainty analysis is a key element of sound techno-economic analysis (TEA) of CO 2 Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies and systems, and in the communication of TEA results. Many CCS technologies are relatively novel, with only few large-scale projects constructed and in operation to date. Therefore, uncertainties in technology performance and costs are often substantial, making it imperative that they be characterized and reported. Although uncertainty analysis itself is not novel, with some methods already frequently used by the CCS TEA community, a document that provides a comprehensive overview of methods and approaches, as well as guidance on their selection and use, is still lacking. Given its importance, we seek to fill this gap by providing a critical review of uncertainty analysis methods along with guidance on the selection and use of these methods for CCS TEAs, highlighting good practice and examples from the CCS literature. The paper starts by identifying the different audiences for CCS TEAs, the different modelling approaches available for CCS technology performance and cost analysis, and the different roles that uncertainty analysis may play. It then continues to discuss established, as well as emerging, uncertainty analysis methods and addresses how and when each method is best used, as well as common pitfalls. We argue that the most commonly used method of one-parameter-at-a-time 'local' sensitivity analysis may often be a suboptimal choice, and that other approaches may be more suitable or lead to more insight, especially since uncertainty analysis software is becoming more widespread and easier to use. Finally, the paper discusses the benefits of advanced uses of uncertainty analysis in, for instance, the design of CCS experiments or in the design and planning of CCS infrastructure. Sound uncertainty analysis has an important role to play in TEAs of CCS technologies and systems, and there are many opportunities to bring the use of uncertainty analysis to a higher level than currently practiced. This review of and guidance on available methods is intended to help accelerate continued methods development and their application to more robust and meaningful CCS performance and costing studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transport is a key element of carbon dioxide (CO 2) capture, transport, and storage (CCTS) supply chains. Early movers, particularly inland emitters (e.g., in continental Europe), do not yet have access to a fully developed CO 2 network infrastructure connecting them with the offshore storage hubs (e.g., in the European northern seas, as these belong to the first wave of storage infrastructure that will be developed in Europe). Therefore, specific source-to-sink CCTS supply chains combining and integrating different transport options must be developed and deployed first. In this work we analyse such transport options, which include (i) tank containers that can be transported by trucks, trains, barges, or ships, (ii) dedicated tanks permanently integrated into trucks, trains, barges, or ships, and (iii) pipelines. We develop general and portable methods, criteria, and correlations to determine the cost of transport through any given connection between two nodes in a CO 2 network infrastructure, using any of the modes of transport above, as a function of distance and capacity. In particular, the correlations are based on real data collected through interviews with service providers and stakeholders. Based on the associated techno-economic assessment and the consideration of additional performance indicators of a more holistic nature, we carry out a multi-criteria assessment of the different transport options. Such multi-criteria approach allows for a holistic and transparent comparative assessment of the different alternatives for a whole CCTS supply chain, as illustrated with reference to a very specific connection. • Identification of CO 2 transport solutions at different technology readiness levels. • Solutions to transport CO 2 from inland emitters to storage sites already exist today. • Techno-economic analysis based on data from current industrial providers. • Multi-criteria comparative assessment of the CO 2 transport options. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Techno-economic study of heat supply for partial carbon capture in process industry. • New method to estimate heat supply cost to enhances abatement cost curves. • Method includes multi-period optimization of heat sources; provides cost functions. • Result: Temporal variations in residual heat impact capture cost significantly. • Result: Site energy system of a refinery can supply heat to mitigate > 75% emissions. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) activities need to be ramped up to address the climate crisis. Abatement cost curves can help to identify low-cost starting points and formulate roadmaps for the implementation of CCS at industrial sites. In this work, we introduce the concept of energy supply cost curves to enhance the usefulness and accuracy of abatement cost curves. We use a multi-period mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) approach to find an optimal mix of heat sources considering the existing site energy system. For a Swedish refinery, we found that residual heat and existing boiler capacities can provide the heat necessary for CCS that avoids >75% of the site's CO 2 emissions. Disregarding the existing site energy system and relying on new heat supply capacities instead, would lead to capture costs that are 40–57% higher per tonne of CO 2 -avoided (excl. CO 2 liquefaction, transport, and final storage). Furthermore, we estimated that temporal variations of heat sources (intermittent residual heat) increases the heat supply cost and emissions by 7–26% and 9–66%, respectively. The proposed method for optimization of the energy supply mix considering temporal variations of heat sources enables detailed estimates of energy supply costs for CO 2 capture rates ranging from partial to full capture, and thus, improve abatement cost curves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the literature, different energy carriers are proposed in future long-distance hydrogen value chains. Hydrogen can be stored and transported in different forms, e.g. as compressed dense-phase hydrogen, liquefied hydrogen and in chemically bound forms as different chemical hydrides. Recently, different high-level value chain studies have made extrapolative investigations and compared such options with respect to energy efficiency and cost. Three recent journal papers overlap as the liquid hydrogen option has been considered in all three studies. The studies are not fully aligned in terms of underlying assumptions and battery limits. A comparison reveals partly vast differences in results for chain energy efficiency for long-distance liquid hydrogen transport, which are attributable to distinct differences in the set of assumptions. Our comparison pinpoints the boiloff ratio, i.e. evaporation losses due to heat ingress, in liquid hydrogen storage tanks as the main cause of the differences, and this assumption is further discussed. A review of spherical tank size and attributed boiloff ratios is presented, for existing tanks of different vintage as well as for recently proposed designs. Furthermore, the prospect for further extension of tanks size and reduction of boiloff ratio is discussed, with a complementary discussion about the use of economic assumptions in extrapolative and predictive studies. Finally, we discuss the impact of battery limits in hydrogen value chain studies and pinpoint knowledge needs and the need for a detailed bottom-up approach as a prerequisite for improving the understanding for pros and cons of the different hydrogen energy carriers. • Liquid hydrogen (LH 2) is a prospective hydrogen energy carrier among other options. • A review of recent value chain studies reveals highly differing estimates for overall energy efficiency, which are attributable to differences in underlying assumptions. • Assumptions pertaining boiloff ratio in LH 2 storage tanks are discussed on the background of proven technology as well as expectations for capacity and performance extrapolations. • Differences in techno-economic assumptions and battery limits are discussed. The presumptive main assumptions in different studies and their potential impacts on overall results are reviewed, compared and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International shipping is crucial for freight transport, but it relies primarily on fossil fuels, contributing 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This calls for urgent action to decarbonize the shipping industry. While renewable-based e-fuels are a strong candidate for decarbonization of this sector in the long run, deploying these to the required scale will take significant time, considering technical modifications onboard the vessels, as well as the changes in fuel production and infrastructure for distribution. Carbon capture from ships is another route to emission reduction that can be implemented faster due to the relatively high maturity of the technology. Tankers, dry bulk carriers, and container vessels contribute a majority of global shipping emissions and are therefore prime candidates for carbon capture and storage. Solvent-based post-combustion capture is chosen for this study as it is mature and suitable for marine applications, though technical, economic, environmental, and practical challenges remain. This paper assesses the technical feasibility of the capture system for ships; both retrofit and newbuild vessels. While achieving zero-emissions presents a significant challenge, it is feasible to attain 70%–90% CO 2 reduction through carbon capture in the near term. This reduction is crucial for transforming the industry into a more sustainable and environmentally friendly state. The limitation of space onboard is identified as a key factor in determining the viability, and the 70%–100% increase in energy consumption between existing ships and newbuild will be a substantial operational challenge. However, the high fuel consumption of the capture system could be economically acceptable if the price of alternative fuels remains high. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the deployment over time of a shipping infrastructure to enable carbon capture and storage from Norwegian industries. In particular, optimal transport investments, routing, shipping portfolio, and transport conditions required cost-efficiently connect nine Norwegian and Swedish industrial facilities to the Northern Light Initiative are identified based on a multi-period mixed-integer model. Optimization of the shipping portfolio allows us to analyze the potential benefits of economics of scale and how sailing multi-stop routes can utilize the potential benefits. Analyses show that the transport cost can be reduced by 12% when the optimal shipping portfolio is implemented instead of operating an independent transport chain for each emission source. Shipping at 7-bar is expected to result in lower costs compared 15-bar shipping, but a significant drawback is the technological maturity of the 7-bar transport technology. The model proposes two transport chains run in parallel as cost optimal, the average transport cost of the 15-bar chain is 32.4 €/ton, and the 7-bar has an average cost of 25.4 €/ton. A net present value criterion is used to identify the conditions for when retrofitting of the 15-bar transport chain is economically sound. Break-even is achieved when the ship's re-sale price is 60% of the purchase price, and the cost of retrofitting a 15-bar conditioning plant to a 7-bar is 40% of the investment cost. While retrofitting may be an attractive solution, the decisions lead to a less robust shipping portfolio, and the retrofitting of a fully operating carbon capture and storage value chain is regarded as unlikely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-carbon hydrogen is considered as one of the key measures to decarbonise continental Europe and Japan. Northern Norway has abundant renewable energy and natural gas resources which can be converted to low-carbon hydrogen. However, Norway is located relatively far away from these markets and finding efficient ways to transport this hydrogen to the end-user is critical. In this study, liquefied hydrogen (LH 2) and ammonia (NH 3), as H 2 -based energy carriers, are analysed and compared with respect to energy efficiency, CO 2 footprint and cost. It is shown that the LH 2 chain is more energy efficient and has a smaller CO 2 footprint (20 and 23 kg-CO 2 /MWh th for Europe and Japan, respectively) than the NH 3 chain (76 and 122 kg-CO 2 /MWh th). Furthermore, the study finds the levelized cost of hydrogen delivered to Rotterdam to be lower for LH 2 (5.0 EUR/kg-H 2) compared to NH 3 (5.9 EUR/kg-H 2), while the hydrogen costs of the two chains for transport to Japan are in a similar range (about 7 EUR/kg-H 2). It is also shown that under optimistic assumptions, the costs associated with the LH 2 chain (3.2 EUR/kg-H 2) are close to meeting the 2030 hydrogen cost target of Japan (2.5 EUR/kg-H 2). • LH 2 and NH 3 are analysed and compared regarding efficiency, CO 2 footprint and cost. • The LH 2 chain is associated with less CO 2 emissions than the NH 3 chain. • The hydrogen cost delivered to Rotterdam is lower for LH 2 compared to NH 3. • Two chains have similar costs delivered to Japan under conservative assumptions. • The LH 2 chain costs almost meet the target of Japan under optimistic assumptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Industry is responsible for one-quarter of the global CO 2 emissions. In this study, four different climate pathways are analyzed with a cost minimizing multihorizon stochastic optimization model, in order to analyze possible realizations of carbon capture and storage (CCS) in the power sector and main industrial sectors in Europe. In particular, we aim to achieve a deeper understanding of the distribution of capture by country and key sector (power, steel, cement and refinery), as well as the associated transport and storage infrastructure for CCS. Results point to the synergy effect of sharing common CCS infrastructres among power and major industrial sectors. The contribution of CCS is mainly found in three industrial sectors, particularly steel, cement and refineries) but also in the power sector to a lesser extent. It is worth noting that retrofitting of CCS in the power sector was not considered in this study. The geographical location for capture and storage, as well as timing and capacity needs are presented for different socio-economic pathways and corresponding emission targets. It has been shown that contributions of the three industry sectors in emissions reductions are neither geographically nor sector-wise homogeneous across the pathways. • Study of potential synergies between shared CCS infrastructure in the power sector and industry. • Study of the interplay between CCS and renewables in the power sector. • CCS strategies for the steel, cement and refinery sectors of Europe. • Timing and investment volumes needed to capture, transport and store CO 2. • Guided by climate targets of socio-economic pathways of IPCC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]