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Abstract: According to the forecast of the International Energy Agency (IEA), CCS has the potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and could contribute to 19% of global carbon dioxide mitigation by 2050. Korean government recently announced that Korea has set its voluntary 2020 emissions reduction target to a 30% reduction from its forecast under a ”business as usual” scenario, which is equivalent to 4% less than the 594 million tons of carbon that was emitted in 2005. CCS is included to achieve this target. This paper first explains the CO2 storage potential both in onshore and offshore areas in Korea. While onshore sedimentary basins seem to have unfavorable physical properties such as porosity and permeability, offshore sedimentary basins exhibit very good physical properties in sand thickness and porosity. In order to implement CCS project at the scale needed to achieve a meaningful reduction of carbon dioxide emissions, the knowledge of the available CO2 storage capacity obtained by detailed matching of large stationary CO2 sources with geological storage sites is required. Most CCS programs in Korea, however, are not integrated with capture and storage projects. This paper considers the feasibility of CO2 capture and storage in Korea and shows several conceptual business models for CCS projects with the recent E&P activities in the continental shelf. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The IEA CCS Roadmap highlighted the significance that CCS will need to play in achieving an atmospheric CO2 concentration stabilization of 450 ppm. In the scenario it is based on, CCS will provide approximately 20% of the total CO2 emissions reductions out to 2050. Achieving this contribution of emissions reductions will require an ambitious CCS growth-path, with 100 projects needed globally by 2020 and over 3000 by 2050. In both 2020 and 2050 the major developing countries, including South Africa will need to contribute to CCS deployment. South Africa has a heavily coal-dependent economy with 94 % of electricity production coming from coal. In addition to this, South Africa also meets approximately 30% of its domestic fuel -oil demand through the conversion o f coal and gas to transportation fuels. The combination of these two factors means that South Africa is as dependant on coal as any country in the world, placing the country as the 13th largest CO2 emitter in the world. Currently South Africa is experiencing electricity shortages where the reserve margin is below desired levels on a daily basis. Consequently, deployment of electricity generation capacity is seen as a priority. With the slow development of renewable energy and the deployment of nuclear energy currently under review, the required short term increase in electricity production is likely to come from new, coal plant that will be expected to be in operation for 50–60 years, thus continuing the country’s dependence on coal for some time to come. At the climate change negotiations in Copenhagen, South Africa announced that it would take nationally appropriate mitigation actions to enable a reduction in national GHG emissions equating to a deviation of 34% below the “Business as Usual” emissions growth trajectory by 2020 and a 42% deviation below the below “Business as Usual” emissions growth trajectory by 2025, pended upon the provision of sufficient funding and technology support. Given all these factors, CCS could be a crucial technology for South Africa in the near future. This paper looks to discuss the current status of CCS in South Africa. This includes looking at the key outcomes of the recently released South African CCS Research and Development Roadmap and the milestones it outlines, such as the development of a geological storage atlas by 2010, a CO2 test injection by 2016, and a demonstration project operating by 2020. It also looks at how the South African government is positioned toward CCS, including how CCS fits with the countries priorities of poverty alleviation, economic growth, sustainable development, job creation and ensuring the most efficient use of domestic resources. In addition the paper looks at the manner in which the South African government could go about regulating the operation of CCS projects. The paper will discuss the options available to South Africa to fund CCS demonstration and deployment domestically including via the clean development mechanism (in the event that the question of using this mechanism in the CCS context is dealt with at the international level), development banks and other, appropriate, development finance institutions. Public awareness and engagement on CCS will also be covered, given the crucial role the public play in the smooth progress of projects. Finally the paper will look at international collaboration on CCS including the role South Africa can play internationally and what more the international CCS community can offer. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Portland cement can play a major role in providing cost-effective, long-term zonal isolation for CO2 capture and storage (CCS) used to mitigate climate change. However, achieving zonal isolation with Portland cement under supercritical CO2 environment for the required 1,000 year trapping period may be challenging. Some laboratory researchers report that Portland cement disintegrates when exposed to CO2, leading to potential leakage into the atmosphere or other to underground zones. Other researchers cite Portland cement samples from 30–50 year old CO2 EOR wells where sealing integrity was maintained, even though carbonation was found. In this paper we will discuss reasons likely for this disparity between research lab test results and actual well performance data. Carbonation of Portland cement is a thermodynamically favorable process and therefore difficult to avoid. But the effects can be minimized by various reactive chemical components optimized for the specific thermodynamic conditions. Our research shows partial carbonation of Portland cement is not detrimental unless the mechanical integrity is insufficient to provide effective zonal isolation. For these studies we have developed CO2 treatment test cells capable of producing conditions up to 200 °F and 2,000 psi. In addition, various analytical instruments including x-ray diffraction (XRD), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and mechanical properties measurement devices have been used for this study. In this paper we will discuss the importance of understanding the percentage of carbonation and depth of CO2 penetration, and how to control these factors by optimizing the cement blend. Interestingly, we found the amount of Portlandite { Ca(OH)2} that forms due to cement hydration and the cement-to-water ratio dictates the depth of penetration as well as percentage carbonation. The implications of this in relation to the long term chemical integrity of the cement sheath under downhole CCS conditions is discussed. This paper also includes the results of recent studies on the changes in mechanical properties of a properly optimized Portland cement blend for a period of up to one year. During this period, measurements were made at different time intervals to examine cement specimen treated with CO2 at 200 °F and 2,000 psi in the presence of water. The results show carbonation without any sign of loss of mechanical or sealing integrity that could lead to zonal isolation failure. Results from a separate set of experiments show the following: (1) Carbonation could be minimized by reducing the Portland cement content by adding Pozzolanic materials and by reducing the permeability and (2) Carbonation could help heal micro-cracks that may be caused by various well operations or ageing. However, such carbonation-induced healing is limited only to a certain width of cracks. In summary of this research, it is recommend that: (1) a high quality primary cement job be performed in adherence to all industry best practices; (2) the cement blend be properly optimized to minimize long-term CO2 corrosion; and (3) the sheath be designed for long-term mechanical integrity. This paper will discuss a comprehensive approach that may be taken to help ensure longer-term effective zonal isolation in new CO2 wells and remedial solutions for old wells and for plugging and abandoning wells. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper discusses the economic impacts of climate change, including those on ecosystems, and whether a new backstop technology should be used under conditions of strict temperature targets. Using the dynamic integrated climate-economy (DICE) model, we developed a new model to calculate the optimal path by considering new backstop technologies, such as CO 2 capture and storage (CCS). We identify the effects of parameter changes based on the resulting differences in CO 2 leakage and sites, and we analyse the feasibility of CCS. In addition, we focus on ocean acidification and consider the impact on economic activity. As a result, when CCS is assumed to carry a risk of CO 2 leakage and acidification is considered to result in a decrease in utility, we find that CCS can only delay the effects of climate change, but its use is necessary to achieve strict targets, such as a 1.5 °C limit. This observation suggests that if the target temperature is too tight, we might end up employing a technology that sacrifices the ecosystem too greatly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A novel decarbonization concept applied to offshore natural gas wells benefiting CCUS technology. • A comprehensive CFD model considers real gas EOS and the behaviours of gas, droplets, liquid film. • Compatible with pure CO 2 and CH 4 -CO 2 models to study condensation and separation characteristics. • The maximum CO 2 condensation amount under high pressure and low temperature is 10.33 ton/h. • The maximum CO 2 capture capacity is 4.43 ton/h with high heterogeneous droplet mass concentration. Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) is of unique significance for building a green and resilient energy system, and it is also a key solution to tackle the climate challenge. The concept of supersonic decarburization, a joint product of non-equilibrium condensation and swirling separation, can contribute to CCUS technology in a clean way. In this paper, a numerical model is established and validated to investigate the complex physical phenomena of supersonic decarbonization in a high-pressure environment based on the real gas equation of state. The model is compatible with the pure CO 2 model and CH 4 -CO 2 model. Through the simulation of the supersonic nozzle and supersonic separator, the condensation and separation performance of supersonic decarbonization technology was evaluated. For the condensation performance of carbon dioxide, the results show that higher pressure makes it much easier to achieve the condensation process. When the pressure is supercritical, the decrease of inlet temperature or the increase of inlet mole fraction of CO 2 leads to a higher liquid fraction. For separation performance, when the mass concentration of inlet heterogeneous droplets increases from 0.1 kg/m3 to 7.5 kg/m3, the carbon separation amount increases from 3.33 ton/h to 4.43 ton/h, while the exergy loss of condensed CO 2 drops from 436.57 kJ/kg to 329.56 kJ/kg. It demonstrates that the decarburization process is easier, and exergy required for condensation decreases when the concentration of the foreign core is larger. This new concept is beneficial to CCUS technology and can be applied to carbon capture in offshore natural gas processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the early 2000's, there has been growing recognition of the important role that CCS can play as part of a least-cost, global solution to climate change. Modelling by the International Energy Agency (IEA) has consistently highlighted a significant role for CCS in achieving a 2 o C target, and recognition of the role of CCS has also increasingly been a feature of reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). However, this growing appreciation of the value of CCS has not been accompanied by commensurate growth in political and policy support for the technology. In fact, support for CCS has been inconsistent and at times tumultuous, and has been closely intertwined with progress in global climate negotiations and wider economic conditions. CCS will not advance without significant public investment and the required support policies will not be put in place without political support – hence the politics of CCS play a major role in this respect. This paper looks at the politics of deploying large-scale CCS projects, including the drivers for CCS support, the opposing political forces and the practical challenges of deploying CCS. It will examine what factors could help to de-politicise CCS, and consider whether the Paris Agreement could provide a turning point. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) will be a critical component of a portfolio of low-carbon energy technologies required to combat climate change ( IEA-GHG, 2013 ). As such, an extensive transportation infrastructure will be required to transport captured CO 2 from different sources to the available sinks. Several studies in the literature suggest that shared oversized pipeline networks may be the most efficient long term option compared to single source to sink pipelines, based on increased CCS deployment over the years and therefore increased CO 2 flowrate to the transport network. However, what is neglected in this vision is that the deployment of intermittent renewable energy tends to displace thermal power generation. This directly reduces the amount of fossil fuel burned, CO 2 produced, captured and transported through the network. This paper presents an optimisation methodology to “right-size” CO 2 transport infrastructure, explicitly accounting for the transient flow of CO 2 arising from the co-deployment of intermittent renewable energy generators. By application of this methodology, we demonstrate that capital cost reductions of up to 28% are possible relative to a business-as-usual design case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address the urging challenge of climate change, the concept of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) plays a key role for keeping global warming below 2 °C. Recently, the concept of Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) has been a focus of growing attention with the aim of enabling an industrial utilisation of CO 2 as feedstock in the production of materials and fuels. Also in the pursuit of the ambitious targets set by the COP21 Paris agreement, CCU technologies could be discussed as an increasingly relevant means to meet mitigation targets. Often, CCU is commingled with the more prominent CCS and evaluated from the same perspective of climate change mitigation potential. Sometimes, the idea of utilising CO 2 as a resource is even used as an argument for investments in CCS. Despite some technological similarities, however, CCU and CCS address significantly different issues within the environmental policy debate. This paper analyses the commonalities and differences between CCU and CCS and recommends how one should be distinguished from the other, particularly in environmental policy fields and the public debate. Particularly, hopes that CCU could represent a promising perspective for contributing to mitigation efforts should not be exaggerated and considerations of CCU in climate politics need to account for the largely varying and technology specific temporary storage times of CO 2 and its specific substitution potential. Consequently, we call for accounting mechanisms and legislations for CCU that acknowledge the different storage durations and efficiency gains of CCU technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon capture, use and geological storage (CCUS) could be feasible when fossil fuel-power plants are close to oil and gas reservoirs where CO 2 -enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technologies are applicable. In this research, we used a novel “well-to-well” approach that included the operations from natural gas production at oil field to CO 2 injection for EOR operations at depleted oil fields. This paper includes estimates for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions arising from a hypothetical CCUS case with a natural gas combined cycle power plant (NGCC) and Global Warming Potential (GWP) impact, by using Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. Our research comprises a comparison with other electricity-generation technologies, including super critical pulverized carbon (SCPC), NGCC without CO 2 capture, geothermal, mini-hydro, wind and nuclear. The LCA stages that were undertaken in this study were natural gas supply system , electricity generation , CO 2 capture, CO 2 transport, EOR operations and environmental monitoring . Three different functional units were used in this study: MJ, kW h and produced oil barrel (bbl). Results indicate that the energy produced by the described CCUS system had an environmental impact on climate change (global warming potential) of 0.044 kg CO 2 e/MJ. The NGCC power plant with carbon capture unit would produce 0.177 kg CO 2 e/kW h, representing about 21% and 36% of the estimated values for the SCPC and NGCC (without CCS) cases respectively, and about 24% less greenhouse gas emissions than the geothermal scenario. The oil produced in the EOR stage had a greenhouse gas emission rate of 38 kg CO 2 e per oil barrel and 251 kg CO 2 e per oil barrel in the whole CCUS system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing monitoring protocols for the storage of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in geologic formations are provided by carbon dioxide capture and geological storage (CCS)-specific regulations and bodies including the 2006 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, the European Union (EU) CCS and Emission Trading Scheme (ETS) Directives, United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Final Rules, and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Modalities and Procedures (for developing countries). These protocols have varying levels of detail but similar principles and requirements for monitoring, and all include the need to quantify emissions and measure environmental impacts in the event of leakage to the surface. What they do not all include is the clarification that quantification monitoring should only be undertaken in cases where CO 2 has been attributed to leakage and not when leakage is only suspected. Quantifying suspected emissions is a significant monitoring challenge and undertaking, and may rely on acquiring large data sets over long time periods. This level of effort in monitoring would be unnecessary if the source of CO 2 detected at the surface is attributed to natural sources rather than from leakage, but a step to attribute CO 2 source is either missing from these protocols or is outdated in technical scope. Regulatory bodies call for protocols to be updated based on technical advances, and ongoing technical advances into leakage monitoring have now benefited from a first-ever public claim of leakage over a geologic CO 2 storage site in Saskatchewan, Canada, bringing more emphasis on the role of attribution monitoring. We present a brief update of some of the newest technical advances in attribution and suggest that CO 2 ‘attribution monitoring’ could now be included in monitoring protocols to avoid unnecessary and costly quantification monitoring unless it is fully warranted. In this context, this paper describes an option to improve the existing protocols for monitoring CO 2 at geological storage sites made possible because of recent developments in near-surface attribution monitoring techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although large scale nuclear power deployment can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, potential for nuclear power to reduce climate mitigation cost is not well understood. We use an energy system model to estimate the relative savings in mitigation costs enabled by nuclear power as well as their robustness via scenario and Monte Carlo analysis. Nuclear power reduces mitigation costs in all explored scenarios, but the extent varies considerably. Nuclear power reduces costs significantly if carbon storage capacity is low but is replaceable if the capacity is abundant and technology available. The same holds for the cost of renewables. However, providing a full cost benefit analysis of nuclear power is beyond the scope of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to place discussions about CO 2 utilisation onto a more secure foundation from the perspective of climate change mitigation. A conceptual framework is proposed that comprises three criteria for evaluating CO 2 utilisation options from the viewpoint of emission reduction potential. This framework places life cycle analysis at its forefront. Examples of emissions benefits for thermodynamic minimum energy inputs and possible real-world conditions are used to show that not all CO 2 utilisation is equally beneficial from a climate perspective. Most current and potential uses of CO 2 do not appear to yet satisfy the three main criteria of emission reduction benefits, revenue to cover CO 2 feedstock costs and meaningful scale. The notable exceptions are certain (geographically limited) approaches to enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR). Due to the energy required to convert CO 2 to useful products it appears highly likely that reducing CO 2 emissions through CO 2 utilisation will only be possible if the electricity (and, in some cases, the thermal energy) inputs are from renewable sources. This raises questions about the most appropriate use of renewable resources, especially if they are to be employed for the purpose of partially mitigating emissions from large stationary fossil fuel combustion plants. It also raises questions about how to match the potential revenue from and scale of CO 2 utilisation based on variable renewable resources with investments in CO 2 capture at meaningful scales. CO 2 utilisation options that can proceed without a CO 2 capture and purification step or can be located in regions where CCS is an ongoing commercial business may offer good opportunities for further development if they can scale to multi-million tonne per year activities. Climate policies that aim to support revenues for CO 2 utilisation activities will need to carefully consider how the fossil fuel value chain allocates liability for environmental damages associated with life cycle emissions; these are likely to be greater than zero but not accurately predictable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several of the world's most carbon-intensive industries have no current alternatives to CCS for deep emissions reduction because much of the CO2 is unavoidably generated by their production processes, not only from fuel use. As a consequence, many models of global decarbonisation foresee a potentially critical role for CCS. The importance of CCS in industrial applications is not matched by existing policy attention and in some key sectors technological progress is slow. CCS suffers from several market failures that confront other low-carbon technologies. In contrast to the power sector, the trade-exposure of the manufacturing and hydrocarbon sectors that would need to deploy CCS exacerbates these market failures and poses significant challenges for policy that creates the foundations for long-term climate change mitigation. Smart policy design will be able to facilitate a transition to a situation in which CCS is actually used to decrease costs, specifically those associated with greenhouse gas abatement. In a world that seriously confronts the climate challenge the first firms that install CCS will reap the benefits of reducing their marginal production costs and in the long run consumers will benefit from lower prices. In addition, producers and users of fossil fuels in sectors where marginal abatement costs could be very high, such as transport, will benefit from some relief from emissions costs as CCS in industrial applications creates headroom within a declining carbon budget. This paper attempts to address two specific questions that policy makers will need to tackle in order to design such policies: how could technology development be accelerated to ensure its availability for deployment in the 2020s?; how might incentive policies be designed to support commercial CCS investments in trade-exposed sectors?. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Previously published cost curves focusing on CO2 transport and storage have helped illustrate the large potential for CCS technologies to deploy in China. This paper examines results from recent work to incorporate the costs of CO2 capture and compression into integrated cost curves that more fully reflect expected costs across the set of large, industrial CO2 sources and better illuminate the possible value of CCS to this fast-growing economy. Results show that significant potential exists for large-scale deployment of CCS at costs less than $70/tCO2. Mapping the cost curve results confirms that the majority of existing CO2 point sources may be able to utilize CCS technologies, and that except for many sources in southern China onshore storage capacity appears accessible and sufficient for decades of large-scale deployment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Climate change is fast becoming the major environmental and energy concern worldwide. There is a major dilemma between the continued reliance on fossil fuel for our energy supply and the pressing need to address the problem of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from combustion process. This paper reviews the potential for carbon capture and storage (CCS) as a part of the climate change mitigation strategy for the Malaysian electricity sector using a technology assessment framework. The nation''s historical trend of high reliance on fossil fuel for its electricity sector makes it a prime candidate for CCS adoption. The suitability and practicality of the technology was reviewed from a broad perspective with consideration of Malaysia-specific conditions. It is apparent from this assessment that CCS has the potential to play an important role in Malaysia''s climate change mitigation strategy provided that key criteria are fulfilled. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Carbon capture, transport and storage (CCS) is a very active field of research, because of its potential to make large reductions of emissions from fossil fuel combustion relevant to climate change. This paper reviews the recent and current work on practical injections of CO2 as research tests for storage projects and specifically focuses on industrial-scale or relevant injections into saline formations (about 1 Mt CO2 per year). All injection projects around the world have been reviewed, and 20 are reported to compile, depth, reservoir quality and injectivity, cost, and rate. This shows that testing of injection is concentrated onshore; however the projects with the highest total CO2 storage estimate are offshore. Pipeline transport systems are mostly used for the large projects. Formations targeted in the injection process are sandstone or carbonate. In the majority of cases initial projections of injectivity are confirmed in tests. A variety of monitoring techniques are used in all projects, these have detected CO2, but have not shown unexpected CO2 movement. Practical experiences of CO2 injection operations therefore suggest that similar operations can be successfully carried out in the saline formations of the UK North Sea and other large sedimentary basins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Carbon dioxide is more and more pointed out as one of the factors mostly responsible of climate changes. As a consequence the reduction of CO2 emissions, especially in the energy generation field, is becoming a worldwide must. This paper presents an overview on the main issues that are expected to affect, from this standpoint, power generation scenario and a spur for a critical comparison among ways to capture CO2 by proposing new aspects to be considered within the evaluation criteria. In particular attention is drawn on the fully innovative opportunities that are offered by Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) as a unique option suitable to effectively combine carbon capture from thermal plants and typical benefits of hydrogen and fuel cell power generation. As an example, such a new option is compared with one of the most common technologies forecast for reducing carbon dioxide emissions and relevant results are shortly presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The highly contentious, complex negotiations over the past several years to establish a globally more-inclusive, post-Kyoto Framework illustrate the daunting complexity and diversity of interests, which had to be accommodated. Notwithstanding the many challenges, a “Copenhagen Accord” was reached at the December 2009 15th Conference of Parties (COP 15) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Copenhagen, Denmark. That Accord provided the basis for subsequent delineation of the post-Kyoto Framework in 2010 at the meetings in Mexico City, Mexico. Adoption of more flexibility in the approaches nations can employ to achieve significant, verifiable emissions reductions is among the many critical and necessary accommodations made to achieve more inclusive participation from developing economies and other large economies that did not adhere to the Kyoto Protocol. Negotiations also had to address trade and national sovereignty issues as well. This flexibility is an essential recognition of national and cultural differences including differences in levels of national and sub-national economic wealth and growth, status of energy infrastructure development, and national energy resource endowments. This paper presents research findings from a project using a step-by-step methodology. The first step was defining a set of generic, guiding principles for economically efficient and effective national emissions reduction programs. These were employed to design a comprehensive portfolio of innovative national policy and technology strategies that could be adopted by large, developed economies as well as some large developing economies. A specific example is presented using the United States as the test case. The cost-effectiveness of the innovative policy and technology portfolio is assessed for the test case based on a number of effectiveness measures, including: projected economic impacts and emissions reductions, national security impacts, energy-related impacts on water use and other environmental aspects, and regional economic equity. The assessment methodology employs a Reference Case Scenario (RCS), based on the Annual Energy Outlook 2010 energy projections (AEO 2010) of the U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA), extended through 2050. The EIA energy projections are a widely used basis for projecting future energy demand, supply, and prices in the United States. They provide a comprehensive economy-wide reference data set. Particular attention is given to the electric generation, transportation, and industrial sectors, which account for the majority of energy production, demand, and emissions. A Policy and Technology Innovations Scenario (PTIS) is constructed covering all sectors of the energy economy with special attention as described above. The case specifications include new Federal and State legislative innovations and modifications to existing laws, regulatory reforms and innovations, and enhanced low-carbon technology innovation programs. Based on the PTIS case specifications, the incremental energy, economic, emissions, and other impacts from successful adoption and implementation of the PTIS case are projected as changes to the Reference Case Scenario using transparent techno-economic modeling approaches. The enhanced, low-carbon energy technology innovations programs included in the PTIS case cover a broad spectrum of energy supply and demand innovations. Particular attention is given to innovations that increase energy efficiency in both production and uses of energy in all economic sectors. Recognizing the extremely large energy infrastructure and imbedded capital investments already existing in the United States, special attention is given to innovations to transform and expand that infrastructure to meet future clean energy needs. The latter is a key strategy for making the transition affordable. One focus of attention is innovative opportunities for Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS). These are described along with the policy, regulatory, and technology improvements necessary to enable those contributions. The quantitative and qualitative differences between the two Scenarios are compared using the effectiveness measures adopted. These comparisons confirm that a portfolio such as that modeled in this project can lead to significant, affordable emissions reductions in the near term, and establish a pathway to a future energy economy with much larger reductions in energy use and emissions than the Reference Case in the longer term. Other key insights and conclusions from the assessment are described. The national and sub-national political, economic, and regulatory barrier and constraint challenges to successful implementation of a PTIS case are presented along with options for overcoming those challenges. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this paper we analyze the relative importance and mutual behavior of two competing base-load electricity generation options that each are capable of contributing significantly to the abatement of global CO2 emissions: Nuclear energy and coal-based power production complemented with CO2 capture and storage (CCS). We also investigate how, in scenarios developed with an integrated assessment model that simulates the economics of a climate-constrained world, the prospects for nuclear energy would change if exogenous limitations on the spread of nuclear technology were relaxed. Using the climate change economics model WITCH we find that until 2050 the growth rates of nuclear electricity generation capacity would become comparable to historical rates observed during the 1980s. Given that nuclear energy continues to face serious challenges and contention, we inspect how extensive the improvements of coal-based power equipped with CCS technology would need to be if our economic optimization model is to significantly scale down the construction of new nuclear power plants. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents initial findings from focus groups with the general public, conducted as part of the European (FP7) NearCO 2 project on public perceptions and understanding of CCS in six European countries. The research design specifically enabled the evolution of opinion to be observed in a relatively naturalistic setting. Each focus group was exposed to a specially-commissioned DVD that provided an overview of CCS, its rationale and arguments for and against CCS. Exposure was phased and a pre- and post-questionnaire was applied. The results concurred with much of the preceding work on CCS perceptions, namely a strong preference for renewable energy and a high level concern about the safety implications of CO2 leakage. There were few strong differences between groups, with the exception of a higher level of concern about climate change in Spain, related to experience of drought. In all groups, concerns about safety quickly amplified and information on the difficulty in rapidly installing very high levels of renewable energy supply infrastructure had little influence on opinion. We conclude that the case for CCS, and reassurance on the risks posed by CO2 leakage, will need to be made more convincingly and overtly, particularly for affected European publics. Moreover, in so far as the focus groups simulated the consequences of exposure to information on CCS without expert-moderation, they illustrate the importance of involving trusted parties in CCS communication processes, with the objective of moderating and responding to concerns as they arise. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Consistent with other published studies, the modelling presented here reveals that baseload power plants are the first aspects of the electricity sector to decarbonize and are essentially decarbonized once CO2 permit prices exceed a certain threshold ($90/ton CO2 in this study). The decarbonization of baseload electricity is met by significant expansions of nuclear power and renewable energy generation technologies as well as the application of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technologies applied to both coal and natural gas fired power plants. Relatively little attention has been paid thus far to whether intermediate and peaking units would respond the same way to a climate policy given the very different operational and economic context that these kinds of electricity generation units operate under. In this paper, the authors discuss key aspects of the load segmentation methodology used to imbed a varying electricity demand within the GCAM (a state-of-the-art Integrated Assessment Model) energy and economic modelling framework and present key results on the role CCS technologies could play in decarbonizng subpeak and peak generation (encompassing only the top 10% of the load) and under what conditions. To do this, the authors have modelled two hypothetical climate policies that require 50% and 80% reductions in US emissions from business as usual by the middle of this century. Intermediate electricity generation is virtually decarbonized once carbon prices exceed approximately $150/ton CO2. When CO2 permit prices exceed $160/ton CO2, natural gas power plants with CCS have roughly the same marketshare as conventional gas plants in serving subpeak loads. The penetration of CCS into peak load (upper 6% here) is minimal under the scenarios modeled here suggesting that CO2 emissions from this aspect of the U.S. electricity sector would persist well into the future even with stringent CO2 emission control policies in place. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Climate change is one of the most important public policy issues of our time. Reconciling the world’s ongoing reliance on fossil fuels with the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is one of our greatest challenges. Canada is taking this challenge seriously with climate change policies that include enhancing our global leadership in advancing one of the most promising technologies for reducing GHG emissions from fossil fuel use: carbon capture and storage (CCS). Federal and provincial governments in Canada are making substantial investments in CCS, committing upwards of CAD 3 billion in public funding towards seven large-scale fully-integrated CCS demonstration projects. The federal ecoENERGY Technology Initiative announced $151 million for the initial engineering and/or pilot stages of seven potential demonstration projects in 2008. The 2009 federal budget created Clean Energy Fund, which included $610 million for CCS demonstrations. The Provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia have also committed funding for demonstrations, in particular $2 billion by Alberta. This public funding will leverage additional investment from industry, for projects that will each capture and store on the order of 1 million tonnes of CO2 per year, coming on-line starting in 2015 or sooner. In order to generate early benefits from these investments, Government of Canada intends to create a knowledge sharing framework for CCS demonstration projects in Canada. The learnings from this first wave of demonstration projects should be disseminated in order to reduce challenges for the next generation of CCS projects and to build competitive advantage. This work will also support and provide input to the knowledge sharing and best practice guidelines being currently developed by Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute (GCCSI). Given that this level of information has not been shared in the past, establishing such a framework will pose several challenges such as concerns regarding the protection of the intellectual property (IP) and commercially sensitive information. Knowledge sharing will also support public engagement and capacity building programs, and it will provide an opportunity to assess the effectiveness and impact of the public investment. This paper will provide an overview and progress to date on the development of knowledge sharing and best practice guidelines in Canada. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents the contextualized overview of the CO2 capture technology, with critical evaluation of state-of-art and technological development through patents applications and scientific articles. The scientific research and technological development and innovation of CO2 capture is mapped, providing not only an overview, but also concrete basis to define and optimize research and development (R&D) perspectives. It relates the stage of scientific, technologic and innovation development relate to the actions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to ensure the reduction of the global warming due to anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. The yearly monitoring of actions is presented, focusing on scientific, technologic and innovation from governments and companies acting within various countries in an attempt to mitigate the effects of global climate change. The mapping of the capture technologies was focused on absorption, adsorption, membranes, cryogenic, enzymatic and hybrid. The capture technologies are also mapped according to the CO2 capture process (post-combustion, pre-combustion and oxy-combustion). The results are analyzed in terms of priority date, annual evolution of the patents portifolia, technology owners (country, continent, sector of society, companies, (R&D institutions), inventors and their countries, authors of scientific articles, article copyright owners, institutions and countries where the scientific research reported in the articles was performed, patent type (process, method, prototype, product, etc.), patents classification codes showing technologic trends and fields, type of gas source where CO2 is captured, type of processes and type of gas outputs after CO2 capture, details of the components and of the processes for each method capture, among other trends. The results are contextualized in terms of methods of CO2 capture processes, focusing on technology for IPCC, roadmaps, and government programs and strategies for reducing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. All the capture technologies are growing yearly, both in patent applications and in articles. Absorption and adsorption are the most used capture technologies, post-combustion is the most used capture process, and most of the patents refer to CO2 separation and removal. Most of the copyrights belong to Elsevier and American Physical Society, USA detains 52% of the patent applications and 31% of the articles published. The other patent applications belong mainly to Germany, France, Japan and United Kingdom. The countries with more aggressive appropriation policies are France, Norway, Germany, USA and Netherland. There is a strong correlation between countries of the technology owners and clear CCS government policies. The patent applications refer to over thirty entry gas currents, being focused on combustion and post combustion processes, followed by natural gas specification. New trends like Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC), Chemical Looping Reforming (CLR) are also focused. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The International Energy Agency Energy Technologies Perspectives (ETP) model is used to assess the prospects for carbon abatement options, including carbon capture and storage, up to 2050. Three main scenarios are considered: a Baseline scenario with current energy policies, an accelerated technology scenario that seeks to return energy-related CO2 emissions in 2050 to their level in 2005, and a scenario for which CO2 emissions are reduced at 50% of current levels by 2050. To reach these emissions reduction targets, annual global CO2 emissions in the year 2050 must be reduced by 35 GtCO2 to 48 GtCO2 compared to the Baseline scenario. The analysis presented here shows that a broad portfolio of emissions reducing technologies will need to be deployed across all economic sectors of the global economy to reach these targets. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) is one of the suite of technologies employed across the globe to reach these targets. CCS adoption occurs in many aspects of the global economy and accounts for 14–19% of all emissions reductions. The total amount of CO2 captured and stored in deep geologic reservoirs up to 2050 ranges between 5.1 GtCO2 and 10.4 GtCO2 in these two climate policy scenarios. Up to 2030, more than half of total CCS deployment takes place in OECD countries. After 2035, emerging economies account for more than half of total CCS use. This paper also demonstrates that as the climate policy becomes more stringent it will be necessary for CCS to deploy more extensively in many different industries outside of the electric power sector which often receives the most attention in discussions of CCS''s role in addressing climate change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Making new plants CO2 capture ready (CCR) would enable them to retrofit to capture CO2 at a later date at lower cost when the appropriate policy and/or economic drivers are in place. In order to understand the economic value and investment characteristics of making new plants CCR in China, a typical 600MW pulverised coal-fired ultra-supercritical power plant, locating in Guangdong province, was examined. Combined with an engineering assessment, costs were estimated for different CCR scenarios. To analyze CCR investment opportunities, the paper applies a cash flow model for valuing capture options and CCR investment. Results were obtained by Monte-Carlo simulation, based on engineering surveys and an IEA GHG CCR study, as well as plant performance information and expert projections on carbon prices, coal prices and electricity prices. CCR investments are justified by factors such as higher retrofitting probabilities, lower early closure probabilities and fair economic return. However, the economic case for CCR largely depends on two factors: (a) whether the original plant is retrofittable without CCR; and (b) the type of investments made, for example, investments essential to CCR tend to be more economic than additional non-essential CCR features such as clutched low pressure turbines. The carbon price and discount rate were found to have significant impacts on the economics of CCR. Overall, it appears that the value of the ‘capture options’ that CCR generates for retrofitting CCS is significant, and so could justify a modest CCR investment, even assuming the original plant is retrofittable without CCR. It was also found the value of CCR might be significantly understated if the range of potential retrofitting dates is artificially constrained. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology has the potential to contribute to reductions in atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions and thus help mitigate climate change. Although awareness of the potential of CCS technology is increasing among the public and specific energy/climate stakeholders, understanding remains limited and engaged opportunities for learning about CCS technology have been minimal. This paper explores stakeholders’ perceptions of the risks and benefits of CCS technology, and how those perceptions changed with additional information provided by CCS technology experts. In October 2007, a unique day-long CCS educational event was held at the Chewonki Foundation’s Center for Environmental Education in Wiscasset, Maine, U.S.A. This event brought a dozen CCS experts from academia, industry, and government to Maine to discuss CCS technology, its potential role in mitigating CO2 emissions, and its place within the evolution of an increasingly carbon constrained energy system. Approximately one hundred key policy and decision-makers with interest and involvement in the northeast United States’ energy system were invited and participated in the seminar. All participants were asked to complete a survey on their perceptions of the risks and benefits of CCS technology before and after the event. The results indicate that exposure to information about CCS technology increased stakeholder reporting of their level of understanding of the technology and of their level of support for advancing the technology. Several interesting changes in perception were associated with age, level of education and gender. Significant changes in the reported level of support for CCS advancement was found in more educated and younger stakeholders while this change did not appear with older and less educated individuals. A distinct and significant increase was identified in the level of concern about CCS reported among women before and after the event. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As a technology that may involve new risks, large-scale infrastructure, and significant government involvement, carbon capture and storage (CCS) faces a wide variety of deployment challenges. Because energy policy in the U.S. is negotiated at the state level, it is important to evaluate what might influence CCS related decisions in the U.S. at that level. This paper presents a detailed analysis of how deployment discussions and decisions regarding CCS are negotiated within Texas, Minnesota, and Massachusetts. These states were chosen based upon their current involvement in CCS research (high, medium, low), potential for deploying CCS (direct, indirect, or absent), and regulation (restructured, regulated). We explore nuances within the policy debates and public discourse surrounding CCS in these three states through the use of legislative and policy analysis, interviews with stakeholders, and media analysis. Using information generated from legislative dockets and state-level newspaper coverage we construct a template of CCS discussions, framing, and policy creation within each study state. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has built at least 70 GW of new coal- fired power installed capacity annually since 2005 and the growth is expected to continue (CEC, 2008). Chinese government, industry and academic stakeholders perceive that China will not mandate new plants to be built with carbon dioxide capture and storage systems in the short term and there is little incentive even to contemplate the first steps needed to fit plants with capture equipment [Reiner, D., Liang, X., Sun, X., Zhu, Y., Li, D., 2007. Stakeholder attitudes towards carbon dioxide capture and storage technologies in China, International Climate Change Conference, Hong Kong, May 29–31 2007]. We investigate the value of making new plants CO2 Capture Ready (CCR), which would enable them to retrofit to capture CO2 without unnecessary additional costs when the appropriate policy and /or economic drivers are in place (IEA, 2007). In order to understand the value and investment characteristics of CCR in China, a typical 600 MW pulverized-coal -fired ultra-supercritical power plant, locating at Guangdong province, was examined. Combined with a detailed engineering assessment, we obtained the costs for different CCR scenarios. To analyze CCR investment opportunities, we apply a cash flow model for valuing Capture Options, as developed in [Liang, X., Reiner, D., Gibbins J., Li J., 2007. Fianncing CCR coal-fired power plants in China by issuing capture options, EPRG Working Paper Series, EPRG0728, Cambridge, December. Available at: www.electricitypolicy.org.uk/pubs/wp/eprg0728.pdf]. Results are obtained by Monte-Carlo simulation, based on engineering surveys and the IEA (2007) CCR study, as well as plant performance information and expert projections on carbon prices, coal prices and electricity prices. CCR investments are justified by factors such as higher retrofitting probabilities, lower early-closure probabilities and fair economic return. However, the economic case for CCR largely depends on the type of investments made, for example, CCR-essential investments tend to be more economic than additional non-essential CCR features such as CCR Essential with clutched low-pressure turbines. Carbon price, coal price and discount rate also were found to have significant impacts on the economics of CCR. Overall, it appears that the value of capture options are significant, and therefore clear retrofitting strategies would be valuable for any CCR investment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The carbon dioxide emission from the industrial sector and the power plant contribute significantly to global climate change for several decades. The carbon capture and storage technology is the primary solution to reach the reduction target of carbon dioxide emissions. The carbon capture and storage activities involve CO 2 capturing, transporting, and storing in geological storage, requires number planning. The process integration approach by pinch analysis method can be used for the carbon capture and storage planning problem and to develop the carbon capture and storage network design. However, the applicability of the method needs to be evaluated when some constraints in carbon capture and storage network design are applied. This paper proposes an improved pinch analysis based method for carbon capture and storage target and network design. The method begins with targeting the maximum carbon exchange in the carbon capture and storage system, which is followed by designing the carbon capture and storage network. Next, the capital-carbon trade-off is introduced as a new strategy for assessing carbon capture and storage network design to show the economic feasibility of the design. Four case studies demonstrate the applicability of the proposed method to the carbon capture and storage systems in the central and western part of Indonesia. The application of this new strategy in the western part of Indonesia as a single region system revealed that the flat minimum of the total annual cost is obtained at a five year time difference with the amount of up to US$ 149.3 million. Image 1 • A CCS cascade analysis in central and western part of Indonesia was introduced. • A systematic approach in multi-region and multi- period was proposed. • Cascade analysis with minimum time difference was shown to be a good method. • Grid diagram showing the pairing between source and sink was a power tool. • Capital-carbon trade-off as a new strategy was proposed to assess CCS system design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]