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Background: Vegetable soybean is rich in nutrients and has a unique flavor. It is highly preferred by people because of its pharmacological activities, including those that regulate the intestines and lower blood pressure. The pod color of vegetable soybeans is an important quality that indicates their freshness and has a significant impact on their commercialization. Results: In this study, pod color was evaluated in 301 vegetable soybean accessions collected from various regions. Genome-wide association analysis was carried out using the Mixed linear model (MLM), a total of 18 quantitative trait loci including 117 SNPs were detected. Two significant QTLs located on chromosomes 6 (qGPCL4 /qGPCa1/qGPCb2) and 18 (qGPCL10/qGPCb3) were consistently detected across different variables. Based on gene functional annotation, 30 candidate genes were identified in these two candidate intervals. Combined with transcriptome analysis, Glyma.18g241700 has been identified as a candidate gene for regulating pod color in vegetable soybeans. Glyma.18g241700 encodes a chlorophyll photosystem I subunit XI. which localizes to the chloroplast named GmPsaL, qRT-PCR analysis showed that GmPsaL was specifically highly expressed in developing pods. Furthermore, overexpression of GmPsaL in transgenetic Arabidopsis plants produced dark green pods. Conclusions: These findings may be useful for clarifying the genetic basis of the pod color of vegetable soybeans. The identified candidate genes may be useful for the genetic improvement of the appearance quality of vegetable soybeans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetable soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is gaining popularity because of its high nutritive values and health benefits; however, its productivity is scarce. Recognizing the need to accelerate breeding progress, a modified approach of 'speed breeding' was used in 16 vegetable soybean genotypes to reduce the breeding periods. The genotypes were exposed to cycles of 10 h light (30 °C) and 14 h dark (25 °C) with CO2 (550 ppm) and without CO2 supplementation under the light intensity of 220 µmol m−2 s−1 at the canopy level and 70–80% relative humidity. To reduce the time further, physiologically matured pods were harvested once they changed their color from green to greenish yellow and dried in the oven for 7 days at 25 ± 2 °C with RH 10–20%. The genotypes showed variable responses towards days to flowering coupled with an increase in the number of pods, number of seeds and seed weight per plant, and 100 seed weight during a short breeding period under CO2 supplement. A couple of genotypes behaved indifferently under normal and elevated CO2 levels. The fresh oven-dried seeds displayed 73.33–100% germination, while that in the seeds stored at 4 °C for 10 months was 80–100%. Thus, the modified speed breeding technique could effectively reduce the breeding period without affecting the germination of the seeds. With this approach, we could save 6–34 days in a genotype dependent way which would at least give 4–4.5 generations of soybean per year instead of the usual 1–2 generations. Further, the reduction in maturity duration was more in longer duration genotypes than the shorter duration ones. This represents the country's initial report of rapid breeding in vegetable soybean and offers ample opportunity for rapid generation advancement in this crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Vegetable soybean is rich in nutrients and has a unique flavor. It is highly preferred by people because of its pharmacological activities, including those that regulate the intestines and lower blood pressure. The pod color of vegetable soybeans is an important quality that indicates their freshness and has a significant impact on their commercialization. Results In this study, pod color was evaluated in 301 vegetable soybean accessions collected from various regions. Genome-wide association analysis was carried out using the Mixed linear model (MLM), a total of 18 quantitative trait loci including 117 SNPs were detected. Two significant QTLs located on chromosomes 6 (qGPCL4 /qGPCa1/qGPCb2) and 18 (qGPCL10/qGPCb3) were consistently detected across different variables. Based on gene functional annotation, 30 candidate genes were identified in these two candidate intervals. Combined with transcriptome analysis, Glyma.18g241700 has been identified as a candidate gene for regulating pod color in vegetable soybeans. Glyma.18g241700 encodes a chlorophyll photosystem I subunit XI. which localizes to the chloroplast named GmPsaL, qRT-PCR analysis showed that GmPsaL was specifically highly expressed in developing pods. Furthermore, overexpression of GmPsaL in transgenetic Arabidopsis plants produced dark green pods. Conclusions These findings may be useful for clarifying the genetic basis of the pod color of vegetable soybeans. The identified candidate genes may be useful for the genetic improvement of the appearance quality of vegetable soybeans.

Relevance. Vegetable soybean is a special variety with high added value, consumed fresh and harvested at the stage technical ripeness (R6). Accession-A is one of the promising vegetable soybean materials, studied and identified as a result of work that was carried out jointly with the Federal Scientific Vegetable Center in the Moscow Region (FSVC) and the Agrobiotechnology Department of the Agricultural Technological Institute (ATI) of the RUDN University named after Patrice Lumumba. The use of microorganisms to promote atmospheric nitrogen fixation is a common practice in soybean production.Methodology. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of two microbiological preparations based on Sinorhizobium fredii and Bradyrhizobium jaроniсum in order to identify which microbiological preparation gives the best results in terms of morphological indicators and vegetable soybean yield under the conditions region of the Non-Chernozem zone of the Russian Federation. The object of the study was accession-A of vegetable soybean. Two types of treatment were carried out: B1 – treatment with a preparation with Bradyrhizobium jaronicum (1 l/t of seeds), B2 – treatment with a preparation with Sinorhizobium fredii (1 l/t of seeds). Control without treatment (K).Results. According to statistical analysis of biometric indicators, it was found that treatment with S. fredii (B2) had the highest average values for indicators of stem diameter (11.50 mm), lower pod attachment height (11.19 cm), number of branches (3.40 pcs.) and the number of productive nodes (27.48 pcs.). Preparation B2 improved the structure of the crop, influencing the obtainment of the highest indicators of plant weight (30.47 g), seed weight per plant (15.33 g), weight of 1000 seeds (171.25 g), number of seeds per plant (98.50 pcs.), number of seeds in a bean (2.89 pcs.) and seed yield (3.11 t/ha). The use of microbiological preparations based on B. japonicum and S. fredii gave better results compared to the control treatment.

Abstract Background Vegetable soybean is an important vegetable crop in world. Seed size and soluble sugar content are considered crucial indicators of quality in vegetable soybean, and there is a lack of clarity on the molecular basis of grain quality in vegetable soybean. Results In this context, we performed a comprehensive comparative transcriptome analysis of seeds between a high-sucrose content and large-grain variety (Zhenong 6, ZN6) and a low-sucrose content and small-grain variety (Williams 82, W82) at three developmental stages, i.e. stage R5 (Beginning Seed), stage R6 (Full Seed), and stage R7 (Beginning Maturity). The transcriptome analysis showed that 17,107 and 13,571 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in ZN6 at R6 (vs. R5) and R7 (vs. R6), respectively, whereas 16,203 and 16,032 were detected in W82. Gene expression pattern and DEGs functional enrichment proposed genotype-specific biological processes during seed development. The genes participating in soluble sugar biosynthesis such as FKGP were overexpressed in ZN6, whereas those responsible for lipid and protein metabolism such as ALDH3 were more enhanced in W82, exhibiting different dry material accumulation between two genotypes. Furthermore, hormone-associated transcriptional factors involved in seed size regulation such as BEH4 were overrepresented in ZN6, exhibiting different seed size regulation processes between two genotypes. Conclusions Herein, we not only discovered the differential expression of genes encoding metabolic enzymes involved in seed composition, but also identified a type of hormone-associated transcriptional factors overexpressed in ZN6, which may regulate seed size and soluble content. This study provides new insights into the underlying causes of differences in the soybean metabolites and appearance, and suggests that genetic data can be used to improve its appearance and textural quality.

Background: Vegetable soybean is an important vegetable crop in world. Seed size and soluble sugar content are considered crucial indicators of quality in vegetable soybean, and there is a lack of clarity on the molecular basis of grain quality in vegetable soybean. Results: In this context, we performed a comprehensive comparative transcriptome analysis of seeds between a high-sucrose content and large-grain variety (Zhenong 6, ZN6) and a low-sucrose content and small-grain variety (Williams 82, W82) at three developmental stages, i.e. stage R5 (Beginning Seed), stage R6 (Full Seed), and stage R7 (Beginning Maturity). The transcriptome analysis showed that 17,107 and 13,571 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in ZN6 at R6 (vs. R5) and R7 (vs. R6), respectively, whereas 16,203 and 16,032 were detected in W82. Gene expression pattern and DEGs functional enrichment proposed genotype-specific biological processes during seed development. The genes participating in soluble sugar biosynthesis such as FKGP were overexpressed in ZN6, whereas those responsible for lipid and protein metabolism such as ALDH3 were more enhanced in W82, exhibiting different dry material accumulation between two genotypes. Furthermore, hormone-associated transcriptional factors involved in seed size regulation such as BEH4 were overrepresented in ZN6, exhibiting different seed size regulation processes between two genotypes. Conclusions: Herein, we not only discovered the differential expression of genes encoding metabolic enzymes involved in seed composition, but also identified a type of hormone-associated transcriptional factors overexpressed in ZN6, which may regulate seed size and soluble content. This study provides new insights into the underlying causes of differences in the soybean metabolites and appearance, and suggests that genetic data can be used to improve its appearance and textural quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Owing to the rising demand for vegetable soybean products, there is an increasing need for high-yield soybean varieties. However, the complex correlation patterns among quantitative traits with genetic architecture pose a challenge for improving vegetable soybean through breeding. Herein, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was applied to 6 yield-related traits in 188 vegetable soybean accessions. Using a BLINK model, a total of 116 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified for plant height, pod length, pod number, pod thickness, pod width, and fresh pod weight. Furthermore, a total of 220 genes were found in the 200 kb upstream and downstream regions of significant SNPs, including 11 genes encoding functional proteins. Among them, four candidate genes, Glyma.13G109100, Glyma.03G183200, Glyma.09G102200, and Glyma.09G102300 were analyzed for significant haplotype variations and to be in LD block, which encode MYB-related transcription factor, auxin-responsive protein, F-box protein, and CYP450, respectively. The relative expression of candidate genes in V030 and V071 vegetable soybean (for the plant height, pod number, and fresh pod weight of V030 were lower than those of the V071 strains) was significantly different, and these genes could be involved in plant growth and development via various pathways. Altogether, we identified four candidate genes for pod yield and plant height from vegetable soybean germplasm. This study provides insights into the genomic basis for improving soybean and crucial genomic resources that can facilitate genome-assisted high-yielding vegetable soybean breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared with conventional crop cultivation in greenhouses or fields, plant factories with artificial light (PFAL) have advantages in the highly efficient use of space, energy, and resources available for cultivation. However, few studies on environmental controls for improving the space use efficacy (SUE) of PFAL in the production of edamame, a vegetable soybean, have been reported. Therefore, developing an environmental control method for high productivity with minimal space and energy requirements is of high priority. The aims of this study were to (1) identify the optimal photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) and light quality to enhance the SUE of edamame at the vegetative growth stage, and (2) examine the effects of PPFD, light quality, and their interaction on edamame plant growth at the vegetative stage. SUE is defined as the crop biomass produced per unit cubic volume of cultivation during the growth period. We examined three PPFD treatments (300, 500, and 700 μmol m-2 s-1) with three color temperature LED lamps (3,000, 5,000, and 6,500 K), for a total of nine treatments. The results demonstrated that, under the same light quality treatment, higher PPFDs resulted in larger fresh and dry weights of all organs, higher stem length, and lower specific leaf area. Under the same PPFD treatment, a high ratio of blue (400-499 nm) to red (600-699 nm) photon flux density increased the plant height but decreased the projected leaf area. The values of SUE at 700μmol m-2 s-1 increased by 213, 163, and 92% with 3,000, 5,000, and 6,500 K, respectively compared with those at 300μmol m-2 s-1. The values of SUE at 700μmol m-2 s-1 increased by 34 and 23% in 5,000 and 6,500 K treatments, respectively compared with that in the 3,000 K treatment. In conclusion, a combination of 700μmol m-2 s-1 PPFD and 5,000 K color temperature is the suitable condition to increase the SUE of edamame at the vegetative growth stage in a PFAL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This document is an editorial published in the journal Frontiers in Plant Science. It introduces the second volume in a series called "Everything Edamame: Biology, Production, Nutrition, Sensory and Economics." The editorial highlights the nutritional value and consumer appeal of edamame, a vegetable soybean, and its increasing popularity worldwide. The volume includes seven articles that cover various research topics related to edamame, such as genetic diversity, genomic selection, phenotypic analysis, texture evaluation, and environmental factors affecting seedling establishment. The studies aim to enhance the production, quality, and marketability of edamame while supporting sustainable agricultural practices. [Extracted from the article]

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Soybean (Glycine max) is one of the most important crops globally, serving as a primary source of protein and oil for both human consumption and animal feed. Chlorophyll is crucial for photosynthesis and plays a significant role in the growth and development of soybean plants. Chlorophylls are one of the main metabolites responsible for the color of foliage and fruits, particularly when they are still unripe. The spectral properties of chlorophylls are essential in harvesting light energy and in the transduction of absorbed light energy for photosynthesis. Like other plants, the variation of the leaf color as well as photosynthetic activity in soybean, is dependent on chlorophyll concentration. Chlorophyll content affects nutritional deficits, stress, and photosynthetic capacity of the plant per unit area of the leaf. This paper investigates the relationship between chlorophyll contents and soybean yield, considering various factors such as photosynthetic efficiency, plant health, and environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Owing to the rising demand for vegetable soybean products, there is an increasing need for high-yield soybean varieties. However, the complex correlation patterns among quantitative traits with genetic architecture pose a challenge for improving vegetable soybean through breeding. Herein, a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was applied to 6 yield-related traits in 188 vegetable soybean accessions. Using a BLINK model, a total of 116 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified for plant height, pod length, pod number, pod thickness, pod width, and fresh pod weight. Furthermore, a total of 220 genes were found in the 200 kb upstream and downstream regions of significant SNPs, including 11 genes encoding functional proteins. Among them, four candidate genes, Glyma.13G109100, Glyma.03G183200, Glyma.09G102200, and Glyma.09G102300 were analyzed for significant haplotype variations and to be in LD block, which encode MYB-related transcription factor, auxin-responsive protein, F-box protein, and CYP450, respectively. The relative expression of candidate genes in V030 and V071 vegetable soybean (for the plant height, pod number, and fresh pod weight of V030 were lower than those of the V071 strains) was significantly different, and these genes could be involved in plant growth and development via various pathways. Altogether, we identified four candidate genes for pod yield and plant height from vegetable soybean germplasm. This study provides insights into the genomic basis for improving soybean and crucial genomic resources that can facilitate genome-assisted high-yielding vegetable soybean breeding.

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Background: Vegetable soybean seeds are among the most popular and nutrient-dense beans in the world due to their delicious flavor, high yield, superior nutritional value, and low trypsin content. There is significant potential for this crop that Indian farmers do not fully appreciate because of the limited germplasm range. Therefore, the current study aims to identify the diverse lines of vegetable soybean and explore the diversity produced by hybridizing grain and vegetable-type soybean varieties. Indian researchers have not yet published work describing and analysing novel vegetable soybean for microsatellite markers and morphological traits. Methods and results: Sixty polymorphic SSR markers and 19 morphological traits were used to evaluate the genetic diversity of 21 newly developed vegetable soybean genotypes. A total of 238 alleles, ranging from 2 to 8, were found, with a mean of 3.97 alleles per locus. The polymorphism information content varied from 0.05 to 0.85, with an average of 0.60. A variation of 0.25–0.58 with a mean of 0.43 was observed for Jaccard's dissimilarity coefficient. Conclusion: The diverse genotypes identified can be helpful to understand the genetics of vegetable soybean traits and can be used in improvement programs; study also explains the utility of SSR markers for diversity analysis of vegetable soybean. Here, we identified the highly informative SSRs with PIC > 0.80 (satt199, satt165, satt167, satt191, satt183, satt202, and satt126), which apply to genetic structure analysis, mapping strategies, polymorphic marker surveys, and background selection in genomics-assisted breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Vegetable soybean (Glycine max), known as edamame, has a high nutritional and market value. It is a relatively new crop in North America and Africa. The amino acid profile is important for the nutritional quality of edamame, and a challenge facing its genetic improvement is evaluating its amino acids rapidly. To explore a drying method suitable for the fast evaluation of edamame nutritional profiles, fresh seed samples of 20 soybean genotypes were dried using freeze, low- and high-heat drying methods, and their amino acid contents were analyzed by near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology. Three-year results indicated that there were significant differences between the years of samplings and among genotypes for all amino acids. Significant differences existed between the drying methods for most amino acids except for leucine and the total amino acid. Low-heat drying at 65 °C and freeze drying showed similar results and were highly comparable to each other for ANOVA and repeatability estimation. The estimates of repeatability under the individual drying methods were 73–94%, except for tryptophan, cysteine and methionine; meanwhile, higher estimates (85–99%) were computed using the combined data of all three drying methods, with few exceptions. Two sulfur-containing amino acids were showed to be more sensitive to high temperature than the others. Six genotypes exhibited higher contents of all the 18 major amino acids and are recommended to be used for the nutritional quality improvement of edamame and other food-grade specialty soybeans. In conclusion, the low-heat drying method can serve as an alternative to freeze drying, and can be used in the large-scale drying of fresh edamame and in the evaluation of seed amino acids in research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vegetable soybean, popularly known as edamame in Japan and mao dou in China is a specialty soybean. Green pods with physiologically mature beans are harvested, and whole pods or shelled beans are used as a fresh or frozen vegetable. Vegetable soybeans are prepared in diverse ways, and they are highly nutritious, with excellent taste properties. Unlike grain soybeans, it is perishable. In this review, the chronological progression of area, production, export, import, and expansion of vegetable soybeans and potential for further expansion is discussed. Available information on current ongoing research and development activities in various countries around the world are presented, and their relevance is discussed. At present, the production and consumption of vegetable soybeans are mainly in East and Southeast Asia, with Japan as the largest importing country that dictates the global market. However, interest and trend in cultivation of this crop in other regions has increased significantly. Lack of germplasm or suitable varieties is a major constraint in vegetable soybean production and expansion in countries outside East and Southeast Asia. Most of the vegetable soybean varieties are genetically related and are susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses. Extensive research and breeding of vegetable soybeans are still restricted in a few countries such as China, Japan, Taiwan and the USA. The need for focused research and development activities with concern for the environment, farmers' and processors' profit, consumers' preference, quality, and nutrition are emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to screen high-yield and high-quality vegetable soybean varieties suitable for strawberry rotation in greenhouse, and alleviate the problem of strawberry sitting together. Four fresh vegetable soybean varieties, Zaofuwa, Sanqingyudou, Kaikeyuan No. 5 and Lujiangjun, were introduced to carry out comparative experiments to analyze their differences in agronomic characteristics and yield performance. Results showed that, the growth period of Zaofuwa, Sanqingyudou, Kaikeyuan No. 5 vegetable soybean varieties in Jinan was less than 80 days, and the yield per unit area was 9 533. 70-10 279. 20 kg / hm 2 . They showed early maturity, could be picked normally, and were suitable for rotation with strawberry. The growth period of Lujiangjun was 96 days, which was too long for rotation with strawberry. According to their agronomic characteristics and yield performance, Zaofuwa, Sanqingyudou, Kaikeyuan No. 5 will be suitable for rotation cultivation of strawberries after harvest in strawberry greenhouse, especially Sanqingyudou. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Core collections display a large fraction of the diversity contained in large collections in smaller germplasm panels. We used historical data (1973–2015) collected at the World Vegetable Center, Taiwan, for developing soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) core collections representing the diversity of the whole collection of 7853 accessions held by the Center. The collection was split into two groups on the basis of the 100 seed weight: large seeded (>25 g or equal to 25 g) and small seeded (

Aroma is an important economic trait of vegetable soybeans, which greatly influences their market value. The 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP) is considered as an important substance affecting the aroma of plants. Although the 2AP synthesis pathway has been resolved, the differences of the 2AP synthesis in the aromatic and non-aromatic vegetable soybeans are unknown. In this study, a broad targeted metabolome analysis including measurement of metabolites levels and gene expression levels was performed to reveal pathways of aroma formation in the two developmental stages of vegetable soybean grains [35 (S5) and 40 (S6) days after anthesis] of the 'Zhexian No. 8' (ZX8, non-aromatic) and ZK1754 (aromatic). The results showed that the differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) of the two varieties can be classified into nine main categories including flavonoids, lipids, amino acids and derivatives, saccharides and alcohols, organic acids, nucleotides and derivatives, phenolic acids, alkaloids and vitamin, which mainly contributed to their phenotypic differences. Furthermore, in combination with the 2AP synthesis pathway, the differences of amino acids and derivatives were mainly involved in the 2AP synthesis. Furthermore, 2AP precursors' analysis revealed that the accumulation of 2AP mainly occurred from 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C), not 4-aminobutyraldehyde (GABald). The quantitative RT-PCR showed that the associated synthetic genes were 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH), ∆1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS), proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (P5CR), which further verified the synthetic pathway of 2AP. Furthermore, the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (GmBADH2) mutant was not only vital for the occurrence of 2AP, but also for the synthesis of 4-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in vegetable soybean. Therefore, the differences of 2AP accumulation in aromatic and non-aromatic vegetable soybeans have been revealed, and it also provides an important theoretical basis for aromatic vegetable soybean breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), a sub-family of aquaporins (AQPs), are known to play important roles in plant abiotic stress responses. However, evidence for the promoters of TIPs involvement in abiotic stress processes remains scarce. In this study, the promoter of the vegetable soybean GmTIP1;6 gene, which had the highest similarity to TIP1-type AQPs from other plants, was cloned. Expression pattern analyses indicated that the GmTIP1;6 gene was dramatically induced by drought, salt, abscisic acid (ABA), and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) stimuli. Promoter analyses revealed that the GmTIP1;6 promoter contained drought, ABA, and MeJA cis-acting elements. Histochemical staining of the GmTIP1;6 promoter in transgenic Arabidopsis corroborated that it was strongly expressed in the vascular bundles of leaves, stems, and roots. Beta-glucuronidase (GUS) activity assays showed that the activities of the GmTIP1;6 promoter were enhanced by different concentrations of polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000), NaCl, ABA, and MEJA treatments. Integrating these results revealed that the GmTIP1;6 promoter could be applied for improving the tolerance to abiotic stresses of the transgenic plants by promoting the expression of vegetable soybean AQPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edamame is a vegetable soybean (Glycine max) with high nutritional and market value. It is mainly grown in Asia and has expanded to North America and Africa. Freeze and low- and high-heat drying methods were used to dry fresh edamame seeds of 20 soybean lines and cultivars for analysis of their composition using near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology. The results indicated that significant differences existed between years of samplings for all seed composition traits investigated. Differences between drying methods were significant for all the traits with whole-seed samples, while they were not significant in protein, raffinose and linoleic acid for flour samples. Ground flour and whole-seed samples were similar or comparable in most cases for freeze and low-heat drying methods, but differences in seed composition between sample types were observed for high-heat drying. Among the traits investigated, protein content was the most consistent for all three drying methods, with an over 91% estimate of repeatability, showing high stability during drying. Oil content also showed a repeatability estimate of over 86% for all three drying methods. Low-heat drying generated results more comparable to freeze drying, while high-heat drying exhibited larger differences in most cases. Estimates of repeatability and correlation coefficients further confirmed that, low-heat drying, similar to freeze drying, was appropriate for drying fresh edamame seeds, but high-heat drying was not. Therefore, low-heat drying is a suitable method for drying fresh edamame and rapid analysis of seed composition, and it can be used as an alternative of freeze-drying method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Establishment of vegetable soybean (edamame) [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] germplasms has been highly valued in Asia and the United States owing to the increasing market demand for edamame. The idea of core collection (CC) is to shorten the breeding program so as to improve the availability of germplasm resources. However, multidimensional phenotypes typically are highly correlated and have different levels of missing rate, often failing to capture the underlying pattern of germplasms and select CC precisely. These are commonly observed on correlated samples. To overcome such scenario, we introduced the "multiple imputation" (MI) method to iteratively impute missing phenotypes for 46 morphological traits and jointly analyzed high-dimensional imputed missing phenotypes (ECimpu) to explore population structure and relatedness among 200 Taiwanese vegetable soybean accessions. An advanced maximization strategy with a heuristic algorithm and PowerCore was used to evaluate the morphological diversity among the ECimpu. In total, 36 accessions (denoted as CCimpu) were efficiently selected representing high diversity and the entire coverage of the ECimpu. Only 4 (8.7%) traits showed slightly significant differences between the CCimpu and ECimpu. Compared to the ECimpu, 96% traits retained all characteristics or had a slight diversity loss in the CCimpu. The CCimpu exhibited a small percentage of significant mean difference (4.51%), and large coincidence rate (98.1%), variable rate (138.76%), and coverage (close to 100%), indicating the representativeness of the ECimpu. We noted that the CCimpu outperformed the CCraw in evaluation properties, suggesting that the multiple phenotype imputation method has the potential to deal with missing phenotypes in correlated samples efficiently and reliably without re-phenotyping accessions. Our results illustrated a significant role of imputed missing phenotypes in support of the MI-based framework for plant-breeding programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soluble sugar is a major indicator of the intrinsic quality of vegetable soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. ]. The improvement of soluble sugar content in soybean is very important due to its healthcare functions for humans. The genetic mechanism of soluble sugar in soybean is unclear. In this study, 278 diverse soybean accessions were utilized to identify the quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) for total soluble sugar content in soybean seeds based on a genome-wide association study (GWAS). A total of 25,921 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with minor allele frequencies (MAFs) = 5% and missing data = 10% were selected for GWAS. Totally, thirteen QTNs associated with total soluble sugar content were identified, which were distributed on ten chromosomes. One hundred and fifteen genes near the 200-kb flanking region of these identified QTNs were considered candidate genes associated with total soluble sugar content in soybean seed. Gene-based association analysis and haplotype analysis were utilized to further identify the effect of candidate genes on total soluble sugar content. Totally, 84 SNPs from seventeen genes across four chromosomes were significantly associated with the total soluble sugar content. Among them, three SNPs from Glyma.02G292900 were identified at two locations, and other eighty-one SNPs from sixteen genes were detected at three locations. Furthermore, expression level analysis of candidate genes revealed that Glyma.02G293200 and Glyma.02G294900 were significantly positively associated with soluble sugar content and Glyma.02G294000 was significantly negatively associated with soluble sugar content. Six genes (i.e., Glyma.02G292600, Glyma.02G292700, Glyma.02G294000, Glyma.02G294300, Glyma.02G294400, and Glyma.15G264200) identified by GWAS were also detected by the analysis of differential expression genes based on soybean germplasms with higher and lower soluble sugar content. Among them, Glyma.02G294000 is the only gene that was identified by gene-based association analysis with total soluble sugar content and was considered an important candidate gene for soluble sugar content. These candidate genes and beneficial alleles would be useful for improving the soluble sugar content of soybean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Chinese Journal of Oil Crop Sciences is the property of Oil Crops Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Total soluble sugar (TSS) is an important component in vegetable soybean seeds during the R6 stage and greatly impacts fresh soybean flavor. Increasing the TSS content is thus one of the most important breeding objectives for the creation of high-quality vegetable soybean germplasm. To better understand the genetic basis of the TSS at the R6 stage, we investigated 264 germplasm accessions in two environments. We obtained five associations with 27 significant SNPs using GWAS. The significant SNPs S15_10810881–S15_10843821 and S06_12044239–S06_12048607 were identified in both environments. We then conducted candidate gene analysis and uncovered nine candidate genes as potential regulators of TSS content in vegetable soybean seeds using RT-PCR. These genes may be involved in the regulation of soluble sugar content in soybean seeds. This study provides new knowledge for the understanding of the genetic basis of TSS at the R6 stage and will help improve regulation of TSS in vegetable soybean using molecular breeding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Vegetable soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is a seasonal vegetable and has limited shelf life. The present study aimed to determine the use of ozonated water as a sanitizer in order to extend the shelf life of blanched edamame and also to study the effect of ozonation on the quality indicators of packaged soybeans. Raw unwashed beans were used as control to test treatments beans washed and blanched in water bath at 93 ± 2 °C for 2 minutes; part of them was cooled in ice cold distilled water and part was cooled in ozonated ice cold distilled water. Chilled edamame was packed in a polypropylene bag, hermetically sealed and stored at the temperature of +4.0 °C for 21 days. The use of ozonated water for cooling the blanched edamame effectively inhibited the development of harmful microorganisms without significant color changes of pods and beans. The data obtained from the analytical hierarchy process revealed that the ozonated water used to cool blanched edamame compared to pure water did not significantly affect the change in phenolic content in 11 days of storage.

Vegetable soybean (Glycine max), known as edamame, has a high nutritional and market value. It is a relatively new crop in North America and Africa. The amino acid profile is important for the nutritional quality of edamame, and a challenge facing its genetic improvement is evaluating its amino acids rapidly. To explore a drying method suitable for the fast evaluation of edamame nutritional profiles, fresh seed samples of 20 soybean genotypes were dried using freeze, low- and high-heat drying methods, and their amino acid contents were analyzed by near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology. Three-year results indicated that there were significant differences between the years of samplings and among genotypes for all amino acids. Significant differences existed between the drying methods for most amino acids except for leucine and the total amino acid. Low-heat drying at 65 °C and freeze drying showed similar results and were highly comparable to each other for ANOVA and repeatability estimation. The estimates of repeatability under the individual drying methods were 73–94%, except for tryptophan, cysteine and methionine; meanwhile, higher estimates (85–99%) were computed using the combined data of all three drying methods, with few exceptions. Two sulfur-containing amino acids were showed to be more sensitive to high temperature than the others. Six genotypes exhibited higher contents of all the 18 major amino acids and are recommended to be used for the nutritional quality improvement of edamame and other food-grade specialty soybeans. In conclusion, the low-heat drying method can serve as an alternative to freeze drying, and can be used in the large-scale drying of fresh edamame and in the evaluation of seed amino acids in research.

Appearance properties of vegetables can affect consumers' acceptance toward them as well as purchase intent. Hence, appearance is highly associated with quality of edamame (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), a protein-rich vegetable that is experiencing increased sales in the USA. Edamame is a high-value specialty crop and its production has been promoted in Virginia and other states in the USA where the tobacco production has decreased in the last decade. To support current efforts to develop the edamame industry in the USA, consumer and color data of 10 edamame genotypes grown in Virginia were analyzed in this follow-up study to understand the role of overall appearance and color characteristics in consumers' acceptability of edamame beans. In two consecutive years, untrained adult volunteers used 9-point hedonic scales (1 = “dislike extremely”, 9 = “like extremely”) to evaluate appearance and overall liking of edamame samples (cooked and shelled edamame beans) and our researchers measured the reflective color of the samples with a chroma meter. In the first year, sensory panelists also completed a choice-based conjoint analysis to determine their willingness-to-pay (WTP) for dark vs. light green edamame beans in a salad. Edamame genotypes were significantly different in appearance and overall liking (p < 0.05) and the genotype R14-16195 was the most liked overall. Hedonic scores and color were significantly affected by “year” (p < 0.05), so intentional changes between years (e.g., sample preparation) should be avoided in future studies. Consumers showed higher WTP for dark green edamame beans. Additionally, green intensity (color index) and a* color coordinate were correlated to appearance liking scores (p < 0.05), which suggests color data can support breeding selection criteria and possibly predict consumer acceptability. Employing color measurement as quality control method can help improve harvest procedures, post-harvest handling, and define edamame quality standards for the USA market.

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Pot experiments were conducted in 2017, 2019, and 2020 to examine the effects of potassium nutrition on the nutritional components of vegetable soybeans with different K efficiency at immature and mature stages. Two vegetable soybean varieties with higher K efficiency and two varieties with lower K efficiency were studied in the low available K soil under the conditions of no K and normal K fertilization. The results indicated that almost all nutritional components in vegetable soybean were affected by K, genotypes, interannual differences, and their interactions. In general, no K fertilization increased protein and amino acid concentrations but decreased oil, soluble sugar, sucrose, K, Mg, and Fe concentrations in immature and mature vegetable soybean. The sensitivity of nutritional components to K nutrition differed among varieties. For instance, K high-efficiency varieties generally exhibited higher protein and amino acid concentrations without K application. K high-efficiency vegetable soybeans are low-K tolerance varieties to isoflavones. The results of this study provide insights for high yield and quality vegetable soybean breeding against soil K deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evaluating the volatile compounds and characteristic fingerprints of the core cultivars of vegetable soybean would provide useful data for improving their aroma in the breeding programs. The present study used headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) to evaluate the volatile compounds of vegetable soybean seeds at a specific growth stage. In total, 93 signal peaks were identified, 63 compounds qualitatively, with 14 volatile flavor compounds providing multiple signals. The 63 volatile compounds consisted of 15 esters, 15 aldehydes, 13 alcohols, 15 ketones, one acid, and four other compounds. The peak intensity of most of the volatile compounds varied greatly between the core cultivars. The alcohols and aldehydes determined the basic volatile flavor of the vegetable soybean seeds. Volatile flavors were determined by their respective esters, ketones, or other components. Characteristic fingerprints were found in some core vegetable soybean cultivars. Four cultivars (Xiangdou, ZHE1754, Zhexian 65018-33, and Qvxian No. 1) had pleasant aromas, because of their higher content of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP). A principal component analysis (PCA) was used to distinguish the samples based on the signal intensity of their volatile components. The results showed that the composition and concentration of volatile compounds differed greatly between the core cultivars, with the volatile flavor compounds of soybeans being determined by the ecotype of the cultivar, the direction of breeding selection, and their geographical origin. Characteristic fingerprints of the cultivars were established by HS-GC-IMS, enabling them to be used to describe and distinguish cultivars and their offspring in future breeding studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the growing consumer demand for edamame (vegetable soybean) in the U.S., the domestic production of this specialty crop has been promoted in several Mid-Atlantic and Southeast states as an economically attractive alternative to replace the decreasing tobacco production. For the edamame agrobusiness to be successful in the U.S., consumer studies are as needed as new commercial cultivars that are developed for the U.S. environment. Thus, in this exploratory study, we investigated consumers' preferences and intentions to buy edamame products in the U.S., especially domestic products. Data was collected through a web-based survey distributed through QualtricsXM and a convenience sampling method was chosen. Volunteers who completed the survey (N = 309) were 82% female, 57% residents of the South Atlantic area, and 79% daily consumers of vegetables. Survey respondents had a positive attitude toward domestically produced vegetables and valued supporting U.S. producers. Overall, domestically grown, in-shell edamame products were preferred compared to shelled edamame or imported products. Regarding future purchasing, respondents exhibited higher intention to buy fresh edamame relative to frozen edamame. Additionally, respondents considered price, availability, and familiarity with the vegetable brand, respectively, as the most important factors in their decision-making process to buy edamame products. Our study confirmed there is a market potential for domestically produced edamame and it also provides valuable information to support future studies, production decisions, and the growth of the edamame agrobusiness in the U.S.

Vegetable soybean, popularly known as edamame in Japan and mao dou in China is a specialty soybean. Green pods with physiologically mature beans are harvested, and whole pods or shelled beans are used as a fresh or frozen vegetable. Vegetable soybeans are prepared in diverse ways, and they are highly nutritious, with excellent taste properties. Unlike grain soybeans, it is perishable. In this review, the chronological progression of area, production, export, import, and expansion of vegetable soybeans and potential for further expansion is discussed. Available information on current ongoing research and development activities in various countries around the world are presented, and their relevance is discussed. At present, the production and consumption of vegetable soybeans are mainly in East and Southeast Asia, with Japan as the largest importing country that dictates the global market. However, interest and trend in cultivation of this crop in other regions has increased significantly. Lack of germplasm or suitable varieties is a major constraint in vegetable soybean production and expansion in countries outside East and Southeast Asia. Most of the vegetable soybean varieties are genetically related and are susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses. Extensive research and breeding of vegetable soybeans are still restricted in a few countries such as China, Japan, Taiwan and the USA. The need for focused research and development activities with concern for the environment, farmers’ and processors’ profit, consumers’ preference, quality, and nutrition are emphasized.

Evaluating the volatile compounds and characteristic fingerprints of the core cultivars of vegetable soybean would provide useful data for improving their aroma in the breeding programs. The present study used headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS) to evaluate the volatile compounds of vegetable soybean seeds at a specific growth stage. In total, 93 signal peaks were identified, 63 compounds qualitatively, with 14 volatile flavor compounds providing multiple signals. The 63 volatile compounds consisted of 15 esters, 15 aldehydes, 13 alcohols, 15 ketones, one acid, and four other compounds. The peak intensity of most of the volatile compounds varied greatly between the core cultivars. The alcohols and aldehydes determined the basic volatile flavor of the vegetable soybean seeds. Volatile flavors were determined by their respective esters, ketones, or other components. Characteristic fingerprints were found in some core vegetable soybean cultivars. Four cultivars (Xiangdou, ZHE1754, Zhexian 65018-33, and Qvxian No. 1) had pleasant aromas, because of their higher content of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2-AP). A principal component analysis (PCA) was used to distinguish the samples based on the signal intensity of their volatile components. The results showed that the composition and concentration of volatile compounds differed greatly between the core cultivars, with the volatile flavor compounds of soybeans being determined by the ecotype of the cultivar, the direction of breeding selection, and their geographical origin. Characteristic fingerprints of the cultivars were established by HS-GC-IMS, enabling them to be used to describe and distinguish cultivars and their offspring in future breeding studies.

Aroma is an important economic trait of vegetable soybeans, which greatly influences their market value. The 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP) is considered as an important substance affecting the aroma of plants. Although the 2AP synthesis pathway has been resolved, the differences of the 2AP synthesis in the aromatic and non-aromatic vegetable soybeans are unknown. In this study, a broad targeted metabolome analysis including measurement of metabolites levels and gene expression levels was performed to reveal pathways of aroma formation in the two developmental stages of vegetable soybean grains [35 (S5) and 40 (S6) days after anthesis] of the ‘Zhexian No. 8’ (ZX8, non-aromatic) and ZK1754 (aromatic). The results showed that the differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) of the two varieties can be classified into nine main categories including flavonoids, lipids, amino acids and derivatives, saccharides and alcohols, organic acids, nucleotides and derivatives, phenolic acids, alkaloids and vitamin, which mainly contributed to their phenotypic differences. Furthermore, in combination with the 2AP synthesis pathway, the differences of amino acids and derivatives were mainly involved in the 2AP synthesis. Furthermore, 2AP precursors’ analysis revealed that the accumulation of 2AP mainly occurred from 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C), not 4-aminobutyraldehyde (GABald). The quantitative RT-PCR showed that the associated synthetic genes were 1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (P5CDH), ∆1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS), proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) and pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (P5CR), which further verified the synthetic pathway of 2AP. Furthermore, the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (GmBADH2) mutant was not only vital for the occurrence of 2AP, but also for the synthesis of 4-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in vegetable soybean. Therefore, the differences of 2AP accumulation in aromatic and non-aromatic vegetable soybeans have been revealed, and it also provides an important theoretical basis for aromatic vegetable soybean breeding.

Significant variations of potassium absorption and utilization exist in vegetable soybean. Pot and hydroponic experiments were carried out to examine the characteristics of root potassium (K) affinity-associated drivers and photosynthesis in vegetable soybean (edamame) [ Glycine max (L.) Merr.] with different K efficiency. Two K high-efficiency vegetable soybean genotypes (Line 19 and Line 20) and two K low-efficiency genotypes (Line 7 and Line 36) were investigated in low K and normal K conditions. The root of K high-efficiency genotypes had a higher K+ affinity associated with a higher maximum K+ uptake rate (I max), but lower Michaelis constant for K+ absorption (K m) and lower compensation concentration for K+ uptake (C min). Seedlings of K high-efficiency genotypes also had higher root vigor [triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) reduction method] and greater absorbing activity (methylene blue method), especially in the low K condition. Furthermore, the root bleeding-sap rate of K high-efficiency genotypes in low K stress was 9.9–24.3% greater than that of normal K conditions, which was accompanied by a relatively higher K concentration of root bleeding-sap in contributing to K+ upward flux. The root of K high-efficiency vegetable soybean genotypes exhibited K+ high-affinity and driving advantages. Photosynthetic parameters of K high-efficiency vegetable soybean genotypes were less affected by low K stress. Low K stress decreased the net photosynthetic rate of K high-efficiency genotypes by 6.1–6.9%, while that of K low-efficiency genotypes decreased by 10.9–15.7%. The higher chlorophyll (Chl) a/b ratio with enhanced relative content of Chl a in response to low K stress might be an adapted mechanism for K high-efficiency genotypes to maintain photosynthetic capacity. Stronger root K affinity drivers associated with photosynthetic adaptability to low K stress are the key factors in determining the K high-efficiency of vegetable soybeans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significant variations of potassium absorption and utilization exist in vegetable soybean. Pot and hydroponic experiments were carried out to examine the characteristics of root potassium (K) affinity-associated drivers and photosynthesis in vegetable soybean (edamame) [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] with different K efficiency. Two K high-efficiency vegetable soybean genotypes (Line 19 and Line 20) and two K low-efficiency genotypes (Line 7 and Line 36) were investigated in low K and normal K conditions. The root of K high-efficiency genotypes had a higher K+ affinity associated with a higher maximum K+ uptake rate (Imax), but lower Michaelis constant for K+ absorption (Km) and lower compensation concentration for K+ uptake (Cmin). Seedlings of K high-efficiency genotypes also had higher root vigor [triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) reduction method] and greater absorbing activity (methylene blue method), especially in the low K condition. Furthermore, the root bleeding-sap rate of K high-efficiency genotypes in low K stress was 9.9–24.3% greater than that of normal K conditions, which was accompanied by a relatively higher K concentration of root bleeding-sap in contributing to K+ upward flux. The root of K high-efficiency vegetable soybean genotypes exhibited K+ high-affinity and driving advantages. Photosynthetic parameters of K high-efficiency vegetable soybean genotypes were less affected by low K stress. Low K stress decreased the net photosynthetic rate of K high-efficiency genotypes by 6.1–6.9%, while that of K low-efficiency genotypes decreased by 10.9–15.7%. The higher chlorophyll (Chl) a/b ratio with enhanced relative content of Chl a in response to low K stress might be an adapted mechanism for K high-efficiency genotypes to maintain photosynthetic capacity. Stronger root K affinity drivers associated with photosynthetic adaptability to low K stress are the key factors in determining the K high-efficiency of vegetable soybeans.

Tonoplast intrinsic proteins (TIPs), a sub-family of aquaporins (AQPs), are known to play important roles in plant abiotic stress responses. However, evidence for the promoters of TIPs involvement in abiotic stress processes remains scarce. In this study, the promoter of the vegetable soybean GmTIP1;6 gene, which had the highest similarity to TIP1-type AQPs from other plants, was cloned. Expression pattern analyses indicated that the GmTIP1;6 gene was dramatically induced by drought, salt, abscisic acid (ABA), and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) stimuli. Promoter analyses revealed that the GmTIP1;6 promoter contained drought, ABA, and MeJA cis-acting elements. Histochemical staining of the GmTIP1;6 promoter in transgenic Arabidopsis corroborated that it was strongly expressed in the vascular bundles of leaves, stems, and roots. Beta-glucuronidase (GUS) activity assays showed that the activities of the GmTIP1;6 promoter were enhanced by different concentrations of polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000), NaCl, ABA, and MEJA treatments. Integrating these results revealed that the GmTIP1;6 promoter could be applied for improving the tolerance to abiotic stresses of the transgenic plants by promoting the expression of vegetable soybean AQPs.

Edamame is a vegetable soybean (Glycine max) with high nutritional and market value. It is mainly grown in Asia and has expanded to North America and Africa. Freeze and low- and high-heat drying methods were used to dry fresh edamame seeds of 20 soybean lines and cultivars for analysis of their composition using near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology. The results indicated that significant differences existed between years of samplings for all seed composition traits investigated. Differences between drying methods were significant for all the traits with whole-seed samples, while they were not significant in protein, raffinose and linoleic acid for flour samples. Ground flour and whole-seed samples were similar or comparable in most cases for freeze and low-heat drying methods, but differences in seed composition between sample types were observed for high-heat drying. Among the traits investigated, protein content was the most consistent for all three drying methods, with an over 91% estimate of repeatability, showing high stability during drying. Oil content also showed a repeatability estimate of over 86% for all three drying methods. Low-heat drying generated results more comparable to freeze drying, while high-heat drying exhibited larger differences in most cases. Estimates of repeatability and correlation coefficients further confirmed that, low-heat drying, similar to freeze drying, was appropriate for drying fresh edamame seeds, but high-heat drying was not. Therefore, low-heat drying is a suitable method for drying fresh edamame and rapid analysis of seed composition, and it can be used as an alternative of freeze-drying method.

Total soluble sugar (TSS) is an important component in vegetable soybean seeds during the R6 stage and greatly impacts fresh soybean flavor. Increasing the TSS content is thus one of the most important breeding objectives for the creation of high-quality vegetable soybean germplasm. To better understand the genetic basis of the TSS at the R6 stage, we investigated 264 germplasm accessions in two environments. We obtained five associations with 27 significant SNPs using GWAS. The significant SNPs S15_10810881–S15_10843821 and S06_12044239–S06_12048607 were identified in both environments. We then conducted candidate gene analysis and uncovered nine candidate genes as potential regulators of TSS content in vegetable soybean seeds using RT-PCR. These genes may be involved in the regulation of soluble sugar content in soybean seeds. This study provides new knowledge for the understanding of the genetic basis of TSS at the R6 stage and will help improve regulation of TSS in vegetable soybean using molecular breeding.

Although several reports exist on the use of X-ray analysis in vegetables and fruits to examine internal disorders, cavities, and porosity, information on X-ray analysis of qualities, such as texture, is lacking as well as information on X-ray analysis of legumes. Therefore, this study aimed to perform X-ray analysis with sensory and rheometer tests in cooked vegetable soybean (edamame). Edamame is popular worldwide due to its deliciousness and nutritional value. Vascular structures and cracks around them were clearly visualized using X-ray phase-contrast computed tomography (CT) imaging. In addition, we observed the fine structure of the seed coat, which could be important for seed development, germination, and processing. The density in the edamame beans declined as the boiling time increased, promoting a reduction in hardness described in sensory and rheometer tests. The reduction in density proceeded from the gap between cotyledons, the opposite side of the hypocotyl, and the crack. Collectively, the findings show that the high-resolution X-ray phase-contrast CT imaging conducted in a nondestructive manner may help in effectively evaluating the quality of vegetables and in observing the internal structures related to plant development.

The volatile flavor profiles and sensory properties of different vegetable soybean varieties popularized and cultivated in China for 20, 10, and 2 years (TW292, X3, and SX6, respectively) were investigated. Nutrient composition analysis revealed that TW292 had a high soluble protein and soluble sugar content but low fat content. The total free amino acid content (15.43 mg/g) and umami free amino acid content (6.08 mg/g) of SX6 were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those of the other varieties. An electronic tongue effectively differentiated between the umami and sweetness characteristics of the vegetable soybeans. Differences in sensory evaluation results were mainly reflected in texture and taste. A total of 41 volatile compounds were identified through HS-SPME-GC-MS, and the main flavor compounds were 1-octen-3-ol, hexanal, (Z)-2-heptenal, 2-octene, nonanal, (Z)-2-decenal, and 3,5-octadien-2-one. However, the volatile composition of different vegetable soybean varieties exhibited large variability in type and relative contents. Considerable differences in nutritional, organoleptic, and aroma characteristics were found among different varieties. The results of this study will provide a good basis for the assessment and application of the major vegetable soybean varieties grown in China.

Vegetable soybean is a type of value-added specialty soybean, served as a fresh vegetable or snack in China. Due to the difference from other types, it is important to understand the genetic structure and diversity of vegetable soybean for further utilization in breeding programs. The four vegetable cultivars, Taiwan-75, Zhexiandou No. 8, Zhexian No. 9 and Zhexian No. 10 are popular soybean varieties planted in Zhejiang province, and have large pods and intermediate maturity. The clustering showed a close relationship of these four cultivars in simple sequence repeat analysis. To reveal the genome variation of vegetable soybean, these four improved lines were analyzed by whole-genome re-sequencing. The average sequencing depth was 7X and the coverage ratio of each cultivar was at least more than 94%. Compared with the reference genome, a large number of single-nucleotide polymorphisms, insertion/deletions and structure variations were identified with different chromosome distributions. The average heterozygosity rate of the single-nucleotide polymorphisms was 11.99% of these four cultivars. According to the enrichment analysis, there were 23,371 genes identified with putative modifications, and a total of 282 genes were related to carbohydrate metabolic processes. These results provide useful information for genetic research and future breeding, which can facilitate the selection procedures in vegetable soybean breeding.