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Adlay plant (Coix lacryma-jobi) grown in many Asian countries, as a source of carbohydrates. The cultivation of adlay faces challenges such as long growth periods, low yields, and hard seeds. Efforts to enhance productivity are crucial, specifically by applying Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium fertilizers at the appropriate and balanced doses that have not yet been established. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the relationship between seed weight and seed coat characteristics under optimal N, P, and K fertilizer doses. The exploration process was conducted at the Research Station and Plant Production Technology Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Padjadjaran University, from April 2019 to November 2020. Features of the location included an altitude of 750 – 800 m above sea level, a climate type C3 (Oldeman), an average temperature of 23.8oC, and a soil classified as Inceptisols with a pH of 5.83. The experimental design incorporated several treatments at minimum, optimum, and maximum dosage levels, namely N (90kg/ ha, 180 kg/ha, and 270 kg/ha), P (37.5kg/ha, 75 kg/ha, and 150 kg/ha), and K (60 kg/ha, 120 kg/ha and 240 kg/ha) fertilizers, each was repeated twice. Fertilizer application was administered at the beginning of growth and the late vegetative phase, while P was given during the late vegetative phase and before seed formation. Subsequently, a regression analysis was performed to determine the relationship of the weight of 100 seeds with thickness and hardness, generating the equation: Y = 13.755 + 0.061 X1 + 0.012 X2, where X1 = seed hardness and X2 = seed coat thickness. Observations were carried out on the weight, thickness, and hardness of adlay seeds, both macroscopically by measuring length and width or diameter and microscopically through the evaluation of coat and silica layer thickness). The results showed a significant relationship between seed weight, thickness, and hardness, yielding 5.56 t/ha with an 80% land efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laccase (LAC) is the key enzyme responsible for lignin biosynthesis. Here, 57 PgLACs from pomegranate were identified and distributed on eight chromosomes and one unplaced scaffold. They were divided into six groups containing three typical Cu-oxidase domains. Totally, 51 cis-acting elements in the promoter region of PgLACs are involved in response to ABA, GA, light, stress, etc., indicating diverse functions of PgLACs. The expression profiles of 13 PgLACs during the seed development stage showed that most PgLACs expressed at a higher level earlier than at the later seed development stage in two pomegranate cultivars except PgLAC4. Also, PgLAC1/6/7/16 expressed at a significantly higher level in soft-seed 'Tunisia'; on the contrary, PgLAC37 and PgLAC50 with a significantly higher expression in hard-seed 'Taishanhong'. Combined with their distinguishing cis-acting elements, it was concluded that PgLAC1/6/7 may respond to GA via TATC-box and GARE-motif, and PgLAC16 repressed the promotor activity of embryo mid-maturation genes via RY-element so as to contribute to softer seed formation, whereas PgLAC37/50 may participate in seed formation and accelerate seed maturity via ABRE and G-box elements. Collectively, the dramatic gene expressions of PgLAC1/6/7/16/37/50 will provide valuable information to explore the formation of soft- and hard-seed in pomegranate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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ATP-binding cassette subfamily G (ABCG) proteins play important roles in plant growth and development by transporting metabolites across cell membranes. To date, the genetic characteristics and potential functions of pomegranate ABCG proteins (PgrABCGs) have remained largely unknown. In this study, we found that 47 PgrABCGs were divided into five groups according to a phylogenetic analysis; groups I, II, III, and IV members are half-size proteins, and group V members are full-size proteins. PgrABCG14, PgrABCG21, and PgrABCG47 were highly expressed in the inner seed coat but had very low expression levels in the outer seed coat, and the expression levels of these three PgrABCG genes in the inner seed coats of hard-seeded pomegranate 'Dabenzi' were higher than those of soft-seeded pomegranate 'Tunisia'. In addition, the expression of these three PgrABCG genes was highly correlated with the expression of genes involved in lignin biosynthesis and hormone signaling pathways. The evolution of PgrABCG14 presents a highly similar trend to the origin and evolution of lignin biosynthesis during land plant evolution. Ectopic expression of PgrABCG14 in Arabidopsis promoted plant growth and lignin accumulation compared to wild type plants; meanwhile, the expression levels of lignin biosynthesis-related genes (CAD5, C4H, and Prx71) and cytokinin response marker genes (ARR5 and ARR15) were significantly upregulated in transgenic plants, which suggests the potential role of PgrABCG14 in promoting plant growth and lignin accumulation. Taken together, these findings not only provide insight into the characteristics and evolution of PgrABCGs, but also shed a light on the potential functions of PgrABCGs in seed hardness development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Laccase (LAC) is the key enzyme responsible for lignin biosynthesis. Here, 57 PgLACs from pomegranate were identified and distributed on eight chromosomes and one unplaced scaffold. They were divided into six groups containing three typical Cu-oxidase domains. Totally, 51 cis-acting elements in the promoter region of PgLACs are involved in response to ABA, GA, light, stress, etc., indicating diverse functions of PgLACs. The expression profiles of 13 PgLACs during the seed development stage showed that most PgLACs expressed at a higher level earlier than at the later seed development stage in two pomegranate cultivars except PgLAC4. Also, PgLAC1/6/7/16 expressed at a significantly higher level in soft-seed ‘Tunisia’; on the contrary, PgLAC37 and PgLAC50 with a significantly higher expression in hard-seed ‘Taishanhong’. Combined with their distinguishing cis-acting elements, it was concluded that PgLAC1/6/7 may respond to GA via TATC-box and GARE-motif, and PgLAC16 repressed the promotor activity of embryo mid-maturation genes via RY-element so as to contribute to softer seed formation, whereas PgLAC37/50 may participate in seed formation and accelerate seed maturity via ABRE and G-box elements. Collectively, the dramatic gene expressions of PgLAC1/6/7/16/37/50 will provide valuable information to explore the formation of soft- and hard-seed in pomegranate.

Seed physical properties are stable and visualized, and believed to be reference indicators for screening high-vigor seeds. However, the detailed relationship between seed vigor and its physical properties is not fully understood in rice. To elucidate the relationship mentioned above, seed physical properties such as seed size, hardness, and water absorption rate, and seed vigor indicators including germination rate, salt-stressed germination rate, and drought-stressed germination rate were determined among different rice cultivars. Significant differences in seed vigor indicators and seed physical properties were recorded among different rice cultivars. Germination rate, salt-stressed germination rate, drought-stressed germination rate, seed hardness, and water absorption rate ranged from 32.0 ± 1.7% to 99.7 ± 0.3%, 14.4 ± 2.4% to 99.7 ± 0.3%, 3.3 ± 2.6% to 95.7 ± 2.1%, 69.15 ± 0.15 N to 74.56 ± 0.14 N, and 0.09 ± 0.00 g/h to 0.12 ± 0.00 g/h, respectively. Additionally, correlation analysis showed that seed hardness and water absorption rate were significantly positively related to seed vigor (r = 0.33 **−0.41 **, from 2014 to 2016; r = 0.45 **−0.65 **, in 2021). Moreover, principal component analysis determined that the first principal component explained 91.4%, 90.1%, and 89.9% of the variance of seed physical properties, respectively, and loaded on seed hardness and water absorption rate. These results indicate that seed hardness and water absorption rate can be recommended as efficient indicators for screening rice seeds with high vigor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Genetic basis of soybean seed hardness explored in a diverse RIL population. • Six QTLs identified, with qHS-2-1 consistently dominant in multiple years and locations. • Four candidate genes within qHS-2-1 interval revealed, including Glyma.02G307000. • GO enrichment analysis unveils functions related to calcium binding and pectin lyase activity. • Expression differences in candidate genes between parent varieties underscore their role. Seed hardness is a critical quality trait impacting both the suitability of soybeans for consumption and their processing. The primary objective of this study was to explore the genetic foundations underlying seed hardness in soybeans. A 234 recombinant inbred line (RIL) population was evaluated for seed hardness across three years (2015 in Gansu, 2016, and 2017 in Hainan). Notably, the parent varieties, Zhonghuang35 and Jindou21, displayed significant differences in seed hardness. Also, the RIL population exhibited a wide range of genetic variation in seed hardness, with coefficients of variation between 70.53 % and 94.94 %. The frequency distribution of this trait conformed to a relatively normal distribution, making it suitable for QTL analysis. Six QTLs associated with seed hardness were identified with three located on chromosome 2 and three on chromosome 16. The major QTL, qHS-2 - 1 , consistently exhibited the highest percentage of PVE and LOD in Gansu 2015, Hainan 2016, and Hainan 2017, suggesting its central role in determining seed hardness. Further investigation revealed four genes within the qHS-2 - 1 interval potentially related to seed hardness. GO enrichment analysis provided insights into their functions, including factors such as Glyma.02G307000 , a pectin lyase-like superfamily protein, which could influence seed hardness through its role in pectin lyase enzyme activity. Expression analysis of these candidate genes demonstrated significant differences between the two parent varieties, further highlighting their potential role in seed coat hardness. This study offers valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms governing soybean seed coat hardness, providing a foundation for future research and crop improvement efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seed physical properties are stable and visualized, and believed to be reference indicators for screening high-vigor seeds. However, the detailed relationship between seed vigor and its physical properties is not fully understood in rice. To elucidate the relationship mentioned above, seed physical properties such as seed size, hardness, and water absorption rate, and seed vigor indicators including germination rate, salt-stressed germination rate, and drought-stressed germination rate were determined among different rice cultivars. Significant differences in seed vigor indicators and seed physical properties were recorded among different rice cultivars. Germination rate, salt-stressed germination rate, drought-stressed germination rate, seed hardness, and water absorption rate ranged from 32.0 ± 1.7% to 99.7 ± 0.3%, 14.4 ± 2.4% to 99.7 ± 0.3%, 3.3 ± 2.6% to 95.7 ± 2.1%, 69.15 ± 0.15 N to 74.56 ± 0.14 N, and 0.09 ± 0.00 g/h to 0.12 ± 0.00 g/h, respectively. Additionally, correlation analysis showed that seed hardness and water absorption rate were significantly positively related to seed vigor (r = 0.33 **−0.41 **, from 2014 to 2016; r = 0.45 **−0.65 **, in 2021). Moreover, principal component analysis determined that the first principal component explained 91.4%, 90.1%, and 89.9% of the variance of seed physical properties, respectively, and loaded on seed hardness and water absorption rate. These results indicate that seed hardness and water absorption rate can be recommended as efficient indicators for screening rice seeds with high vigor.

Soybean seed hardness is a key trait that influences planting, nutritional quality, and postharvest processing, but its genetic and molecular mechanisms remain to be clarified. We used meta-analysis to detect 17 meta-quantitative trait locus (QTLs) for soybean seed hardness. We then identified a hard-seeded chromosome segment substitution line, R75, with fragments introduced from hard-seeded wild germplasm in four of the meta-QTL intervals. Observations of the seed coat ultrastructure revealed thicker palisade tissue in R75 than in its soft-seeded recurrent parent. Transcriptomics and proteomics of R75 and its recurrent parent revealed multiple candidate genes associated with seed hardness. Fifty-seven were located on homozygous introduced fragments, 26 in meta-QTL intervals, and one in both ( Glyma.02G268600 ). Five initial candidates were selected for KASP marker development on the basis of their predicted functions and nonsynonymous SNPs. The selection efficiency of the markers was as high as 90% for nonhard lines and 43% for hard lines in the chromosome segment substitution line (CSSL) population.