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Complex decision making (CDM) processes differ from simple ones in that they require greater cognitive engagement and a longer response time. In previous cognitive experiments, the effect of Repetition (RP) and Emotional Semantic priming (ESP) was evaluated on decisions made by participants randomly divided into 2 groups asking them to choose a face in order to perform an important task (IMT) or without specifying the task (UST). The results indicated that CDM processes could be modulated by both priming when the task was not specified (UST group), but not when the choice was made to perform an important task (IMT group), when response time was higher. These experiments raise the role of the nature of the task in a possible top-down mechanism modulating CDM. The aim of this work was to assess whether it is complexity, rather than relevance, that triggers the top-down mechanism. For this purpose, online experiments were conducted to assess whether RP or ESP modulated the decisions of subject randomly assigned to a new experimental group, which was asked to choose a face (from 4) for a non-important task (NIT), or a new UST group. The NIT group showed no susceptibility to priming, and their response times were longer, compatible with type-2 reflexive processes. These results support the hypothesis that priming modulation might be affected by the cognitive complexity associated with the task, rather than importance, initiating the top-down modulation mechanism. Knowing the conditions that make political decisions less automatic has a social relevance, in order to improve our democracies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This model provides a basis for simulating, modeling, and intervening in real-time to form impactful physical activity habits. The influence of habit on physical activity is computationally modeled as the aggregated influence of past behavioral choices a person makes in a given context. We hypothesize that the influence of habit on behavior can be enhanced through engagement of the target behavior in a particular context or weakened through engagement of alternative behaviors in that context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This experimental investigation explores the influence of election fraud fact-checking and cognitive processing styles on participants' confidence in the 2020 U.S. presidential election's legitimacy and characterizations of the January Sixth Capitol Hill Attack. The results indicate fact-checking, accuracy motivated reasoning, and systematic processing exerted positive effects on participants' legitimacy levels, especially among Republicans. We also found that participants' systematic processing, affiliation with the Democratic Party, and negative attitudes toward Donald Trump were associated with their characterizations of the January Sixth Capitol Hill Attack as violent and extreme. Overall, these results support both motivated reasoning and dual process models, but partisan motivated reasoning exerted the greatest effects. Further, these findings suggest Republican and pro-Trump participants who rely on heuristic processing may find violent, extra-political actions acceptable means of attempting to achieve their goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Which social decisions are influenced by intuitive processes? Which by deliberative processes? The dual-process approach to human sociality has emerged in the last decades as a vibrant and exciting area of research. Yet a perspective that integrates empirical and theoretical work is lacking. This review and meta-analysis synthesizes the existing literature on the cognitive basis of cooperation, altruism, truth telling, positive and negative reciprocity, and deontology and develops a framework that organizes the experimental regularities. The meta-analytic results suggest that intuition favors a set of heuristics that are related to the instinct for self-preservation: people avoid being harmed, avoid harming others (especially when there is a risk of harm to themselves), and are averse to disadvantageous inequalities. Finally, this article highlights some key research questions to further advance our understanding of the cognitive foundations of human sociality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work supports the role of reasoning in third-party moral judgment of harm transgressions. The dynamics of the underlying cognitive processes supporting moral judgment is however poorly understood. In two preregistered experiments, we addressed this issue using a two-response paradigm. Participants were presented with moral scenarios twice: they had to provide their first judgment about an agent under both time pressure and interfering load, and were then asked to respond a second time at their own pace. In Experiment 1, participants were harsher toward a malevolent agent at the second response, assigning more moral wrongness and punishment to an agent who either attempted to harm or harmed intentionally. Experiment 2 replicated the effect of intention on response change in a paradigm contrasting accidental to intentional harm scenarios. Participants were not only harsher toward intentional transgressors at the second response, but they were also less harsh toward accidental transgressors at the second response. We discuss the possibility that decoding overall intent and assigning moral judgment based on the presence or absence of a malevolent intent may be a relatively costly process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of middle-age children do not meet current physical activity guidelines. There is growing evidence that adults' physical activity is partially influenced by automatic affective processes, which are derived from affective experiences with physical activity. However, little is known about whether these processes are interrelated with children's physical activity level. A prospective design was used to examine whether automatic affective processes assessed by an evaluative priming procedure predict physical activity of children. Physical activity of 48 children (8.71 ± 0.71 years; 65% girls) was measured for 1 week with activity trackers. In a linear regression model, automatic affective processes (β = 0.36) significantly predicted physical activity, accounting for 11.02% of variance. These results indicate that physical-activity-related automatic affective processes are associated with children's physical activity, as has previously been found in adults. This study emphasizes the importance of fostering positive affective experiences associated with physical activity during childhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The dual-process theory of thought rests on the co-existence of two different thinking modalities: a quick, automatic, and associative process opposed to a slow, thoughtful, and deliberative process. The increasing interest in determining the neural foundation of the dual-process distinction has yielded mixed results, also given the difficulty of applying the fMRI standard approach to tasks usually employed in the cognitive literature. We report an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis to investigate the neural foundation of the dual-process theory of thought. Eligible studies allowed for the identification of cerebral areas associated with dual-process theory-based tasks without differentiating between fast and slow thinking. The ALE algorithm converged on the medial frontal cortex, superior frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and left inferior frontal gyrus. These structures partially overlap with the cerebral areas recurrently reported in the literature about the neural basis of the dual-process distinction, where the PARCS theory-based interpretation emphasizes the role of the right inferior gyrus. The results confirm the potential (but still almost unexplored) common ground between the dual-process literature and the cognitive control literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Around 40% of US university students use cannabis, 25% of whom present with cannabis use disorder, which endangers health. We investigated the concurrent contribution of reflective processes, which generate action via conscious deliberation, and non-reflective processes, which prompt behavior automatically, to undergraduates' cannabis consumption. Eighteen UK undergraduates who regularly consume cannabis (11 female, 7 male; mean age 20 y). Semi-structured interviews explored cannabis motives, routines, cues, and decision points. Thematic analysis identified themes, in each of which reflective and non-reflective dimensions were coded. Four themes were identified: cannabis use for relaxation, social bonding, and symbolic-affective significance, and contexts and triggers. Some influences guided cannabis use reflectively in some settings, and non-reflectively in others. Even when cannabis use was consciously driven, non-reflective processes were deployed to execute subservient acts, such as rolling joints. Findings highlight specific processes and pathways that might be targeted to reduce cannabis-related harm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the worldwide distribution of geogenic arsenic (As)-affected groundwater is highly overlapped with the areas with abundant groundwater, utilization of As-contained groundwater is an inevitable compromise in those areas where surface water is not enough for irrigation. Since the occurrence of As in groundwater is often accompanied by high iron (Fe) contents, the facilitation of As and Fe precipitation without adding additional oxidizers and adsorbents is considered an environmental-friendly approach to removing As in groundwater. In the present study, the oxidation/filtration dual-process with sprinkling height of 25 cm and 120 kg filter media efficiently increased the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration (0.36–1.52 mg/L) and oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) (24–63 mV), which facilitated the formation of Fe oxides and As co-precipitation. The correlation of As removal efficiencies with their respective flow rates indicated that a decrease in groundwater Fe and an increase of Fe in sands and gravels filters as the flow rate increased evidenced the rapid oxidation of Fe to form the Fe hydroxides. In a 40-hour continuous aeration/filtration operation, As and Fe concentrations in groundwater were reduced by 79.5% and 64.88% within 40 hrs, respectively. The ease of filter replacement and cost-effectiveness in operation can be the major attractions and innovations for future field practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a widowed family, the surviving parent and children face the loss together. However, most previous research in bereavement has focused on individual experiences. Although the family perspective has been introduced into the field, neither theories nor empirical research has explored mutual interaction. Dyadic coping reflects the family perspective and has been proven to be an influential factor in couples facing life adversities. Nevertheless, it has not been explored in the context of bereavement-specific stressors, including loss- and restoration-related stressors, nor in the parent–child relationship. This research is the first exploration of parent–child dyadic coping in widowed families in the bereavement context and aims to form a comprehensive conceptualization of parent–child dyadic coping following bereavement. Qualitative semistructured interviews were conducted with 20 parents and children from widowed families in mainland China (11 surviving children and nine widowed parents, representing 19 families). Constructivist grounded theory was used to guide the analysis. The main themes identified were dyadic coping-related cognitions, loss-oriented dyadic coping, restoration-oriented dyadic coping, and contextual factors. Three foci (thou, we, and I) were identified for both loss- and restoration-oriented dyadic coping. A conceptualization model of bereavement dyadic coping within widowed families was developed. This study extends the single I-coping perspective in bereavement coping to a we-coping perspective, provides an interactional- and operational-level knowledge on dual-process coping, acknowledges the bilateral interaction in parent–child relationships, and offers implications for bereavement support practice for widowed families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive explanations raise epistemological problems not faced by accounts confined to observable variables. Many explanatory components of cognitive models are unobservable: beliefs, attitudes, and intentions, for instance, must be made empirically available to the researcher in the form of measures of observable behavior from which the latent variables are inferred. The explanatory variables are abstract and theoretical and rely, if they are to enter investigations and explanations, on reasoned agreement on how they can be captured by proxy variables derived from what people say and how they behave. Psychometrics must be founded upon a firm, intersubjective agreement among researchers and users of research on the relationship of behavioral measures to the intentional constructs to which they point and the latent variables they seek to operationalize. Only if these considerations are adequately addressed can we arrive at consistent interpretations of the data. This problem provides the substance of the intentional behaviorist research programme which seeks to provide a rationale for the cognitive explanation. Within this programme, two versions of the Behavioral Perspective Model (BPM), an extensional portrayal of socioeconomic behavior and a corresponding intentional approach, address the task of identifying where intentional explanation becomes necessary and the formit should take. This study explores a third version, based on neurophysiological substrates of consumer choice as a contributor to this task. The nature of "value" is closely related to the rationale for a neurophysiological model of consumer choice. The variables involved are operationally specified and measured with high intersubjective agreement. The intentional model (BPM-I), depicting consumer action in terms of mental processes such as perception, deliberation, and choice, extends the purview of the BPM to new situations and areas of explanation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Listing titles significantly impact consumer behaviors on shared-economy platforms (e.g. Airbnb). Due to limited research on the length, informativeness, and creativity of titles in this context, this research investigates consumers’ responses and perceptions towards various types of listing titles by exploring their cognitive processes and conscious preferences. In a three-phase study design, this research analyzed Airbnb listing titles in China and America, conducted eye-tracking experiments, and collected surveys to evaluate the effects of title length and informativeness. The results revealed cultural differences in titles, but similar behaviors among Chinese and English-speaking consumers. Cultural assumptions, processing, and informativeness were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several latest elections and referendums were marked by the dramatic failure of electoral forecasts based on mass polls. To respond to the dissatisfaction of the public and politicians, alternative approaches like prediction markets, Implicit Attitude Test (IAT), expectationbased forecasts and so on were developed. IAT proves to be one of the most efficient ways to enrich the forecasting models and improve their accuracy. The problem is that the original form of IAT implies too rigid rules to be applied in the traditional mass poll. As a thorough laboratory-style measurement of nervous reactions to stimuli, IAT requires a special environment, for instance, nothing should disturb or distract respondents from performing experimental tasks. Such an environment is difficult to provide during the mass poll’s fieldwork; thereby, researchers usually implement IAT on small samples. This article presents the Graphic Associative Test of Attitude (GATA) as a tool for mass polls. It is the IAT’s functional analog developed by the author and tested in a wide range of preelectoral mass polls in Russia. GATA is easy to use even with inexperienced interviewers, and its simple and intuitive-clear tasks do not create additional barriers for respondents and do not decrease the response rate. At the same time, in a reliable way, GATA identifies implicit factors of behavior and helps to improve the accuracy of forecast. As a theoretical research, this study proves the ‘dual attitude’ concept of the structural theory of attitude.

Cognitive explanations raise epistemological problems not faced by accounts confined to observable variables. Many explanatory components of cognitive models are unobservable: beliefs, attitudes, and intentions, for instance, must be made empirically available to the researcher in the form of measures of observable behavior from which the latent variables are inferred. The explanatory variables are abstract and theoretical and rely, if they are to enter investigations and explanations, on reasoned agreement on how they can be captured by proxy variables derived from what people say and how they behave. Psychometrics must be founded upon a firm, intersubjective agreement among researchers and users of research on the relationship of behavioral measures to the intentional constructs to which they point and the latent variables they seek to operationalize. Only if these considerations are adequately addressed can we arrive at consistent interpretations of the data. This problem provides the substance of the intentional behaviorist research programme which seeks to provide a rationale for the cognitive explanation. Within this programme, two versions of the Behavioral Perspective Model (BPM), an extensional portrayal of socioeconomic behavior and a corresponding intentional approach, address the task of identifying where intentional explanation becomes necessary and the form it should take. This study explores a third version, based on neurophysiological substrates of consumer choice as a contributor to this task. The nature of “value” is closely related to the rationale for a neurophysiological model of consumer choice. The variables involved are operationally specified and measured with high intersubjective agreement. The intentional model (BPM-I), depicting consumer action in terms of mental processes such as perception, deliberation, and choice, extends the purview of the BPM to new situations and areas of explanation.

Contemporary dual-process models of reasoning maintain that there are two types of thinking –intuitive and deliberative –and that low confidence often leads to deliberation. Previous studies examining the confidence -deliberation relationship have been limited by (1) issues of endogeneity and between-subject comparisons, which we address in this study through debias training and (2) measures of confidence that are taken relatively late in the reasoning process, which we address by measuring confidence via real-time eye-tracking. Self-reported and eye-tracked confidence were both negatively related to deliberative thinking. This finding provides new evidence of the timecourse of the confidence -deliberation relationship and reveals that lowered confidence precedes deliberation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

State and nonstate theories of hypnosis have dominated the field for decades and helped advance hypnosis clinically and scientifically. However, they fall short in various ways including insufficient consideration of unconscious/experiential processes. The authors' new theory is predicated on Epstein's cognitive-experiential self-theory, a dual-process model that provides a comprehensive understanding of the rational system and the experiential system and highlights that, although they interact synergistically, their features and modes of operation differ greatly. The rational system, influenced by logic and reason, is demanding of cognitive resources and operates effortfully with minimal affect. In contrast, the experiential system is emotionally driven, associative, and encodes reality in images and feelings without conscious effort. Our theory, the adaptive experiential theory, posits that complex hypnotic responding is attributable to an individual's ability to adapt and deliberately shift from processing primarily within the rational system to the experiential system. Greater association with the experiential system yields alterations in processing reality, which allows hypnotic suggestions to be internalized and enacted without excessive interference from the rational system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main purpose of the study is to examine various ethical decision-making models based on Dual Process Theory (DPT) and to determine the features of their application in business management. Systematization of the literary sources and approaches for solving the problem of managerial decision-making indicates that despite a significant number of data publications, the issue of the implementation and effectiveness of ethical models is poorly researched and requires a more detailed analysis. The object of research is secondary data contained in scientific articles published in journals. The paper examines the social-intuitive-emotional context of the ethical decision-making process, which can help understand the management context of these models. The results of the empirical analysis of the features of the use of the Social-Intuitionist (S-I), Cognitive-Intuitionist (C-I), and Cognitive-Affective models (C-A) models in the decision-making process proved the existence of significant differences between them. The methodological tools of the research were the theories of emotion and intuition, as they directly relate to the “Integrated Ethical Decision Making” (I-EDM) model, which is the most practiced in the actual business setting. The article proposes a conceptual integrated R-S-I-E Ethical Decision-Making model, which can be used in testing theoretical research questions and hypotheses related to business ethics. This model considers individual factors, personal moral philosophy (deontology, teleology), and the moral intensity managers feel during a moral dilemma. Based on the research results, the consequences of overcoming the gap between the existing theoretical developments on these issues and the peculiarities of the decision-making process in practice are summarized. The research results can be used in the empirical evaluation of ethical models in different cultural conditions (including India) and be helpful for the management of companies in making ethical decisions.

In this paper we develop test cases to adjudicate between dual-process and the causal mapping explanations of order effects. Using dilemmas with minimized emotional force, we explore new conditions for order effects to occur. Overall, the results support causal model theory. We produced novel evidence that order effects extend not only to cases with low emotional engagement, but also to specialized judgments about whether an action violates a rule. However, when objects are sacrificed instead of persons the order effect either disappears or becomes symmetrical, contrary to previous theorizing that it is an asymmetrical transfer effect. Causal model theory needs to be developed to include interplays between the moral status of sacrificed entities and computational models of causal mapping. Symmetric order effects remain a puzzle, motivating future research. Though we do not know how to explain them yet, we discuss how symmetric order effects can influence policy decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have differentiated between implicit and explicit processing in emotion recognition using facial expressions and utterances. Implicit processing relates to observed cues, and explicit processing to inference of the expressed emotion. However, the relationships between implicit and explicit processing, and between emotion recognition from facial expressions and from utterances, have not yet been empirically determined. To investigate this issue, the present study examined the more important cues in judging the emotion of the expressor by presenting facial expressions that expressed different emotions in the eyes and mouth, and utterances that expressed different emotions in prosody and lexical content. Additionally, the study examined the cues the participants were more likely to focus their attention on. The results indicated no relationship between implicit and explicit processing. However, an association between the explicit processing of facial expressions and that of utterances was observed, suggesting that explicit processing is independent of implicit processing, and influenced by social conventions. These findings expand our knowledge regarding the processes involved in emotion recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We derive novel explicit formulas for the inverses of truncated block Toeplitz matrices that correspond to a multivariate minimal stationary process. The main ingredients of the formulas are the Fourier coefficients of the phase function attached to the spectral density of the process. The derivation of the formulas is based on a recently developed finite prediction theory applied to the dual process of the stationary process. We illustrate the usefulness of the formulas by two applications. The first one is a strong convergence result for solutions of general block Toeplitz systems for a multivariate short-memory process. The second application is closed-form formulas for the inverses of truncated block Toeplitz matrices corresponding to a multivariate ARMA process. The significance of the latter is that they provide us with a linear-time algorithm to compute the solutions of corresponding block Toeplitz systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recognition memory receiver operating characteristic (ROC) is typically asymmetric with a characteristic elevation of the left-hand portion. Whereas the unequal variance signal detection model (uvsd) assumes the asymmetry results because old item evidence is noisier than new item evidence, the dual process signal detection model (dpsd) assumes it results because old items convey more useful information than new items. To test these assumptions, the models were fit to old/new recognition data and their evidence parameters were used to predict performance on a novelty, three-alternative forced-choice (N3AFC) recognition task. Critically, under the uvsd model, increased old item variance (sigma) predicts poorer N3AFC performance, whereas under the dpsd model, increased recollection rates (Ro) predict better N3AFC performance. Hence, the asymmetry parameters of the two models make divergent predictions. In two experiments the dpsd model's predictions were supported, whereas the uvsd model yielded unpredicted (from that model's perspective) patterns. Through simulation it was also shown that the dpsd model predicted the uvsd model's mispredictions, which resulted because increases in old item noise markedly depress the upper portion of the ROC. Overall, the data demonstrate that increasing ROC asymmetry is not a function of increasingly noisier target evidence, but instead increasingly informative target evidence. These findings invalidate the uvsd model, which heretofore has been primarily supported by its post-hoc fitting ability, not its construct validity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A two‐step process of coagulation/flocculation followed by a simultaneous dual process (photocatalysis + photo‐Fenton) is developed to treat real pulp and paper (P and P) industry wastewater. The rigid stout color wastewater was treated using a sunlight‐responsive and cost‐effective Fe‐TiO2 composite using recirculating photoreactor with a total working volume of 4 L. The key point of this study is that the treatment is done in very less time (90 min), and it incorporates the idea of circular economy, as the composite is fabricated out of industrial rejects. The further intensification of the process was done by proper process optimization of both approaches. With an initial concentration of stout color (0.78 AU) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) (2200 mg/L), the optimized conditions gave a good reduction in % color and % COD, that is, 64.1% and 41.8% (1280 mg/L) after coagulation/flocculation and 89.74% and 53.12% (600 mg/L) after dual, respectively. The composite was characterized by using various techniques like field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM)/energy dispersive X‐ray analysis (EDAX), UV–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV–vis DRS), and X‐ray diffraction (XRD) to check the catalyst composition, complexes formed between Fe‐TiO2, and the catalyst intactness in both fresh and 50 times recycled composite. A trapping study was also performed using various quenchers to confirm that OH• plays a major role in the present study among other radicals produced where 55–60% drop in color removal was seen. In order to foresee the commercial use of this study, the process' cost was also estimated. Practitioner points: Industrial waste products were used to fabricate inert support that promoted the idea of circular economy/waste management.Iron from the waste used to execute photo‐Fenton process along with forming Fe‐TiO2 complex to make it visibly active composite.Enhanced production of OH radicals facilitated removal of stout color and COD from the real pulp and paper industry wastewater in just 90 min.Coagulation/flocculation followed by dual technique proved to be the best approach out of three different approaches applied.Composite showed excellent durability even after 50 recycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

People tend to ignore the probabilistic rules cued by the base-rate information and rely on the heuristic intuition cued by the descriptive information to make “stereotypical” responses in base-rate problems. Conflict detection studies have shown that reasoners can detect conflicts between heuristic intuition and probabilistic considerations despite ultimately stereotypical responses. However, these studies primarily used extreme base-rate tasks. A critical open question is the extent to which successful conflict detection relies on an extreme base rate. The present study explores this issue by manipulating the base-rate extremity of problems in which the descriptive information and the base-rate information conflict or not. As a result, when reasoners made stereotypical responses in the conflict version of the moderate base-rate task, they took longer to respond, had lower confidence in their responses, and were slower to evaluate their confidence than in the no-conflict version of the task. All three measures indicate that stereotypical reasoners can stably detect conflict in moderate base-rate tasks, which expands the scope of successful conflict detection. Moreover, our response confidence data found a larger detection effect size in the extreme base-rate condition than in the moderate base-rate condition. This suggests that conflict detection is more efficient as the base-rate extremity increases. Implications for the boundary conditions of conflict detection are discussed.

The dual-process theory of thought rests on the co-existence of two different thinking modalities: a quick, automatic, and associative process opposed to a slow, thoughtful, and deliberative process. The increasing interest in determining the neural foundation of the dual-process distinction has yielded mixed results, also given the difficulty of applying the fMRI standard approach to tasks usually employed in the cognitive literature. We report an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis to investigate the neural foundation of the dual-process theory of thought. Eligible studies allowed for the identification of cerebral areas associated with dual-process theory-based tasks without differentiating between fast and slow thinking. The ALE algorithm converged on the medial frontal cortex, superior frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and left inferior frontal gyrus. These structures partially overlap with the cerebral areas recurrently reported in the literature about the neural basis of the dual-process distinction, where the PARCS theory-based interpretation emphasizes the role of the right inferior gyrus. The results confirm the potential (but still almost unexplored) common ground between the dual-process literature and the cognitive control literature.

Human reasoning is often conceived as an interplay between a more intuitive and deliberate thought process. In the last 50 years, influential fast-and-slow dual-process models that capitalize on this distinction have been used to account for numerous phenomena – from logical reasoning biases, over prosocial behavior, to moral decision making. The present paper clarifies that despite the popularity, critical assumptions are poorly conceived. My critique focuses on two interconnected foundational issues: the exclusivity and switch feature. The exclusivity feature refers to the tendency to conceive intuition and deliberation as generating unique responses such that one type of response is assumed to be beyond the capability of the fast-intuitive processing mode. I review the empirical evidence in key fields and show that there is no solid ground for such exclusivity. The switch feature concerns the mechanism by which a reasoner can decide to shift between more intuitive and deliberate processing. I present an overview of leading switch accounts and show that they are conceptually problematic – precisely because they presuppose exclusivity. I build on these insights to sketch the groundwork for a more viable dual-process architecture and illustrate how it can set a new research agenda to advance the field in the coming years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An appropriate level of arousal induces positive emotions, and a high arousal potential may provoke negative emotions. To explain the effect of arousal on emotional valence, we propose a novel mathematical framework of arousal potential variations in the dual process of human cognition: automatic and controlled. A suitable mathematical formulation to explain the emotions in the dual process is still absent. Our model associates free energy with arousal potential and its variations to explain emotional valence. Decreasing and increasing free energy consequently induce positive and negative emotions, respectively. We formalize a transition from the automatic to the controlled process in the dual process as a change of Bayesian prior. Further, we model emotional valence using free energy increase (FI) when one tries changing one's Bayesian prior and its reduction (FR) when one succeeds in recognizing the same stimuli with a changed prior and define three emotions: "interest," "confusion," and "boredom" using the variations. The results of our mathematical analysis comparing various Gaussian model parameters reveals the following: (1) prediction error (PR) increases FR (representing "interest") when the first prior variance is greater than the second prior variance, (2) PR decreases FR when the first prior variance is less than the second prior variance, and (3) the distance between priors' means always increases FR. We also discuss the association of the outcomes with emotions in the controlled process. The proposed mathematical model provides a general framework for predicting and controlling emotional valence in the dual process that varies with viewpoint and stimuli, as well as for understanding the contradictions in the effects of arousal on the valence. • Novel mathematical framework is used to explain the effects of arousal on emotions. • Free energy variations explain pleasure, interest, confusion, and boredom. • Gaussian distribution model elucidates effects of predictability on free energy variations. • Proposed framework provides a unified explanation of psychological emotion theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable debate about whether survey respondents regularly engage in "expressive responding" - professing to believe something that they do not sincerely believe to show support for their in-group or hostility to an out-group. Nonetheless, there is widespread agreement that one study provides compelling evidence for a consequential level of expressive responding in a particular context. In the immediate aftermath of Donald Trump's 2017 presidential inauguration rally there was considerable controversy about whether this inauguration crowd was the largest ever. At this time, a study was conducted which found that Donald Trump voters were more likely than Hillary Clinton voters or non-voters to indicate that an unlabeled photo of Donald Trump's 2017 presidential inauguration rally showed more people than an unlabeled photo of Barack Obama's 2009 presidential inauguration rally, despite the latter photo clearly showing more people. However, this study was not pre-registered, suggesting that a replication is needed to establish the robustness of this important result. In the present study, we conducted an extended replication over two years after Donald Trump's presidential inauguration rally. We found that despite this delay the original result replicated, albeit with a smaller magnitude. In addition, we extended the earlier study by testing several hypotheses about the characteristics of Republicans who selected the incorrect photo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inconsistency between intention and behavior is very common in daily life. This study explored the intention-behavior relationship in exercise, focusing on the mediating effect of action planning and the moderating effects of habit strength and gender. For the purpose of providing theoretical reference for the implementation of intervention strategies in the volitional phase, a total of 489 college students (M-age = 20.61, 57.46% female) from Hubei Province, China, were recruited to complete the questionnaire at two time points. The findings showed that exercise intention could positively predict exercise behavior via the mediating effect of action planning, with the mediating effect accounting for 48.52% of the total effect. The predictive effect of action planning habit strength interaction on exercise behavior was statistically significant. As individuals' levels of habitual strength increased, so did the relationship between action plans and exercise behavior. The action planning- exercise behavior relationship was stronger in males than in females. In summary, action planning is a very important predictor of the post-intentional phase and has many advantages. For individuals whose exercise has become habitualized, forming a plan is not counterproductive and can still promote more exercise rather than in a mutually compensating manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing understanding in social sciences that even purposeful human behavior cannot be fully explained by rational motives. The behavioral economy developed a program for studying economic behavior considering more factors than the blind pursuit of ones benefit. In social psychology, the theory of two groups of factors that influence human behavior has been developed: explicit factors are determined mainly by conceptual thinking, while implicit factors - by non-rational motives, often not obvious for the subject of action. It is argued that the study of both groups of factors is a prerequisite for the correct understanding and accurate prediction of behavior since they are of different nature, irreducible to each other, and have very different effects on behavior. The article focuses on the issue of the different nature of explicit and implicit factors. Can we say that the models of dual decision-making from social psychology are applicable to social action? We tested the nature of the interaction of the explicit and implicit components of the attitude towards the United Russia party with the basic judgments that, it would seem, should form this attitude. The results were paradoxical. It turned out that ideologically biased statements addressed to the political party form an attitude towards it on the implicit level. At the same time, the attitude to these statements depends on the attitude to the party, but at the rational level. Thus, this is a convincing evidence of the fundamentally different nature of explicit and implicit factors of social behavior.

Substance use disorders (SUDs) are often misunderstood as a reflection of an individual's lack of motivation or willpower or as a moral failing. SUDs are complex and require a biopsychosocial lens to understand the phenomenon, particularly treatment failure, which is described as a deficit in patients' willpower/self-regulation or dedication to managing their condition. Recent evidence has implicated inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) in the action of substance use by impairing executive functioning, which is an essential aspect of self-regulatory control. Emerging research indicates that inflammation may also shape social behavior, including social withdrawal and approach, thus having potential implications on health-seeking and health-sustaining behaviors often interpreted as a dedication to managing health conditions. The aim of this two-part biobehavioral synthesis is to (a) examine the scientific evidence of the role of IL-6 in self-regulatory failure, (b) explore IL-6 as a common inflammatory mechanism across SUDs, and (c) investigate the role of IL-6 in social withdrawal and approach to gain an understanding of how this determinant may impact treatment failure. Overall, the evidence supports a new paradigm of treatment failure that stresses the influence of IL-6 on self-regulatory failure by way of dual cognitive processing and the role of IL-6 in shaping social behavior central to health-seeking and health-sustaining behaviors. This discovery will help to minimize stigma and blame. Understanding the role of IL-6 in treatment failure may elucidate novel targets for intervention, improve treatment outcomes, and break the social disconnection cycle often seen in SUDs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Co-creativity focuses on how individuals produce innovative ideas together. As few studies have explored co-creativity using standardized tests, it is difficult to effectively assess the individual’s creativity performance within a group. Therefore, this study aims to develop a platform that allows two individuals to answer creativity tests simultaneously. This platform includes two divergent thinking tasks, the Straw Alternative Uses Test and Bottle Alternative Uses Test, and Chinese Radical Remote Associates Test A and B, which were used to evaluate their openand closed-ended creative problem-solving performance. This platform has two modes: single-player mode and paired-player mode. Responses from 497 adults were collected, based on which the fluency, flexibility, and originality of divergent thinking were measured. This study also developed a computer scoring technique that can automatically calculate the scores on these creativity tests. The results showed that divergent thinking scores from computer-based calculation and manual scoring were highly positively correlated, suggesting that the scores on a divergent thinking task can be calculated through a system that avoids timeconsuming, uneconomical manual scoring. Overall, the two types of tests on this platform showed considerable internal consistency reliability and criterionrelated validity. This advanced application facilitates the collection of empirical evidence about co-creativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Skin cancer is highly burdensome, but preventable with regular engagement in sun protective behaviors. Despite modest effectiveness of sun-protective behavior promotional efforts thus far, rates of engagement in sun-protective behaviors remain low. More is needed to understand motivation for using sunscreen, wearing sun-protective clothing, and seeking shade. This study tested whether the links of intention and habit strength with behavior differed between sun-protective behaviors. It was hypothesized that sun protective behaviors would be predicted by both habit and intention and that intention-behavior associations would be weaker for people with stronger habits. Participants residing in Queensland, Australia (N = 203; 75.96% female; M age = 37.16 years, SD = 14.67) self-reported their intentions and habit strength about sun-protective behavior for the next 7 days. Participants were followed-up 7 days later to self-report their sun-protective behavior. Multilevel modeling, accounting for nesting of multiple behaviors within-person, revealed that habit moderated the intention strength – behavior association and this moderation effect did not differ as a function of which behavior was being predicted. People with strong or moderate habit strength tended to act in line with their intentions; however, for people with very weak habits (2 SD < M), there was less alignment between their intention and behavior. These findings suggest that habit plays a facilitative role in the implementation of strong sun protective behavior intentions. Interventions should consider how to encourage intention and habit to enhance sun-protective behaviors and reduce the burden of skin cancer from sun exposure. Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2021.1903380. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The present study examined 4- to 7-year-olds' second-order belief in false testimony. • Children observed an informant lie to a receiver in a sticker-hiding game. • The receiver was either ignorant (did not peek) or knowledgeable (peeked). • Children predicted an ignorant receiver would believe a lie more readily than a knowledgeable one. • Second-order theory-of-mind and executive function moderated this effect. Children are often third-party observers of conversations between informants and receivers. Although 5- and 6-year-olds can identify and reject informants' false testimony, it remains unclear whether they expect others to do the same. Accurately assessing others' impressions of informants and their testimony in a conversational setting is essential for children's navigation of the social world. Using a novel second-order lie detection task, the current study examined whether 4- to 7-year-olds (N = 74; M age = 69 months) take receivers' epistemic states into account when predicting whether a receiver would think an informant is truthful or deceptive. We pitted children's firsthand observations of reality against informants' false testimony while manipulating receivers' perceptual access to a sticker-hiding event. Results showed that when the receiver had perceptual access and was knowledgeable, children predicted that the receiver would think the informant is lying. Critically, when the receiver lacked perceptual access and was ignorant, children were significantly more likely to predict that the receiver would think the informant is telling the truth. Second-order theory of mind and executive function strengthened this effect. Findings are interpreted using a dual-process framework and provide new insights into children's understanding of others' selective trust and susceptibility to deception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tolerance is widely considered to be a key response to the challenge of managing diversity in pluralistic societies. However, tolerance comes in a number of different forms with distinct psychological profiles and societal implications. Drawing on research from political science, philosophy, sociology, and several subdisciplines within psychology, we discuss tolerance as a process of forbearance, which has received little attention in psychology. We propose a dual-process model of moral reasoning to differentiate between two distinct forms of tolerance and intolerance: intuitive and deliberative. Specifically, intuitive tolerance results from gut-level objection toward difference that is overridden (or not, in the case of intolerance) by more careful processing of the reasons to tolerate. By contrast, deliberative tolerance involves reflective thinking in which there is a weighing of one's reasonable objection to dissenting conduct against reasons to nevertheless tolerate, leading either to tolerance or intolerance. We further consider individual differences and situational factors that influence threat versus adjustment responses to living with diversity. Finally, we consider cultural differences involved in tolerance before exploring the implications of different meanings of tolerance and intolerance for living with cultural, religious, and ideological diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a longitudinal, empirical study of the entrepreneurial opportunity development process, focused specifically on intuition in multiple forms. By following the opportunity development process for several participants over a two-year period, we were able to extract empirical instances of various types of intuition applied to the development of entrepreneurial opportunities. We found that the entrepreneurs in the study used at least four distinct types of intuition: problem-solving, creative, social, and temporal. Of these, we propose temporal intuition as a type not yet discussed in extant literature, while the others have not previously been studied in the entrepreneurial context. There are strong connections between these various aspects of intuition, and we discuss how the four types interact in a dynamic, unfolding process we tentatively define as opportunity intuition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) has been used in thousands of studies across several fields of behavioural research. The CRT has fascinated scholars because it commonly elicits incorrect answers despite most respondents possessing the necessary knowledge to reach the correct answer. Traditional interpretations of CRT performance asserted that correct responding was the result of corrective reasoning involving the inhibition and correction of the incorrect response and incorrect responding was an indication of miserly thinking without feelings of uncertainty. Recently, however, these assertions have been challenged. We extend this work by employing novel eye-tracking techniques to examine whether people use corrective cognitive pathways to reach correct solutions, and whether heuristic respondents demonstrate gaze-based signs of uncertainty. Eye movements suggest that correct responding on the CRT is the result of intuitive not corrective cognitive pathways, and that heuristic respondents show signs of gaze-based uncertainty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable debate about whether survey respondents regularly engage in "expressive responding" - professing to believe something that they do not sincerely believe to show support for their in-group or hostility to an out-group. Nonetheless, there is widespread agreement that one study provides compelling evidence for a consequential level of expressive responding in a particular context. In the immediate aftermath of Donald Trump's 2017 presidential inauguration rally there was considerable controversy about whether this inauguration crowd was the largest ever. At this time, a study was conducted which found that Donald Trump voters were more likely than Hillary Clinton voters or non-voters to indicate that an unlabeled photo of Donald Trump's 2017 presidential inauguration rally showed more people than an unlabeled photo of Barack Obama's 2009 presidential inauguration rally, despite the latter photo clearly showing more people. However, this study was not pre-registered, suggesting that a replication is needed to establish the robustness of this important result. In the present study, we conducted an extended replication over two years after Donald Trump's presidential inauguration rally. We found that despite this delay the original result replicated, albeit with a smaller magnitude. In addition, we extended the earlier study by testing several hypotheses about the characteristics of Republicans who selected the incorrect photo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Teacher decision making has a great impact on the quality of education in schools, yet we know little about how teachers make decisions in practice. It is assumed that teachers use both intuition and data in the different steps of the decision process. No reliable, valid scales are available to research both dimensions during the different steps of teachers' decision process (problem definition, data collection, sense making, and evaluation of alternatives). Building on the integrated framework we constructed in earlier research, the main aim of this study was to develop and validate a Teacher Decision-Making Inventory (TDMI). One hundred and one teachers in adult education participated voluntarily in a web-based survey. Based on the good EFA factor loadings, the CFA fit indices, and the internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), we conclude that the TDMI is a valid psychometric tool that can be used to assess the intuitive and data-driven dimensions of teachers' decisions in large-scale quantitative research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a previous article published in Perspectives, I questioned whether the debate between dual- and single-process models of thinking is empirically tractable and argued that psychological scientists should leave it behind. Dewey (this issue) suggests that by reframing the debate in cognitive-modeling terms, it might become tractable and consequential. More specifically, he proposes that focusing on the question of whether analytic engagement (i.e., the process by which additional resources are allocated to a reasoning problem) is discrete or continuous might allow us to settle the debate. Here I illustrate how this suggestion is likely to face the same tractability problems as the original defining-features approach that it is supposed to replace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]