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Aims We aimed to develop a method to assess the virucidal performance of domestic laundry in a lab-scale washing machine (Rotawash) based on EN 17658. Methods and results For method development, virus recovery was investigated after drying on cotton carriers for three test viruses murine norovirus (MNV), modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA), and bovine coronavirus (BCoV), followed by washing simulations in flasks and Rotawash. MNV and MVA demonstrated sufficient recovery from carriers after drying and washing (up to 40°C and 60 min). BCoV exhibited lower recovery, indicating less relevance as a test virus. Rotawash efficacy tests conducted with MNV, a resistant, non-enveloped virus, showed limited efficacy of a bleach-free detergent, aligning with results from a domestic washing machine. Rotawash washes achieved higher reductions in infectious virus titers than suspension tests, indicating the role of washing mechanics in virus removal. Conclusions This study established a practical method to test the virucidal efficacy of laundry detergents in Rotawash, simulating domestic washing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Since 2007, the classification of ethanol under the Biocidal Products Regulation has paradoxically remained unresolved due to conflicting views among experts and authorities. Initially, there was a discussion about classifying ethanol as carcinogenic. The current proposal to extend its harmonized classification includes, among other things, categorizing it as reproductive toxicity category 2 (“suspected to have CMR potential for humans”; carcinogenic, mutagenic, reprotoxic). If ethanol were classified under reproductive toxicity category 2, it would mean that the only active ingredient in hand antiseptics effective against non-enveloped viruses would no longer be available.Scientific assessment of the safety of ethanol-based hand rubs (EBHR): Available epidemiological studies do not confirm an increased risk for cancer from EBHR in exposed individuals, except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.The evidence for ethanol's reprotoxic effect originates from the consumption of alcoholic beverages by pregnant women, where ethanol uptake is incomparably higher. The amount of transdermal ethanol absorption during hand antisepsis is up to ten times lower than the oral intake of beverages containing hidden ethanol, such as apple juice, kefir, or non-alcoholic beer. Blood alcohol levels after using EBHR remain within the physiological range associated with food intake.Conclusion: There is no epidemiological evidence of toxicity for workers handling ethanol-containing products in industry or using EBHR in healthcare settings. Given that the classification of EBHR as reproductive toxicity category 2 is not supported by current scientific research and that no alternative biocidal active substance in hand rubs is effective against non-enveloped viruses, medical associations and expert committees from Europe, the USA, Canada, the Asia-Pacific region, and the World Society for Virology unequivocally recommend, with the highest priority, that EBHR be approved as an active substance for PT1 biocides and not be classified as a reproductive toxicant in category 2.

Deep-ultraviolet (DUV) disinfection technology provides an expeditious and efficient way to suppress the transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, the influences of viral variants (Delta and Omicron) and low temperatures on the DUV virucidal efficacy are still unknown. Here, we developed a reliable and uniform planar light source comprised of 275-nm light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to investigate the effects of these two unknown factors and delineated the principle behind different disinfection performances. We found the lethal effect of DUV at the same radiation dose was reduced by the cryogenic environment, and a negative-U large-relaxation model was used to explain the difference in view of the photoelectronic nature. The chances were higher in the cryogenic environment for the capture of excited electrons within active genetic molecules back to the initial photo-ionised positions. Additionally, the variant of Omicron required a significantly higher DUV dose to achieve the same virucidal efficacy, and this was thanks to the genetic and proteinic characteristics of the Omicron. The findings in this study are important for human society using DUV disinfection in cold conditions (e.g., the food cold chain logistics and the open air in winter), and the relevant DUV disinfection suggestion against COVID-19 is provided.

The approval of ethanol by the Biocidal Products Regulation has been under evaluation since 2007 due to controversial opinions on the risk assessment. Because of this critical situation, 2022 a memorandum was published to verify whether the use of ethanol for hand antisepsis poses any hazard. On the basis of the memorandum a toxicological evaluation of ethanol-based hand rubs is given. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Disinfection is one of the most effective ways to block the rapid transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Due to the prolonged coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, disinfectants have become crucial to prevent person-to-person transmission and decontaminate hands, clothes, facilities and equipment. However, there is a lack of accurate information on the virucidal activity of commercial disinfectants.Aim: To evaluate the virucidal efficacy of 72 commercially available disinfectants constituting 16 types of ingredients against SARS-CoV-2.Methods: SARS-CoV-2 was tested with various concentrations of disinfectants at indicated exposure time points as recommended by the manufacturers. The 50% tissue culture infectious dose assay was used to calculate virus titre, and trypan blue staining and CCK-8 were used to assess cell viability after 3-5 days of SARS-CoV-2 infection.Findings: This study found that disinfectants based on 83% ethanol, 60% propanol/ethanol, 0.00108-0.0011% sodium dichloroisocyanurate and 0.497% potassium peroxymonosulfate inactivated SARS-CoV-2 effectively and safely. Although disinfectants based on 0.05-0.4% benzalkonium chloride (BAC), 0.02-0.07% quaternary ammonium compound (QAC; 1:1), 0.4% BAC/didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), 0.28% benzethonium chloride concentrate/2-propanol, 0.0205-0.14% DDAC/polyhexamethylene biguanide hydrochloride (PHMB) and 0.5% hydrogen peroxide inactivated SARS-CoV-2 effectively, they exhibited cytotoxicity. Conversely, disinfectants based on 0.04-4% QAC (2:3), 0.00625% BAC/DDAC/PHMB, and 0.0205-0.14% and 0.0173% peracetic acid showed approximately 50% virucidal efficacy with no cytotoxicity. Citric acid (0.4%) did not inactivate SARS-CoV-2.Conclusion: These results indicate that most commercially available disinfectants exert a disinfectant effect against SARS-CoV-2. However, re-evaluation of the effective concentration and exposure time of certain disinfectants is needed, especially citric acid and peracetic acid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In South Korea, testing disinfectants against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) that are contagious in livestock or that require special attention with respect to public hygiene can be manipulated only in high-level containment laboratories, which are not easily available. This causes difficulties in the approval procedure for disinfectants, such as a prolonged testing period. Additionally, the required biosafety level (BSL) in the case of FMDV has hindered its extensive studies. However, this drawback can be circumvented by using a surrogate virus to improve the performance of the efficacy testing procedure for disinfectants. Therefore, we studied bacteriophage MS2 (MS2) and bovine enterovirus type 1 (ECBO) with respect to disinfectant susceptibility for selecting a surrogate for FMDV according to the Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA) guidelines for efficacy testing of veterinary disinfectants. Effective concentrations of the active substances in disinfectants (potassium peroxymonosulfate, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, malic acid, citric acid, glutaraldehyde, and benzalkonium chloride) against FMDV, MS2, and ECBO were compared and, efficacies of eight APQA-listed commercial disinfectants used against FMDV were examined. The infectivity of FMDV and ECBO were confirmed by examination of cytopathic effects, and MS2 by plaque assay. The results reveal that the disinfectants are effective against MS2 and ECBO at higher concentrations than in FMDV, confirming their applicability as potential surrogates for FMDV in efficacy testing of veterinary disinfectants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: The selection and proper application of disinfectants are crucial to the prevention of many diseases, so disinfectants must be evaluated before being used for the prevention of African swine fever (ASF). Three disinfectant products belonging to the group of potassium hydrogen peroxymonosulfates, product A and product B, and a quaternary ammonium compound called product C, were examined in vitro for host cell cytotoxicity and the efficacy of ASF virus inactivation. The study parameters included various concentrations, exposure times, temperatures, and degrees of cytotoxicity. Materials and Methods: Three disinfectant products were evaluated for cytotoxicity using primary porcine alveolar macrophage (PAM) cells at dilutions from 1:200 to 1:51,200. Disinfectants in concentrations of 1:200, 1:400, and 1:800 were prepared, the pH and the virucidal activity were tested. An equal volume of each dilution was mixed with the ASF virus and incubated at room temperature (20°C) or on ice (4°C) for 1 min, 5 min, or 30 min. Hemadsorption (HAD) or rosette formation was observed using an inverted microscope for 5 days after inoculation, and the virus titer was calculated as HAD50/mL. Each treatment and virus control were tested in triplicate, and the titers were reported as means and standard deviations. The reduction factor was used to measure inactivation. Results: Products A, B, and C at 1:400, 1:800, and 1:25,600 of dilution, respectively, did not show significant cytotoxic effects on PAM cells. Products A and B could inactivate ASF virus at 1:200 dilution within 5 min after exposure at 4°C. However, at 20°C, the exposure time had to be extended to 30 min to inactivate the virus. Product C could inactivate the virus at 1:400 dilution within 5 min under both temperature conditions, whereas at 1:800 dilution, the exposure time had to be extended to 30 min to completely inactivate the virus at 20°C. Conclusion: All disinfectants could inactivate ASF virus in various concentrations, under appropriate exposure times and reaction temperatures, and there was no evidence of host cell cytotoxicity. For the control of ASF in pig farms, the appropriate concentration, ambient temperature, and contact time of these disinfectants should be taken into account.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is evolving, with emergence of mutational variants due to the error-prone replication process of RNA viruses, in general. More recently, the Delta and Omicron variants (including sub-variants BA.1–5) predominate globally, and a Delta–Omicron recombinant termed Deltacron has emerged. The emergence of variants of concern (VOC) demonstrating immune evasion and potentially greater transmissibility and virulence naturally raises concern in both the infection control communities and the public at large, as to the continued suitability of interventions intended to mitigate the risk of viral dissemination and acquisition of the associated disease COVID-19. We evaluated the virucidal efficacy of targeted surface hygiene products (an ethanol/quaternary ammonium compound (QAC)-containing disinfectant spray, a QAC disinfectant wipe, a lactic acid disinfectant wipe, and a citric acid disinfectant wipe) through both theoretical arguments and empirical testing using international standard methodologies (ASTM E1053-20 hard surface test and EN14476:2013+A2:2019 suspension test) in the presence of soil loads simulating patients' bodily secretions/excretions containing shed virus. The results demonstrate, as expected, complete infectious viral inactivation (≥3.0 to ≥4.7 log10 reduction in infectious virus titer after as little as 15 s contact time at room temperature) by these surface hygiene agents of the original SARS-CoV-2 isolate and its Beta and Delta VOC. Through appropriate practices of targeted surface hygiene, it is expected that irrespective of the SARS-CoV-2 VOC encountered as the current pandemic unfolds (and, for that matter, any emerging and/or re-emerging enveloped virus), the chain of infection from virus-contaminated fomites to the hand and mucous membranes of a susceptible person may be disrupted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic illustrates the necessity of effective preventive measures for existing and newly emerging pathogens. When confronted with pathogens or spoilage agents, especially if they are not yet well studied, effective hygiene protocols are needed immediately. In the medical field, effective preventive measures are key to prevent vulnerable patients from infections. In production areas, effective hygiene measures are needed to protect goods from spoilage or microbial contamination.The European standardization framework established by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) ensures that effective hygiene measures are available and can be immediately implemented when needed. Based on a broad portfolio of standards/laboratory tests, activity claims specifically addressing the special features of applications of antimicrobial formulations are substantiated. In this review, the concept of using standardized surrogate test organisms is explained, and the European standardized test approach to claim microbicidal and virucidal efficacy, the specificity of claims and their relevance for infection prevention measures is illustrated. Furthermore, relevance of the European Norm test methods is elucidated in the light of legal requirements.Finally, the review explains the systematics of the standardized methodological portfolio of CEN, Technical Committee 216, which is very useful when effective strategies for fighting or preventing microbial and viral induced infections, contaminations or spoilage are needed on an immediate basis.

In South Korea, despite the increase in emerging viral pathogens in the veterinary industry, only efficacy-tested, virus-specific disinfectants are allowed to be used. Moreover, domestic testing of disinfectants for their virucidal efficacies against foreign, malignant, infectious pathogens that are unreported within the country and/or contagious livestock diseases that require special attention regarding public hygiene are legally restricted. Therefore, the Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA) designed a study to select a potential biosafety level 2 surrogate of African swine fever virus (ASFV) for efficacy testing to improve the disinfectant approval procedures. For this, the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) was compared to ASFV in terms of its susceptibility to disinfectants. Effective concentrations of active substances of disinfectants (potassium peroxymonosulfate, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, malic acid, citric acid, glutaraldehyde, and benzalkonium chloride) against ASFV and MVA were compared; similarly, efficacies of APQA-listed commercial disinfectants were examined. Tests were performed according to APQA guidelines, and infectivities of ASFV and MVA were confirmed by hemadsorption and cytopathic effect, respectively. The results reveal that the disinfectants are effective against MVA at similar or higher concentrations than those against ASFV, validating the use of MVA as a potential biosafety level 2 surrogate for ASFV in efficacy testing of veterinary disinfectants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: Currently, the mass culling of infected poultry as well as those that may have had contact with them is an essential part of prevention and disease control strategy, amidst the growing concerns over the avian influenza virus (AIV) spreading nationwide; however, it is largely dependent on effective biosecurity measures, including disinfection. Although many disinfectants are commercially available for veterinary use, information on the virucidal efficacy of individual active components in disinfectants is limited, since most disinfectants are complex formulations of active substances. This study aimed to evaluate the virucidal efficacy of individual active components in commercial disinfectants. Seven representative active substances in commercial disinfectants used against AIV in South Korea during the year 2020, namely potassium peroxymonosulfate (PPMS), sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC), malic acid (MA), citric acid (CA), glutaraldehyde (GLT), benzalkonium chloride (BZK), and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), were tested to confirm their individual virucidal efficacy against H9N2 low pathogenic avian influenza virus. The specific selection of active substances and their test concentrations was done based on the formulation of 202 disinfectants approved by Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency as being effective against AIV. Minimal virucidal concentrations are as follows: for PPMS, 0.2%; for NaDCC, 0.1%; for MA, 0.5%; for CA, 0.4%; for GLT, 0.01%; for BZK, 0.4%; and for DDAC, 0.2%. The current study not only highlighted the virucidal efficacy of these active substances against AIV but also indicated its impact on the biosecurity measures, particularly for selection of a disinfectant and its proper application in poultry industry.

Background and Aim: The selection and proper application of disinfectants are crucial to the prevention of many diseases, so disinfectants must be evaluated before being used for the prevention of African swine fever (ASF). Three disinfectant products belonging to the group of potassium hydrogen peroxymonosulfates, product A and product B, and a quaternary ammonium compound called product C, were examined in vitro for host cell cytotoxicity and the efficacy of ASF virus inactivation. The study parameters included various concentrations, exposure times, temperatures, and degrees of cytotoxicity. Materials and Methods: Three disinfectant products were evaluated for cytotoxicity using primary porcine alveolar macrophage (PAM) cells at dilutions from 1:200 to 1:51,200. Disinfectants in concentrations of 1:200, 1:400, and 1:800 were prepared, the pH and the virucidal activity were tested. An equal volume of each dilution was mixed with the ASF virus and incubated at room temperature (20°C) or on ice (4°C) for 1 min, 5 min, or 30 min. Hemadsorption (HAD) or rosette formation was observed using an inverted microscope for 5 days after inoculation, and the virus titer was calculated as HAD50/mL. Each treatment and virus control were tested in triplicate, and the titers were reported as means and standard deviations. The reduction factor was used to measure inactivation. Results: Products A, B, and C at 1:400, 1:800, and 1:25,600 of dilution, respectively, did not show significant cytotoxic effects on PAM cells. Products A and B could inactivate ASF virus at 1:200 dilution within 5 min after exposure at 4°C. However, at 20°C, the exposure time had to be extended to 30 min to inactivate the virus. Product C could inactivate the virus at 1:400 dilution within 5 min under both temperature conditions, whereas at 1:800 dilution, the exposure time had to be extended to 30 min to completely inactivate the virus at 20°C. Conclusion: All disinfectants could inactivate ASF virus in various concentrations, under appropriate exposure times and reaction temperatures, and there was no evidence of host cell cytotoxicity. For the control of ASF in pig farms, the appropriate concentration, ambient temperature, and contact time of these disinfectants should be taken into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In South Korea, testing disinfectants against foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) that are contagious in livestock or that require special attention with respect to public hygiene can be manipulated only in high-level containment laboratories, which are not easily available. This causes difficulties in the approval procedure for disinfectants, such as a prolonged testing period. Additionally, the required biosafety level (BSL) in the case of FMDV has hindered its extensive studies. However, this drawback can be circumvented by using a surrogate virus to improve the performance of the efficacy testing procedure for disinfectants. Therefore, we studied bacteriophage MS2 (MS2) and bovine enterovirus type 1 (ECBO) with respect to disinfectant susceptibility for selecting a surrogate for FMDV according to the Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA) guidelines for efficacy testing of veterinary disinfectants. Effective concentrations of the active substances in disinfectants (potassium peroxymonosulfate, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, malic acid, citric acid, glutaraldehyde, and benzalkonium chloride) against FMDV, MS2, and ECBO were compared and, efficacies of eight APQA-listed commercial disinfectants used against FMDV were examined. The infectivity of FMDV and ECBO were confirmed by examination of cytopathic effects, and MS2 by plaque assay. The results reveal that the disinfectants are effective against MS2 and ECBO at higher concentrations than in FMDV, confirming their applicability as potential surrogates for FMDV in efficacy testing of veterinary disinfectants.

In South Korea, despite the increase in emerging viral pathogens in the veterinary industry, only efficacy-tested, virus-specific disinfectants are allowed to be used. Moreover, domestic testing of disinfectants for their virucidal efficacies against foreign, malignant, infectious pathogens that are unreported within the country and/or contagious livestock diseases that require special attention regarding public hygiene are legally restricted. Therefore, the Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency (APQA) designed a study to select a potential biosafety level 2 surrogate of African swine fever virus (ASFV) for efficacy testing to improve the disinfectant approval procedures. For this, the modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) was compared to ASFV in terms of its susceptibility to disinfectants. Effective concentrations of active substances of disinfectants (potassium peroxymonosulfate, sodium dichloroisocyanurate, malic acid, citric acid, glutaraldehyde, and benzalkonium chloride) against ASFV and MVA were compared; similarly, efficacies of APQA-listed commercial disinfectants were examined. Tests were performed according to APQA guidelines, and infectivities of ASFV and MVA were confirmed by hemadsorption and cytopathic effect, respectively. The results reveal that the disinfectants are effective against MVA at similar or higher concentrations than those against ASFV, validating the use of MVA as a potential biosafety level 2 surrogate for ASFV in efficacy testing of veterinary disinfectants.

Currently, the mass culling of infected poultry as well as those that may have had contact with them is an essential part of prevention and disease control strategy, amidst the growing concerns over the avian influenza virus (AIV) spreading nationwide; however, it is largely dependent on effective biosecurity measures, including disinfection. Although many disinfectants are commercially available for veterinary use, information on the virucidal efficacy of individual active components in disinfectants is limited, since most disinfectants are complex formulations of active substances. This study aimed to evaluate the virucidal efficacy of individual active components in commercial disinfectants. Seven representative active substances in commercial disinfectants used against AIV in South Korea during the year 2020, namely potassium peroxymonosulfate (PPMS), sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC), malic acid (MA), citric acid (CA), glutaraldehyde (GLT), benzalkonium chloride (BZK), and didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC), were tested to confirm their individual virucidal efficacy against H9N2 low pathogenic avian influenza virus. The specific selection of active substances and their test concentrations was done based on the formulation of 202 disinfectants approved by Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency as being effective against AIV. Minimal virucidal concentrations are as follows: for PPMS, 0.2%; for NaDCC, 0.1%; for MA, 0.5%; for CA, 0.4%; for GLT, 0.01%; for BZK, 0.4%; and for DDAC, 0.2%. The current study not only highlighted the virucidal efficacy of these active substances against AIV but also indicated its impact on the biosecurity measures, particularly for selection of a disinfectant and its proper application in poultry industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficacy of African swine fever virus (ASFV) inactivation using five commercially supply compound disinfectants was evaluated under various condition. Virucidal efficacy demonstrated that products A and E could inactivate at 1:800 within 1 min for both temperatures, while products B, C and D inactivated at 1:400. However, product D could inactivate at 1:800 when the exposure time was extended to 30 min and effected only 20°C. In addition, the cytotoxicity demonstrated that products A, B, C, D and E did not significantly affect to cell at 1:51,200, 1:12,800, 1:12,800, 1:25,600 and 1:12,800 dilution, respectively. In conclusion, these disinfectants could inactivate ASFV, however, the application of these products should be performed under safety precautions to prevent cytotoxicity in humans and animals.